A Study on Individual Competencies for Foreign Government Representatives in Taiwan

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(1)A STUDY ON INDIVIDUAL COMPETENCIES OF FOREIGN GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVES IN TAIWAN. by Rodrigo Enrique Campbell Alvarez. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2012.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to Taiwan ICDF for granting me the opportunity of continuing my studies in Taiwan, and thus providing me with the chance of pursuing higher education as part of the International Human Resource Develop family at National Taiwan Normal University. The challenges of these two years have made me grow exponentially, and have successfully prepared me for pursuing my professional aspirations. As part of this family and in regards to my academic success, I would firstly like to give my most warm appreciation to my thesis advisor, Dr. Wei-Wen Chang, who has supported and guided me from day one in order to shape the efforts of my studies, and whom without the completion of this thesis would have been impossible. Her patience, motivation, enthusiasm and immense knowledge made this thesis a reality. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my Master study. Also I would like to thank my thesis committee members, Dr. Steven Lai, director of our department and Dr. Pai-Po Lee, for being always willing to give a helping hand, and for providing clear directions for further revisions to improve the quality of this research. I owe my most sincere gratitude to H.E. Ambassador William Tapia, for granting me the opportunity to undertake an internship in the Nicaraguan embassy, as well as to all the members of this embassy for giving me their support: Humberto, Col. Marin, Fatima, Elisa, Jaime and also Lucia from Guatemala, for helping me make the interviews possible, as well as the ten foreign government representatives that took part in this study. I wish to thank everybody with whom I have shared experiences in my student life, all the faculty members of IHRD, program managers, classmates and friends in NTNU. Finally, I would like to thank and dedicate this thesis to my family, for planting with love the seed of my life and for always supporting me in accomplishing my dreams, even overseas. You have all touched my heart, Thank you..

(3) ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to identify the individual competencies required for foreign government representatives serving in Taiwan and explore how these individuals have developed such competencies. A qualitative approach was adopted to reach this purpose. Participatory observation in one foreign mission office in Taiwan, document review and semi structured interviews with ten foreign government representatives serving in Taiwan were utilized for data collection. The research suggest that the competency development stage of foreign government representatives is guided by a social learning process and later enhanced by intentional selfdevelopment changes. Work experience and on-the-job learning methods guided by these two processes represent the way in which foreign government representatives have acquire the competencies necessary to be posted in Taiwan. Moreover, to have a more integral competency assessment, this study utilized the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) competency model as a guideline to further categorize those individual competencies, identifying three competency levels. The first foundational level competences identified included: relational ability, communication skills, linguistic ability, intercultural competence, analytical skills, business acumen, knowledge management, administrative skills, adaptability/flexibility, emotional intelligence, stress management, openness to experience and extroversion. The second focus level areas of expertise were composed of: protocol, public service orientation, public relations, market development, attracting investment, international politics and law, and history and cultural affairs. Finally the top level execution roles determined were: political analyst, commercial counselor, public diplomacy agent, consular advocate and management officer. The findings of this study provide information for government ministries and officials in charge of selecting foreign mission holders and for those international educators responsible for training and developing the future generation of diplomats and foreign government representatives.. Keywords: Competency, foreign government representatives, diplomacy, international relations. I.

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(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ......................................................................................................................I Table of Contents .......................................................................................................III List of Tables .............................................................................................................V List of Figures ............................................................................................................VII. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1 Background of the Study ...................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................3 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................4 Research Purposes .............................................................................................5 Research Questions ............................................................................................5 Definition of Terms............................................................................................6. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................... 7 Competency .......................................................................................................7 Competency Model ............................................................................................8 Competency Development .................................................................................15 Diplomacy ..........................................................................................................17. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS .............................................. 21 Research Approach ............................................................................................21 Research Framework .........................................................................................22 Research Procedure ............................................................................................23 Sampling Process ...............................................................................................25 Data Collection ..................................................................................................27 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................33 Quality of Research............................................................................................35. III.

(6) CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................ 37 Context of the Foreign Government Representative Field ................................37 Competency Development .................................................................................52 Competencies of Foreign Government Representatives ....................................63 Foundational Level Competencies .....................................................................65 Focus Level Areas of Expertise .........................................................................81 Execution Level Roles .......................................................................................90 Discussion ..........................................................................................................91. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ...................... 95 Research Implications ........................................................................................97 Research Limitations .........................................................................................98 Suggestions for Future Research .......................................................................99. REFERENCES........................................................................................ 101 APPENDIX A: OBSERVATION JOURNAL ....................................... 105 APPENDIX B: EXAMPLE OF TRANSCRIPT .................................... 117 APPENDIX C: CODING LIST .............................................................. 125 APPENDIX D: PEER AND EXPERT REVIEW OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................................ 135. IV.

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Background Information of Participants......................................................26 Table 3.2 Interview Questions .....................................................................................31 Table 4.1 Job Content of Foreign Government Representatives in Taiwan ................38 Table 4.2 Work Environment of Foreign Government Representatives in Taiwan ....44 Table 4.3 Challenges of Serving in Taiwan .................................................................47 Table 4.4 Competency Development Process .............................................................53 Table 4.5 Competencies of Foreign Government Representatives ..............................64. V.

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(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 The Iceberg Model of Competency ............................................................9 Figure 2.2 Competency Pyramid .................................................................................10 Figure 2.3 The ASTD Competency Model ..................................................................11 Figure 3.1 Research Framework ..................................................................................23 Figure 3.2 Research Procedure ....................................................................................24 Figure 3.3 Observation Setting ....................................................................................28 Figure 4.1 Structure of Embassies ...............................................................................41 Figure 4.2 Structure of Commercial Offices................................................................41 Figure 5.1 Adaptation of the ASTD Competency Model to the Foreign Government Representative Field…..…………………….…………….……...….……96. VII.

