Chapter Four
Research Design
This chapter presents the syllabus design and instruction procedures. Besides the six rules proposed by Bean and Steenwyk (1984), the researcher also gave explicit instruction on basic writing techniques such as brainstorming, getting the main idea and paraphrasing. The pedagogical procedure proposed by Cassaza (1993) -- explanation, modeling and application-- were also closely followed, and the practice materials and subjects’ summary samples are presented as follows.
4.1 Syllabus Design
The researcher was responsible for the teaching of the composition courses of the experimental group and these subjects were all twelfth graders. In the second year of their senior high school life, they had one period of composition class; therefore, these subjects had received some basic training regarding how to write a composition.
According to the high school curriculum standards, there ought to be two periods of composition classes each week. Fortunately, the composition classes of the experimental group were arranged back to back in the afternoons of every Thursday.
This made it possible for the researcher to teach English summative skills to the
experimental subjects on Thursday afternoons.
Except for the days when the experimental subjects had mock exams or took part in some special activities, the researcher gave them the instruction of summative skills in a sequenced order almost every week. With two periods of composition classes in hand, the researcher began to look for proper materials from the available textbooks published by Far East Company. Then she devoted the time and effort to training her subjects how to summarize a text.
4.2 Instruction Procedures and Summary Samples of the Experimental Group
As discussed in Chapter 2, direct instruction of summary writing has been found to benefit students in many ways (Enos, 1988; Hill, 1991; Tsai, 1995).
Moreover, after Duke & Pearson have conducted their research employing Rule Governed Approach, they state convincingly, “through teacher modeling, group and individual practice, students learn to apply these rules to create brief summaries of text” (p.103). Therefore, the researcher decided to give direct instruction on how to summarize a text to the subjects in the experimental group. The following sections present the teaching activities that the researcher had designed for the summary instruction and two of the summary samples gathered from the experimental subjects.
More samples can be found in Appendix XIII.
4.2.1 Brainstorming
The week after the pretest, the researcher engaged herself in the instruction of summary writing, based on the six rules proposed by Bean and Steenwyk (1984). But before she began teaching the first set of rules, she decided to acquaint her subjects with the idea of brainstorming.
In the beginning of the first period of the instruction, she wrote some composition topics on the blackboard, and asked the subjects to brainstorm with the six wh-questions—what, who, why, where, when, and how. The purpose of this practice was to help students to know what was the main concern that subjects needed to keep in mind when they write a composition and, of course, when they read an article.
4.2.2 Getting the Main Idea
Soon after the subjects familiarized themselves with how to brainstorm with wh-questions, the researcher guided them to go through the first text she offered and had them practice getting the main idea step by step.
The researcher was convinced that knowing how to get the gist of a passage
would be beneficial to the experimental subjects. When they wrote a summary, they
needed to keep in mind what the crucial points were and what was necessary to be
included in their summary.
The researcher offered two passages for the subjects to practice getting the main idea. She asked one of the subjects in each class to read the first text in public and helped the whole class to gain the main idea of the entire text. In the process of attempting to get the main idea, the subjects were constantly reminded to make use of the six wh-questions. Afterwards, the whole class went through each paragraph and
tried to get the gist of each paragraph together.
➣ The following is the first text used in class as an example to activate the
experimental subjects’ discussion of the main idea and practice summarizing the
main idea.
Mother’s Day
Do you sometimes forget, or not have time, to tell your mother that you love her, and to thank her for all the wonderful things that she has done for you during your life? Many people forget which is why in many countries there is a national holiday to remind everyone to celebrate their mothers. People everywhere try to make their mothers feel special on this day by buying them flowers, writing poems or letters, making cards, serving them breakfast in bed, or doing all the chores around the house for the day to give their mothers a rest.
Some people say that Mother's Day was invented by card shops and flower shops to make more money, but Mother's Day can actually be traced back to ancient Greece, where a spring festival was dedicated to the mother goddesses.
Since the 1600s, England has also celebrated Mother's Day. At that time,
most poor women worked and lived in the homes of the rich people as servants. On this day, employees received the day off and were encouraged to return home to their mothers and spend the day with them.
In the United States, Mother's Day was started in 1908 by a woman, Anna M.
Jarvis, to honor her dead mother. Her mother had said there were too many special days for thanking men, but none for women or mothers. On the first Mothers' Day, Anna handed out her mother's favorite flower, the carnation, to people who came to celebrate the day. Now, the carnation is the Mother's Day flower in the United States. Pink symbolizes a living mother, and white symbolizes a mother who has died.