(10) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The objective of chapter one was to present a description of the study, it includes: background of the study, statement of the problem, research purposes, research questions, significance of the study and finally definition of terms.. Background of the Study The 21th century has been marked by one major phenomenon, globalization. In today’s world order, multiple globalization processes, deeper economic integration, and the importance of trade liberalization in different regions of the globe determine the new ways in which nations interact. Diplomacy, which stands for “the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the governments of independent states, or more briefly, the conduct of business between states by peaceful means” (Gore-Booth, 1979, p. 3), and which is characterized by building confidence and cooperation between states to reach and sustain positive and constructive relations (Saner, Yiu & Sondergaard, 2000), is a fundamental part of this interaction. In our time, the importance of diplomacy is evident since the major events of this field have been responsible for shaping and changing the global world in which we live. Equally important it’s the human element, or the agents of diplomacy – diplomats and foreign government representatives, which are nowadays major actors in the global political and economic scene. These individuals not just carry with them national pride, reflecting the image of their nations with every step they take, but are also responsible for acting as sociopolitical links and communication facilitators between different cultures (Bozeman, 1994). As institutions change and new resources become available over time, the demands that circumstances make on the practice of diplomats are constantly varying. This explains why foreign government representatives have been described by some as financial experts, agents of advertising and business travelers, who continue to possess a basic political function (Dickie, 1992). This multifaceted nature of the job has made the roles of these individuals more difficult to exclusively define. With this in mind, how can we be sure what are the right set of personal tools diplomats and international policy makers need to confront the wide array of twenty first century issues?. 1.

(11) Considering that the landscape of international relations is constantly changing, over the years diplomacy has evolved greatly to mean different things to different people. Today it appears as if the theory of diplomacy doesn’t seem to look eye to eye with the diplomatic practice. A reason for this is that we are currently witnessing substantively significant changes in the practice of diplomacy, changes that are being led primarily by commercial interests. This is especially true for East Asian nations, since various governments in the region have adopted commercial diplomacy as part of their foreign policy priority (Lee & Hudson, 2004). Another factor that has influenced the practice of this profession, is that diplomacy has been broadened to include a before uncommon government-to-people connection, known as public diplomacy. This term refers to “the influence of public attitudes on the formation and execution of foreign policies” (Siracusa, 2010, p. 4). This new shift in the diplomatic practice has turned the job of foreign government representatives into a field of high human contact. Along with its continuous changes, diplomacy is today one of the keys to resolving the greatest challenges of the twenty first century, including nuclear proliferation, international terrorism and global warming, meaning that the need for foreign government representatives to posses the necessary characteristics that enables them to perform better in their jobs and missions is noticeably important. In the field of Human Resources, these individual characteristics or traits are described as competencies. They include both dynamic traits and stable individual traits. The former traits can be obtained by training, such as professional knowledge and skills, while the latter are more difficult to develop, such as individual interests, motives and personality (LeibaO'Sullivan, 1999). This conceptualization fits with the assumption that foreign government representatives have to posses both technical and personal abilities, while demonstrating those qualities that have passed the test of time - accuracy, calm, patience, good temper, modesty, loyalty, intelligence, discernment, prudence, hospitality, charm, courage and tact (Gore-Booth, 1979). Given the constant changes in the fields of diplomacy and international relations, especially in recent years (Saner et al., 2000), recognizing and labeling such individual competencies and how to develop them, is a topic that remains open for discussion.. 2.

(12) Statement of the Problem As most of the developed governments have adopted to include a more cross-sectional representation of their societies in their foreign services personnel and as we are going through accelerated financial and technological transformations because of the globalization process (Saner et al., 2000), the demand for clearer individual competencies seems necessary for the better training and upgrading of foreign service officials. Even though one of the first studies on competency identification was in fact carried out for the U.S. State Department Foreign Service Information Officers (Spencer & Spencer, 1993), the reality is that in modern times the field of diplomacy, and in particular its agents, has been an overlooked and almost abandoned area within the body of contemporary academic research, especially true for the Asian continent, and its practice has not accustomed well to the changing global environment (Copeland, 2009). Serving in countries like Taiwan, China, Korea or Japan requires specialized country knowledge and cultural awareness which often cannot be learned simply following previously proposed guidelines develop to meet the needs of western societies (Saner et al., 2000). With little known about the needs of these agents of diplomacy, particularly in this region of the world, how can foreign affairs ministries in their respective countries appoint individuals with the right set of competencies necessary to be one step ahead in a changing world and deal with the challenges of today’s international relations in the region? In other words, appoint individuals with the right set of competencies necessary to make them even more effective in their job. Furthermore, with such a diversity of academic and cultural backgrounds, uncertainty of career trajectories, variety of country contexts in which to serve, and a range of constituent groups to interact with (Laboulaye & Laloy, 1983), how have these individuals acquire the right set of personal tools to deal with such an inherently complex role? Some view foreign government representatives as managers, as they share similar qualities and skills (Saner et al., 2000). Nowadays, foreign government representatives like managers have to effectively adapt to changing environment and situations, coordinate and comply with imposed goals, deal with multilateral relations, and know how to face stress and uncertainty (Dragoni, Tesluk, Russell & Oh, 2009). Still, going through the literature we find that “there is no well-developed and empirically supported theory on management development, defined as the process by which individuals pursuing managerial roles learn the interrelated sets of skills and abilities necessary 3.

(13) for effectiveness” (Dragoni et al., 2009, p. 731), making this an area in need of further exploration.. Significance of the Study A first significance of this study is the fact that as our generation is being witness of the downfall of old western economic models and the rise of the new Asian powers (Fishman, 2005), the importance and influence of the region to other nations in the world is evident. Due to this shift of power, good and healthy relations with the East are essential for the sustainability of our global economy. Secondly, for a nation like Taiwan, which for decades has been in a constant fight for its diplomatic recognition, the role of its diplomatic allies and commercial partners – foreign missions, is vital. Since the birth of the Republic of China, the vast majority of nations have over time opted for recognizing the People’s Republic of China as the sole representative of all China, including Taiwan. Presently Taiwan is still not a member of the United Nations, and it’s officially recognized by only 23 nations in the world (Taiwan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2009). This has forced Taiwan to adopt a policy of flexible diplomacy which has led to the fostering of strong commercial relations with countries that derecognize Taipei (Li, 2005). Although in the past there has been little exchange between Taiwan and other regions in the world, in recent years that has been changing fast. Global economies are achieving Free Trade Agreements with Taiwan, China and other nations in the region. As a consequence, representative offices are the bridge connecting these worlds together, and its agents – ambassadors, counselors, attaches, and directors of commercial offices, act as gatekeepers. Thus the critical importance of studying and taking into account the competencies needed from the foreign officials in charge of running these institutions. Thirdly, most studies on expatriates workers and their competencies had been focused on private sector business people, not so much on the public sector foreign government officials (Copeland, 2009; Jordan & Cartwright, 1998). Hence the findings of this study are of interest to government officials in charge of selecting foreign mission holders, as well as for diplomatic schools and international educators responsible for training and developing the future generation of foreign government representatives. 4.

(14) Research Purposes In these rapidly changing times, the society of states still remains the essential building block of global order, and diplomacy is and always will be an important element of statecraft. It is clear that without skilful diplomacy, any kind of political success of a state will remain unfulfilled (Siracusa, 2010). Therefore, the main purpose of this research was to explore the foreign government representative’s competency development process, as well as to identify the necessary competencies required for these individuals in order to serve successfully in Taiwan. The peculiar characteristics and history of the development of diplomacy on the island nation of Taiwan, makes this case particularly interesting in terms of the modern diplomacy practice and theory. Taiwan’s struggle and perseverance to survive in the international community has served as an example for the rest of the region, and the world. The research aimed at understanding the job content and work environment of foreign government representatives in Taiwan, as well as to explore the major challenges foreign government representatives face while serving in Taiwan. At the same time the study explored how foreign government representatives in Taiwan have acquired and developed their competencies, that is it attempted to understand their competency development process. Finally, the main purpose of the research was to identify the individual competencies required for foreign government representatives holding their positions in Taiwan in order to become more efficient and effective in their job.. Research Questions In accordance with the research purposes, the questions that guided this research were the following: 1. What are the job content, work environment and major challenges faced by foreign government representatives in Taiwan? 2. What are the individual competencies required for foreign government representatives to hold their positions in Taiwan? 3. How did foreign government representatives in Taiwan acquire such competencies?. 5.

(15) Definition of Terms Foreign Government Representatives People appointed by a state to engage in diplomatic or non-diplomatic commercial relations with another state, including: ambassadors, consuls, envoys, chargé d’affaires, counselors, attaches and directors. Their main function revolves around the representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state, as well as the promotion of information, commerce and friendly relations (Kissinger, 1994).. Individual Competency An underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Different from organizational competencies - which refer to those elements at the organizational level that characterize collective action, individual competencies refer to the characteristics of an individual, which are an individual’s skills and work manners used to attain a certain work goal (Green, 1999).. 6.

(16) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW. The main issue of this study was to examine the individual competencies foreign government representatives must possess in order to be more effective and efficient when holding their positions is Taiwan, as well as their competency development process. Therefore, this chapter surveyed the related literature on the concept of competency, diplomacy, foreign government representatives and Taiwan’s foreign relations, in order to get a better understanding of each theme in depth.. Competency In the literature, a competency is a concept that has been utilized in different ways. The main distinction to make is between organizational competencies and individual competencies. Organizational competencies refer to those elements at the organizational level which characterize collective action (Olson & Bolton, 2002), in order for the organization to gain competitive advantage (Nadler & Tushman, 1999). In the area of Human Resources, individual competencies generally have to do with the characteristics of an individual, which are the individual skills and work manners used to attain a certain work goal (Green, 1999). This study will focus only on those individual competencies.. Definition of Individual Competency Throughout most of the literature individual competencies have been described as being composed of knowledge, skills and attitudes or KSAs (Ashton, Davies, Felstead, & Green, 1999), an individual possess. This interpretation, while simple, does not cover the whole scope of what a competency really is. A more complete definition for competency is that it is “an underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-reference effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation” (Spencer & Spencer, 1993, p. 9). Explaining this concept further, by being an underlying characteristic, a competency is something which is a deep and enduring part of an individual’s personality and can predict behavior in different situations; by having casual relations, a competency causes and foresees behavior; and by having a criterion-referenced, a competency can predicts high or low performance, measuring it on a specific standard (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). 7.

(17) Sandberg (1994) defined competency as the required skills, abilities and personal characteristics for a good management figure, which include not only observable behaviors but also intangible qualities of a person. Hartle (1995) distinguished individual competencies as an attribute an individual has which has been proven to enhance that individuals job performance. Competency was also defined as a cluster of related knowledge attitudes and skills that affect a major part of one’s job, which correlate with job performance, can be measured against well accepted standards, and can be improved by training and development (Parry, 1996). For the purpose of this research, competency refers to knowledge, skills, attributes and other characteristics required for high performance on a job.. Competency Model While some researches referred to the term competence model to describe the output of analyses that differentiate high performance from average and lower performers (Mirabile, 1997), this study defines competency model as a particular collection of characteristics that establish the qualifications for a specific job position (Cooper, 2000). These characteristics include knowledge, skills, aspects of self-image, social motives, traits, thought patterns, mindsets, and the ways of feeling, acting and thinking an individual posses (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004), and are commonly used as a human resource tool for selection, training, development and appraisal of personnel. Spencer and Spencer (1993) proposed five types of competency characteristics: 1. Motives: the things a person consistently thinks about or wants that cause action. They are responsible for driving, directing and selecting behavior. 2. Traits: physical characteristics and consistent responses to situations and information. 3. Self-Concept: a person’s attitudes, values or self image. 4. Knowledge: information a person has in specific content areas. 5. Skill: the ability to perform a certain physical or mental task. Based on these five characteristics Spencer and Specer (1993), as shown in Figure 2.1, elaborated the iceberg model, classifying individual competencies into hidden and visible competencies. Visible competencies consisting of knowledge and skills, and are located at the top of the iceberg model. These competencies are more easy to recognize and to develop. Hidden 8.

(18) competencies are located at the base of the model and include self-concept, traits and motives. These hidden competencies go deep into the core of an individual’s personality, hence they are more difficult to assess and be taught. Therefore, the most cost-effective way to attain the visible competencies is through training, while selecting is the most cost-effective way to acquire certain hidden competencies.. Skills Visible Knowlegde Hidden. Self Concept Trait Motive. Figure 2.1. The iceberg model of competency. Adapted from “Competency at work: Models for superior performance,” by L.M Spencer & S.M. Spencer, 1993. Copyright 1993 by John Wiley & Sons Inc.. In this model, Spencer and Spencer (1993) proposed that the intent of an individual is what guides his or her actions, meaning that motives, traits and self concept are the drivers for skill, action and behavior which ultimately relate to job performance. According to Lucia and Lepsinger (1999), a competency model must include both acquired and innate abilities of an individual. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 in the form of a pyramid which is constructed on the foundation of personal talents, on top of which skills and knowledge acquirable through learning or experience can be incorporated. Again in this model we can see how those innate and fundamental competencies at the bottom of the pyramid model can serve as a launch pad to acquire and enhance an individual’s skills and abilities, as well as ultimately also determining behavior. 9.