Mother's Day is a good day to make your mother feel special, but you don't
have to wait until that day arrives. There is a chance to do something nice for her every day. You should even give her a card on your own birthday to thank her for another year of life that she has given you. Also, don't forget to thank all the women in your life—for example, your grandmothers, your aunts, and great aunts—on Mother's Day.
➣ The following are two original samples from the experimental group which
incorporate the notions involving getting the main ideas:
✩ Phoebe: Actually, Mother’s Day was traced back to many years ago. Many try to many methods to make their mothers feel special on this Mother’s Day.
✩ Michelle: Almost people around the world celebrate Mother’s Day. The
Mother’s Day be traced back to ancient Greece; England has also
celebrated it since the 1600s. Anna M. Jarvis gave her mother some carnation in the U.S. This is the first Mother’s Day in the world.
After the subjects had practiced how to get the main idea together in class in the first period, the researcher gave the subjects the second passage for practice and required the experimental subjects to get the main idea of the second text alone and handed in their answer before the class was over. They were allowed to exchange their
ideas with their classmates.
➣ The following is the second text based on which the subjects practiced how to get
the main idea and summarize on their own.
The Do's and Don’ts of Meeting Foreigners in Taiwan
"Hello! Hello!"
This is like saying, "Ni hao!" (你好) in Chinese. Most Chinese people do not say "ni hao" over and over again and then say nothing else. So after saying "hello"
in English, you should be ready to start a polite conversation.
"Hey, look it's a foreigner!"
Pointing and staring at a foreigner is also not the best way to start a conversation. Many foreigners in Taiwan can understand at least a little Chinese and will know that you are talking about them. Also, more and more people from western countries are moving to Asia and making Taiwan their home. What this means is that they are not foreigners. In fact, they may have been living in Taiwan longer than you!
You should also be careful when asking people which part of America they
are from. More and more foreigners in Taiwan come from countries other than the United States. In fact, another way to start a conversation with someone who looked like he might not be from Taiwan is to ask him where he is from. You may be surprised by some of the answers.
"Excuse me; do you need help or directions?"
If you see someone in your city that looks lost or confused, whether or not you think he is a foreigner, it's easy to walk up to him and offer your help. Even if he says "no," this could still be a good way to start a conversation. You could ask,
"Do you live here?" or "Are you traveling?" Depending on his answer, there are many more things you could then say, such as asking what brought him to Taiwan, how long he has been here, or where he is traveling to next.
If he says "yes," then you have a perfect chance to practice all the direction words you have learned in Lesson Five of your Far East English Textbook!
➣ The following are two original samples chosen from the experimental group
which incorporate the notions involving getting the main ideas:
✩ Lynn: Our environment is like a global village, because more and more foreigners live in Taiwan nowadays. Actually, they at least know some Chinese other than know nothing. Therefore, trying to strike up a sincere greet and conversation instead of running away fast when you run into foreigners the next time.
✩ Cherry: Whenever we meet foreigners in Taiwan, just saying “hello” is not a
good way to start a conversation. Instead, we should try to offer some
help or ask where they came from.
4.2.3 Paraphrasing
One week after the subjects had learned how to get the main ideas, the subjects received the training on “how to paraphrase a paragraph.” The paraphrasing technique was also crucial to these subjects because in their summaries they were not allowed to copy directly from the original text. They thus needed to be equipped with the ability to use their own words in paraphrasing the passage they read. Therefore, before the experimental group received the instruction on the six summative rules, the researcher gave them instruction on how to get the main ideas and how to paraphrase them.
In class, the researcher used the first text in the worksheet to demonstrate how to paraphrase its main idea. The subjects were asked to read the first text silently and discussed with their partners what its main idea was and how to use their own words to express the same meaning. Then, the researcher asked some groups to share their paraphrases with the whole class. At the end, the whole class discussed and decided on which paraphrases were the better ones.
Immediately after the practice on how to paraphrase in public, the subjects were assigned to paraphrase the following three texts. They were allowed to discuss with their partners what the main ideas of each text are and how to paraphrase these key points, but they were asked to avoid using the same words from the original texts.
➣ The following are the texts for the subjects to practice summarizing and
paraphrasing.
1. Most modern English family names can be traced back to the early 16
thcentury, when many people having the same names needed additional names to identify themselves. Common sources for English family names were father’s names, place names, trade or work names, and names describing physical features.
2. In western countries, traditionally the man was the sole family member responsible for making money for the family, while the woman had no choice other than to stay at home, look after the children, and do the household chores. The man’s role in the family was considered to be more important and more valuable, while the woman’s role was often unappreciated by her husband and the society.