(19) Behavior. Knowledge. Skills. Personal. Aptitude. Characteristics. Figure 2.2. Competency pyramid. Adapted from “The art and science of competency models :Pinpointing critical success factors in organizations,” by A. Lucia & R. Lepsinger, 1999. Copyright 1999 by Jossey-Bass. The two models formerly mentioned, the iceberg model and the competency pyramid, relate to the concept of stable and dynamic individual competencies.. Leiba-O'Sullivan (1999). suggested that competencies can be further categorized as dynamic or stable traits. Dynamic competencies like knowledge and skills are those competencies that can be acquired by training. Stable competencies which include abilities, individual interest, personality and other characteristics, are fixed and have the potential to develop further knowledge and skills. In other words, stable competencies are necessary in order to attain dynamic competencies. Downes, Varner and Musinski (2007) pointed out that “the ability to pick up those skills that are acquirable, such as language proficiency, computer savvy or negotiating techniques, is dictated by the ascribed characteristics that remain relatively stable throughout a person's lifetime” (p. 5), furthermore they highlight that stable competencies are difficult or almost impossible to acquire.. 10.

(20) The ASTD competency model In addition to the previously covered competency models, Davis, Naughton and Rothwell (2004) developed the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) competency model, originally constructed for the learning and development field, which proposed a collection of skills, knowledge, abilities, and behaviors required for individuals, based on three different levels of consecutive building blocks which are better depicted below:. Figure 2.3. The American Society for Training & Development competency model. Adapted from “New roles and new competencies for the profession,” by P. Davis, J. Naughton & W. Rothwell, 2004, T & D, 58(4), p.29. Copyright 2004 by American Society for Training & Development, Inc.. To explain each level more in detail, foundational level competencies are those supporting level competencies at the base of the model which correlate to high performance in an area, and are desirable for all professionals in a field. Furthermore, the model divides the foundational competencies into three types: (1) interpersonal refers to how well an individual can relate, work 11.

(21) with, manage, and influence people; (2) business/management refers to how well an individual can resolve situations, evaluate decisions, and execute action plans; (3) personal refers to how well an individual can adjust to change and make choices to improve his or her professional career. Next follows the focus level, or areas of expertise (AOE), which include a set of technical, professional and specialized abilities an individual needs to perform effectively in different positions. Moreover, these AOEs are specialized areas that are constructed from, and depend on the focused application of the previously mentioned foundational competencies. The top execution level are roles, which are groupings of selected competencies. It’s important to make the distinction that roles are not the same as job titles, and can best be defined as the general area of responsibility within a profession that requires a specific set of foundational competencies and specific set of focus level areas of expertise to execute effectively (Davis, Naughton & Rothwell, 2004). This model provided a significant and handy instrument for guiding individual competency development, helping determine the elements needed for individuals to smoothly cruise their career, as well as a common language to examine what are the individual needs of a particular area or field, by determining the competencies practitioners should possess to thrive in a field, thus presenting a more consolidated picture of individual competency needs (Werner & DeSimone, 2009). Therefore, to determine the competencies needed for foreign government representatives, this study aimed at incorporating elements of this model and adapting it to the foreign government representative profession, in order to present a complete and integrated competency model for this field.. Developing a competency model As mentioned by Lawler (1994), the foundation for constructing a competency model is job analysis, which incorporates job descriptions and job specifications. The former is used in most organization as a basis for selection, training, career development and compensation, stating the task, responsibility and obligation needed for a job. The later illustrates and addresses the knowledge and skills in relation to the task and responsibility of a job. As a whole, job analysis is a process for collecting important competency data, which included detailed criteria for superior 12.

(22) job performance, and it’s focused on task, responsibilities, duties, accountabilities, knowledge and skill requirements (Brannick & Levine, 2002). According to Dubois (1993), nowadays most organizations use different techniques for successfully developing competency models, which fall under one of the following five types: 1. Job Competence Assessment Method: this method utilizes a rigorous, empirical research procedure to identify job competencies which differentiate average from superior job performance. Average and superior workers are interviewed about the aspects of their job performance. Following the competency identification, they and other job elements are used to build the job competency model. 2. Modified Job Competence Assessment Method: This method adopts the job competence assessment research procedure, however rather than interviewing average and superior performers, these individuals are asked to write and record their own critical behavior indicators. 3. Generic Model Overlay Method: This method selects or attains a prepared competency model and then overlays or superimposes it on a job within a given organization. 4. Customized Generic Model: This method identifies all the likely generic competencies that fully characterize the attribute of average and superior performers of a job within an organization. These competencies are then researched and interpreted within the job and the organizational context, to select the specific competencies that determine a successful employee. Other attributes for the desired competency model are also researched. 5. Flexible Job Competence Model Overlay Method: This method utilizes many different comprehensive information sources, both external and internal, to be included in the research base. It determines and uses future assumptions about the job and the organization. The use of this methods results in the availability of behavioral indicators for each job competency. In addition, after defining a performance effectiveness criteria and identifying a criterion sample, Spencer and Spencer (1993) identified several methods of data collecting in order to develop accurate competency models which are listed below:. 13.

(23) 1. Behavioral events interviews: This interview method is derived from the critical incident technique. In these interviews average and superior performers share real life situations in which they have handled the most difficult and important aspects of their job, thus revealing the competencies needed for their profession. 2. Expert panels: A group of experts – supervisors, high performers or human resource professionals, is in charge of brainstorming the personal attributes employees’ must possess to perform the job at a superior level. Later, such attributes are prioritized according to their relation with job success. 3. Surveys: Experts and other members of an organization give rates to competency items according to the significance to effective job performance and how often it is used. This can also be done utilizing the Delphi technique, which is a tool for collecting opinions of a group of expert, in order to achieve consensus in areas lacking empirical evidence; in this technique, one experts provide opinions to revise the list of competencies, following, another expert revises items based on the version of the previous expert revision (Polit & Beck, 2004). 4. Computer based expert systems: This system asks questions to experts, which are keyed into a large knowledge base of competencies that have been identified in previous research. Finally, it processes and provides a description of the competencies needed for exemplary job performance. 5. Job task/function analyses: Either employees or observers list every task, function or action an employee performs in a period of time. This method can collects data through questionnaires, time logs, individual o panel interview or observation. 6. Direct observation: Jobholders are observed directly performing job task, while their behaviors are being coded for competencies. This research used a combination and adaptation of the methods of behavioral event job interviews, job task/function analyses and direct observation for data collection proposed by Spencer and Spencer (1993). Furthermore, the technique used in this study fall in the category of Job Competence Assessment Method, by using interviews as a main tool for data collection. As 14.

(24) part of the research questions, this study also addressed the individual competency development stage of foreign government representatives. Thus, the next section gave an overview of the literature regarding this topic.. Competency Development Throughout the literature, research supports that competencies can in fact be developed in mature adults (Boyatzis, 2006). It’s also likely that certain competencies are more easily acquirable than others and that not all are develop at the same time (Rhee, 2007). According to Rhee (2007) “an ideal development environment is where a learner is exposed to a balanced mixture of situations where both learning and performance take place” (p.158) Aside from training, evidence suggested that individuals learn fundamental competencies also through real life on the job experiences (McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988). Day (2007) pointed out how many organizations today use job assignments to develop individuals which have been determined to have the capacity of undertaking leadership roles. Some suggested that certain assignments present individuals with the challenges needed to cultivate learning on the job (McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott & Morrow, 1994). Such developmental assignments require individuals to think and act in new ways, facilitating the acquirement of underdeveloped skills (Ohlott, 2004). These assignments can also enhance competencies through motivational and emotional mechanisms, revealing the discrepancies between their present abilities and those needed for success; in doing so individuals will be even more motivated to develop their knowledge and skills (Dragoni et al., 2009).. Social Learning Theory It would be incomplete to talk about competency development without going through the overall learning process. Learning can be seen of as a process by which an individual’s experience results in an alteration of behavior (Merriam & Caffarella 1998). Some learning experts argument that it’s the elements in the environment that are responsible for shaping ones behavior by giving stimuli to which individuals react (Fulham & Taylor, 2005). Following this. 15.

(25) orientation to learning Hartley (1998) highlighted how skills can’t be develop without constant interaction with the environment and without practice. Social or situational learning theory proposed that people learn from observing other people, this process happens when individuals interact in different social settings, therefore learning is viewed as a process of social participation, not as the acquisition of knowledge by individuals (Merriam & Caffarella 1998). In the social learning perspective the development of skills and other abilities requires beginners in an area to have high interaction in the field’s socio-cultural practices, allowing newcomer and veterans to socialize (Lave & Wenger, 1991). This orientation suggests that the act of learning is part of a day to day routine, making a stretch relation between knowledge and activity (Merriam & Caffarella 1998). This learning theory seem more relevant to the situation faced by foreign government representatives, since as they are public figures their work rely highly on well develop social skills, and must learn to change and adapt according to their environments.. Intentional Change Theory Intentional Change Theory provides a discontinuous non-linear process for how an individuals’ self-direction and discovery can lead to successive improvements in behavior and competency development; this happens as self-awareness rise and an individual develops a personal vision or ideal self; then they evaluate their actual behavior or real self, and positive physiological forces driven by the ideal self creates motivation to grow (Boyatzis, 2006). This emphasizes the idea that setting learning goals is important to the development of competencies. According to Leonard (2008) goal setting is constructive for developing complex, social, emotional and cognitive intelligence competencies, as well as simple skill development and behavior change, since by setting goals “we move our efforts and decisions toward it more efficiently and effectively, giving our functioning purpose and focus” (p. 109). Still an individual’s ability to learn may vary. Those individuals with a high level of learning orientation view challenges as opportunities to enhance their skills and highly value these opportunities (Klein & Zeigert, 2004).. 16.

(26) Furthermore, as this study focuses on foreign government representatives, which by nature are expatriate workers, the next section of the literature will provide an over-look on those competencies required by individual chosen to carry out international assignments.. Diplomacy The field of diplomacy can be broadly defined as the management of the day-by-day interactions between countries (Henderson, 1995). As noticed by Lee & Hudson (2004), it involves “a process of communication, negotiation and sharing information between sovereign states… is also a foreign policy instrument that belongs (almost exclusively) to states in an international system of anarchy” (p. 353); they point out as well how the increase of states in the international system and the development of global and regional organizations have incremented today’s diplomatic activities. There is of course a long history of diplomatic activity going back thousands of years. According to Siracusa (2010) one of the earliest diplomatic records dated back to 2,500 BC found in present day northern Iran, this was a letter between two distant kingdoms which was carried out by an emissary. As Kissinger (1994) explained, sovereigns sent envoys to other sovereigns to prevent war, cease hostilities, conclude treaties, continue peaceful terms and further trade. The modern era of diplomacy established the independence of states and the notion of religious freedom (Anderson, 1993). Siracusa (2010) pinpointed how “as divine-right kings gave way to constitutional monarchies and republics, embassies and legislations became more institutionalized over Europe” (p.2). Several contributions to the diplomatic practice have been made throughout history, like it was the case in the age of the city-states of Italy, also in France during the 1789 French Revolution, and in the beginnings of the expansions and industrialization of the British empire (Saner et al., 2000). By the end of the 19th century European-style diplomacy had been adopted throughout the world. Other significant contributions to the diplomatic field were proposed by the U.S. in the years following World War Two, time during which different areas f academia and social science began to study in more detail the aptitudes and behaviors of international negotiators (Saner et al., 2000). 17.

(27) Roles of Foreign Government Representatives The ancient Greek word for a diplomat was the word for an old man, and in later times was used by the French to refer to the work of a negotiator (Siracusa, 2010). Nowadays the roles of foreign representatives have been harder to exclusively define. Nicolson (1938) described the sometimes conflicting loyalties foreign representatives have to comply with, he stated: The professional diplomatist is governed by several different and at times conflicting loyalties. He owes loyalty to his own sovereign, government, minister and foreign office; he owes loyalty to his own staff, he owes a form of loyalty to the diplomatic body in the capital where he resides; and he owes another form of loyalty to the government to which he is accredited and to the minister with whom he negotiates (p. 126). Lindstrom (2002) argued that globalization, through the development of communication and technology and the development of trade, has acted as one of the main drivers changing the human resource needs of foreign missions. Consequently these developments has made modern diplomats to constantly be involved in processes of rapid communications, less secrecy and increased informal public engagement, and have also been responsible for extending their commercial responsibilities (Lee & Hudson, 2004). Pamela Harriman, former American ambassador to France explained how instant communication and centralization of policy had made the roles of the job change into one of public relations and establishing prominent presence (Zaharna & Villalobos, 2000). Rana (2000), retired Indian ambassador shared how over the length of his professional career, more than half of the time the job was concerned to economic work. Copeland (2009) stated that the mission for foreign representatives is to obtain the more number of benefits possible for the public interest of a country; for this he introduced the need to use soft power, which is lead by negotiation and persuasion talent rather than compulsion. Furthermore he identified some elements of diplomacy - public engagement, networking, relationships building and policy advocacy, and noticed that the job of a diplomat often involves having access to critical information and connecting directly with populations. Some other tasks of foreign government representatives include “giving policy inputs to shape foreign policy, 18.

(28) organizing and managing international conferences; conducting bilateral, multilateral and plurilateral negotiations; collecting and analyzing information from a variety of government and non-government sources and follow etiquette and norms appropriate to local culture”(Saner et al., 2000, p.11). Finally Copeland (2009) also indicated how a developing function of diplomats is to act as modernization managers and to personally get in touch with the drivers of globalization.. 19.

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(30) CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODS. The research design and research methods of the study were addressed in this chapter. To begin with, the research approach was introduced, followed by the research framework, research procedure, population and sample, data collection, data analysis and lastly issues of reliability and validity.. Research Approach This study adopted a qualitative approach because it utilized foreign government representatives’ own perceived needs and experience in their work environment and professional careers, in order to identify the competencies needed to become more efficient and effective in this profession. As Corbin and Strauss (2008) suggest, considering that the study was under the assumption that not all these competencies were clearly understood and some had not yet been identified, making a further in depth exploration necessary, a qualitative approach was appropriate. Furthermore, a qualitative method was chosen over quantitative method because it gave the research the opportunity to obtain a deeper and more detailed description of foreign government representative’s personal characteristics, while at the same time being able to explore specific and unusual cases (Johnson & Christensen, 2000). Thus the study utilized three qualitative methods for gathering the data, (1) document review, (2) participatory observation and (3) personal interviews. Additionally, as this study discussed foreign government representatives in Taiwan, this research was an exploratory study focusing on Taiwan. Through analyzing the situation of foreign government representatives in Taiwan, the purpose of this study was to explore and identify the individual competency needs and competency development process for these individuals, and to a degree, to rest of practitioners of this profession in the rest of the East Asia sphere. Still the generalization of the findings of this study to other countries in the region should be managed with caution and take into consideration the specific social, political and cultural context of each nation.. 21.

(31) Research Framework The research framework of this study was constructed based on the previously covered relevant literature. The research problem within the theoretical framework is identified, as is the purposes and questions of the study. The problem refers to the fact that in modern times foreign government representatives has been overlooked and unnoticed within the body of contemporary academic research, and their specific and individual competency needs have remained unaddressed. This study was designed to examine the learning process of foreign government representatives, as well as the dynamics of their work environment and job responsibilities, in an effort to identify the individual competency needs of these individuals, as well as how these competencies had been developed and acquired, in order to present an integrated competency study for this profession. One of the assumptions of the study was that formal academic education is the foundation from which the competency development process takes place. Another assumption was that the competency development stage was driven by two different possible learning processes. The first of these was social learning theory, which proposes a process for learning in which individuals learn from observing others; this is done in a social setting. The second of these processes is intentional change theory, in which an individual’s self-direction and discovery lead to competency development. In addition, competencies were further categorized under the assumption that individual competencies can be organized in three different levels: (1) foundational level competencies; (2) areas of expertise (AOEs), or focus level; and (3) roles, or execution level. This three tier categorization is derived from the ASTD Competency model, which was previously explained in detail in chapter 2. At the same time, the previous assumptions are embedded in the overall context of the foreign government representative field. As a result, the research framework is better illustrated bellow:. 22.

(32) Figure 3.1. Research framework. Research Procedure In this section the different steps and stages of the research are explained. The first step was to identify the research topic; this was done through discussion with thesis advisor until the final topic, direction and purpose of the research were confirmed. Following, based on the purpose of the study, literature review on competencies and foreign government representatives was conducted. From the literature and with guidance of thesis advisor the research framework and the appropriate methodology to reach the research purpose were determined. Next, the researcher began the participatory observation stage; this stage enabled the researcher to familiarize itself with the subjects and the environment.. 23.

(33) Following, the interview questions were design using a combination of competency, diplomacy and expatriate workers literature, as well as additional information obtained in the observation stage as a guideline; after completion the interview questions went through the peer review and expert review processes. Later on, since the observation stage was an ongoing process, the researcher had access to undertake document review, conduct a pretest interview and modify the interview questions. Consequently, succeeding this process, the final interviews were undertaken. After being collected, the data began to be synthesized, analyzed and interpreted. Finally, the research results, findings, conclusions and implications were written down in a comprehensible manner. Figure 3.2 illustrates the complete research procedure:. Fig 3.2. Research procedure 24.

(34) Sampling Process The units of analysis for the study were the individuals working in foreign mission offices in Taiwan. Foreign mission offices included official embassies and commercial, trade and cultural offices, hence both official diplomats and non-diplomat representatives were selected for the sample. Finally, the sample was composed by ten foreign government representatives covering different ranks within their organizations. Out of the ten participants, six were individuals working in official embassies and four were individuals working in commercial or cultural offices. This study carried out a non-probability way to select the sample. Judgmental sampling was appropriate since it allowed the researcher to choose a particular case illustrating the features of the research interest (Silverman, 2005); given the nature of the research, judgmental sampling was suitable for two main reasons: 1. The units of analysis had to possess a specific nationality, and share a special status, experience and expertise. 2. The goal of the sample was not to be a generalization of the population (Mertens, 2005), instead the study focused on the particular competency needs of foreign government representatives in Taiwan. In addition, a snow-ball sampling was used to select the sample; As Mertens (2005) explained, when using snowball sampling, the researcher begins with key informants of a community who recommend other people based on their knowledge. Through the cooperation and referral of two foreign mission offices the researcher gained access to the rest of the sample. Three criteria were used for the selection of the participants: 1. The participants must had a foreign nationality; this excluded any Taiwanese employees assigned to work in foreign mission offices. 2. The participants must carry out diplomatic, commercial or cultural duties; this excluded any support personnel employed in foreign mission offices. 3. The participants must have been holding their positions in Taiwan for at least one year.. 25.

(35) Research Participants For the sample to be more representative of foreign mission holders in Taiwan, the research participants were from ten different foreign mission offices, covering different regions of the world in order to have a more global representation. The sample included one representatives of each of the following ten countries: Burkina Faso, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Paraguay and Nicaragua from official embassies; Brazil, France, Mexico and Peru from commercial offices. With the intention of preserving their anonymity, the name, specific nationality, rank or position of the participants was not reveled in this study. Background information including age, gender and work experience about each interviewee is presented in the following table, with their respective one-letter pseudonyms which were used throughout the study: Table 3.1. Background Information of Participants Name. Gender. Age. Work experience in Taiwan. Subject A. F. 25-30. 2 years. Subject B. F. 35-40. 3 years. Subject C. M. 55-60. 4 years. Subject D. M. 40-45. 3.5 years. Subject E. M. 40-45. 3 years. Subject F. M. 35-40. 2 year. Subject G. M. 55-60. 3 years. Subject H. M. 40-45. 2.5 years. Subject I. M. 35-40. 2 years. Subject J. F. 55-60. 1.5 years. 26.

(36) Data Collection As Corbin and Strauss (2008) suggested, “one of the virtues of qualitative research is that there are many sources of data” (p.27). This study used three methods for data collection: participant observation, document review and personal interviews, which are explained in more detail bellow.. Participatory Observation First, a fieldwork stage of participatory observation was conducted. Participatory observation refers to a period of intense interaction between the research and the research participants (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975). This stage of observation was possible since the researcher was granted an internship in one foreign mission office, which allowed the researcher to get familiarized with the job content and work environment, while developing closer relations with the research participants. This period of acclimatization helped the researcher to not be seen so much as an intruder and to find ways to gain access to information in a more unobtrusive manner. During this stage data from personal experiences, observation and casual conversations were systematically collected thought an observation journal and field notes. Bogdan and Taylor (1975) explained that field notes must also include a record of the researchers’ feeling and interpretations; this should be distinguished from the rest of the data and should be given the name of observer’s comments or reflective field notes. The participatory observation stage was conducted for over a month and a half, from February 21th 2012, to April 12th 2012, period during which the researcher served as an non-paid intern two times a week, every Tuesday and Thursday, in the Nicaraguan embassy accredited in the Republic of China (Taiwan), located in the Shillin District of Taipei city, exactly situated in the third floor of the Diplomatic Quarter building. The following figure illustrates the physical setting and environment in which the participatory observation stage took was carried out.. 27.

(37) Figure 3.3. Observation setting As an intern, the actual role of the researcher was of personal assistant of the ambassador, which was the highest authority and the head of the foreign mission. The activities assigned to the researcher were diverse and challenging; because of this the researcher was in constant interaction and communication with the administrative attaché and the ambassador. After each day, data was recorded in the observation journal, which is included in Appendix A at the end of this document.. Document Review At the same time, while being on the inside of a foreign mission office, the researcher was able to have access to information in the form of reports and official documents. Thus, the second method of data collection, document review took place. Official government documents, statements from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the foreign mission’s country, as well as from Taiwan, statements from the Diplomatic Corps of Taiwan, and other reports that helped answer parts of the research questions were taken into consideration. Because of the sensitivity of some of these documents, the researcher omitted revealing their content in this study, extracting and analyzing only the relevant parts which were related to the research purpose. 28.

(38) Personal Interviews Since the observation period was possible through an internship, this fact made the observation stage an ongoing process, which gave the researcher the chance to design the interview questions, proceed through expert review, conduct a pretest interview and modify the interview questions in preparation for the final stage. The final stage was to conduct semistructured in depth interviews with open-ended questions. Johnson and Christensen (2000) mentioned how conducting interviews allows the researcher to get to know the world of another person, in this case the participants, and gain a deeper understanding of a person’s perspectives. Also, adopting this method provided the researcher with the opportunity to prepare the questions ahead of time; this guideline helped ensure that all the relevant topics for the study were covered in the interview. On the other hand, semi-structured interviews gave the participants the freedom to express their views in their own terms and gave the researcher the chance to further investigate on an area, this was appropriate due to the exploratory nature of the study. As previously mentioned the interview questions were developed through the combination of competency, diplomacy and expatriate workers literature, as well as information obtained in the observation stage, as a guideline. Furthermore to carry out the interviews the researcher used an adaptation of Spencer and Spencer (1993) behavioral event interview, which in its self is an adaptation of the critical incident technique. By doing so the interviewees talked about relevant areas of the job based on their previous experience. Chell (1998) described the critical incident technique as “a qualitative interview procedure which facilitates the investigation of significant occurrences (events, incidents, processes, or issues) identified by the respondent, the way they are managed, and the outcomes in terms of perceived effects”(p. 6). Bitner, Booms, and Tetreault (1990) explained that an incident is defined as critical if it makes a significant contribution, either positively or negatively to an activity; thus a critical incident should describe a situation that was important in determining the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the outcome. It was appropriate to use this technique since it had been previously used as a method of identifying job requirements and determining competencies for a vast number of professionals in various disciplines (Gremler, 2006). In more detail, and following the guidelines suggested by Spencer and Spencer (1993) the structure of the interview design was composed by the following elements: 29.

(39) 1. Career path: in this section the interviewee’s could share their education background, training and previous work experiences. 2. Job responsibilities: in this section the interviewee’s could share their job roles, tasks, duties, objectives and responsibilities. 3. Behavioral events: in this section the interviewee’s could share examples and real on the job experiences and important situations, which resulted in either a positive or a negative outcome in their performance. 4. Characteristics needed to do the job: in this section the interviewee’s could share their own views on what it takes to do their job successfully. Following these guidelines as well as the literature, the researcher designed a ten openedended questions interview, which was complemented by another five possible follow up questions. After completion, the questions went first through peer review, since the questions were corrected by fellow researchers, with living experience in Taiwan and backgrounds in human resource development and business management, as well as by thesis advisor. The next step was for the interview questions to go through expert review, which was feasible since the research was in constant interaction with foreign government representatives due to the internship, making it possible for one expert on the topic to help adjust the interview question; the background of the expert reviewer was in international relations and diplomacy, with more than four years working as part of the diplomatic corps of Taiwan. Later, as mentioned in the research procedure a pilot interview was conducted. The researcher interviewed a lower ranking official working at the foreign mission in which the internship was being done, keeping in mind that the highest ranking official of this office was going to be selected as a final research participant. After this pilot interview and following the recommendations of the interviewee, parts of the interview were modified. These modifications had more to do with the elimination of redundant questions, which lead to responses that did not enriched the data being collected, thus just prolonging the interview time. Other modifications had to do with changing the order in which the question were asked, so that the interview would run more smoothly. After the 30.

(40) previous designing, reviewing, adjusting and modification process the interview questions were ready to be used in the final stage of the data collection phase, which consisted in conducting ten semi-structured in depth interviews. The final interview was composed of eight questions and five possible follow-up questions: Table 3.2. Interview Questions Question. Type. Purpose. Could you please hare your education background. Career path. Competency. and training experience(if any). development stage. What has been the most significant experience that. Behavioral event. Competency. has marked and helped form your character as a. development. foreign representative?. stage. How did you prepare yourself professionally to. Behavioral event. come to Taiwan?. Competency development stage. Could you describe your job objectives? How is a. Job responsibilities. Job analysis. Behavioral events. Competency. typical day at work? Could you talk about how has your learning experience evolved since your first days on the job?. development stage. What was the most difficult task for you to learn?. Behavioral event. How did you overcome it?. Competency development stage. What are the challenges of working in a Chinese environment?. Job responsibilities. Determine perceived challenges. (continued) 31.

(41) Table 3.2. (continued) Question. Type. Purpose. In your opinion what the skills and/or attributes. Characteristics. Identify. someone must have to become a good foreign. needed to do the. competencies. government representative?. job Potential follow up questions. Could you give an example of how do you build. Behavioral event. relationship with the Taiwanese community?. Identify competencies. How do you describe the importance of foreign. Characteristics. Identify. language skills for your position?. needed to do the. competencies. job Could you give an example of how do you work. Behavioral events. with people from different cultural backgrounds? How often do you adapt you communication style?. Identify competencies. Characteristics. Identify. needed to do the. competencies. job To what extent do you need to know about trade. Job responsibilities. issues?. Identify competencies. To explain table 3.2 in more detail, the type of question referred to the behavioral event interview guidelines (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). The purpose of the question had to do with what part of the research questions was it aimed at answering. Finally, the follow up questions were an anticipation of the possible responses of the last question: “In your opinion what are the skills and/or attributes someone must have to become a good foreign representative?” and were based on diplomacy and expatriate workers literature.. Additionally, background. information of each participant was gathered before the interview, this information was previously presented in Table 3.1. Because of the sensitivity of their profession, the researcher sent the questions to the participants prior to the interview, to assure the questions were not compromising for their job. The interviews were scheduled two weeks after the initial observation stage began, from the 6th 32.

(42) to the 22nd of March of 2012. Originally the study aimed to extend the number of participants to twelve, but because of time constrains and unwillingness on behalf of some participants, it was reduced to ten. Besides this fact, the interviews were carried without any other major inconvenience. Since the interviews had a duration of 30-50 minutes, and contained open-ened questions, the researcher asked and was granted permission for using a tape-recorder, in order to enhance the accuracy of the data collection.. Background of the Researcher In addition, the data did not only consisted of the observations or the interviewee’s testimony, but also the researchers’ assumptions and bias which shaped the way in which such data was to be interpreted.. As Mertens (2005) points out, unlike quantitative study, in a. qualitative study the researcher is the instrument for collecting the data, since “the researcher decides which question to ask and in what order, what to observe, what to write down”(p. 247). Therefore the background of the researcher had to be taken into account. On a personal level, the researcher of this study was brought up in an multiethnic environment, strongly influenced by politics and governmental issues, thus the interest of exploring the public sector foreign service; the researcher also had a business educational background, mostly on international trade and commerce; finally, as the researcher was granted the opportunity to work as an intern in his country’s foreign mission office in Taiwan, the researcher owed loyalty and a degree of responsibility to this entity.. Data Analysis The ten interviews were tape-recorded and were later on transcribed verbatim – meaning that every utterance from the audio was transcribed. It is necessary to mention that in seven out of the ten interviews the researcher and participants shared the same mother tongue – Spanish. As a consequence, the interviews were carried out in Spanish, in order for the participants to express themselves more naturally. Therefore, after transcribing them, these interviews were later translated from Spanish to English.. 33.

(43) Bogdan and Taylor (1975) argued that the best way to conduct data analysis in qualitative study was to do it simultaneously with data collection. In this fashion, when all the data was finally collected, it would have also gone through a preliminary review process. Therefore the researcher reviewed all field notes and transcripts in order to get a general sense of the data. Next, the researcher started to identify segments in the data which were responsive to the research questions; a code was given to those segments that could identify competencies in the participants work environment, as well as those that could determine the competency development stage. These codes were later categorized into themes. More in detail the data analysis was conducted in three steps: data reduction, data display and data verification (Huberman & Miles, 1998). The data reduction stage was the process of selecting, simplifying, and transforming the data of field notes and transcriptions by means of elaborating summaries, coding, looking for themes and categorizing such data. To be more specific, in this step, the observation journal, interview transcript and other documents were coded. The segments of the data that were related or could respond to one of the research questions were transformed into concepts; each of these concepts were given a code according to the source of the data. In this fashion codes from the observation stage were coded with the initial letter “O”, flowed by a number which represent the observation day. Codes from the interview process were coded with the initial letter “I”, plus the subject’s assigned letter. Similar codes were merged and were later categorized. The observation journal, example of an interview transcript, as well as the coding list are provided in Appendix A, B and C in order to illustrate the coding process. In the following data display stage, the data was organized in a way that permitted conclusion drawing, this was be done through figures, taking into account the literature and the research framework; additionally, at this stage higher order categories emerged. Finally the data verification stage involved revising the data as many times as necessary in order to verify these emergent conclusions.. 34.

(44) Quality of the Research This final section addressed validity and reliability issues. As mentioned above, in a qualitative study the researcher is the instrument. Therefore during the entire research process, the researcher remained as most objective as possible, focusing on the research purpose and questions, this way reducing the researcher’s bias and enhancing the quality of the research. In order to increase reliability, the interview questions were discussed with thesis advisor and went through a peer review, as well as an expert review process. Furthermore, the initial observation stage gave the research the opportunity to prepare for the interviews. At this stage, exploring the job content and work environment, alongside conducting a pretest interview allowed the researcher to make the necessary adjustment and modifications to the interview questions. All interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed. Following all transcripts were sent back to the interviewees for their approval. To ensure validity the researcher used the triangulation technique, which “involves checking information that has been collected from different sources or methods of consistency of evidence across sources of data” (Mertens, 2005, p. 255). This was done first by choosing three methods for data collection - participatory observation, document review and semi-structured interviews. In addition, the sample chosen was composed of foreign government representatives covering different ranks with their organizations; it included individuals working in both official embassies and commercial or cultural offices; and finally the research participants selected worked in foreign missions from different regions of the world.. 35.

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