3. Every night ended with a large campfire. The camp counselors sang songs and took turns telling ghost stories. On the first few nights, the campers hardly sang a word, but by the third day, their voices could be heard all the way to the field. By the end of the week, everyone was singing and swaying to the music. Young boys and girls began to exchange shy glances. People started sitting closer together and, occasionally, a hand would touch another hand for just a little too long.
4. Nancy realized that it wasn’t a house or a place that she missed. It was the
people that made home special. There were many special people she had
met in Africa. She would miss them, too. She hoped that someday she
would be able to come back and visit them. They had given her a new
home. Now, even though she was going back to her first home, she had two
homes full of people she loved.
➣ The following are some original samples from the experimental group which
incorporate the notions involving summarizing and paraphrasing:
✩ Grace:
1. English family names had many source. So many people usually have same names.
2. In traditional society, man usually have more important role. Woman usually stay home, so they don’t get suitabe respect.
3. In campfire, at first people were not similar. Gradually, people start knowing each other.
4. Nancy missed Africa people not missed home special. She would be able to come back and visit them. She loves people in Africa.
✩ Joyce:
1. Many people needed extra names to indentify themselves in the early 16
thcentury.
2. Traditionally, the man played a more important role than the woman in the family.
3. After got along for few days, people get more closer than before.
4. Nancy missed the house because people who live it make it special.
4.2.4 Selection of the Topic Sentences
In the following week, the researcher decided to undertake the training of one
of the six rules. Among the six rules, the instruction on selecting the topic sentence
was chosen as the first one to be implemented in class.
The researcher regarded the selection of the topic sentence as a very important in the instruction procedure, because after the subjects learned how to get the main ideas of a passage, they needed to know how to arrange these key points into a well-organized paragraph. If they could locate the topic sentence of the original text, they were then able to apply the paraphrasing skills they had learned to make the paraphrased topic sentence the beginning part of their summaries.
The researcher presented to the subjects a worksheet which they were required to read silently first and then make a guess on which was the topic sentence of each paragraph. The subjects were also asked to explain the reasons why they chose the answers when they shared their answers with their classmates.
Afterwards, the researcher gave the subjects the second worksheet and asked them to identify the most suitable topic sentence of each paragraph on their own. The subjects were encouraged to share the reasons why they made their choices in public.
➣ Below is the first worksheet that was used for the subjects to practice selecting the
topic sentences:
I. In every paragraph there is usually a topic sentence that indicates what
the paragraph is about or what it will describe or discuss. Underline the
topic sentence in each of the following paragraphs. The first one has been
done for you.
1. Introduction can be made in a formal way or an informal way. When making a formal introduction one usually uses a person's title and last name, for example, Mr. Wang or Dr. Lin. For informal introductions, first names are usually used.
2. Why did dinosaurs become extinct? Some scientists believe they were killed by chances in the weather or that they died out from disease.
Others believe they were killed by a great meteor that hit the earth and caused a large cloud of dust to cover the sun.
3. My parents don't understand me. My mother won't let me wear makeup, even though I'm seventeen. She makes me dress like a little girl. My father thinks I'm too young to go out on dates. He doesn't see why I'm not happy going to the movies with my mother and him on Saturday night when all the other girls are there with dates. How can I make my parents stop treating me like a child?
4. It is important to know how to accept a compliment graciously. For English-speakers, the best response is often a simple "Thank you,"
spoken with a cheerful voice. Some comment might also be appropriate, especially if the person who gave the compliment is trying to start up a conversation. For example, if someone compliments you on your clothing, you might mention when or where you bought it or some other bit of information. Another good response is to offer a compliment in return. By learning to respond appropriately to compliment in return, you will not only show a better command of English, but may even make some new friends along the way.
5. You will enjoy your trip more if you know more about the place you are
going to visit. There are many travel books and guidebooks for almost every scenic spot on earth. These books can provide you with information about where to eat, shop and stay. You can either buy one of them for reference or just call a travel agent for pamphlets about the place you are interested in. Remember to take notes on the historic landmarks and tourist attractions you don't want to miss. You may find these notes very useful during your trip. Whether you make your own arrangements for a trip or simply use the services of a travel agency, the above preparations will certainly add more fun to your trip.
➣ What follows is the second worksheet that was used for the subjects to practice
selecting the topic sentences.
II. Choose the most appropriate topic sentences for each of the following paragraphs and write it down on the blank line.
1. __________________________________________________________
At home, we use small, simple computers to control the washing machine or the microwave oven. At the supermarket, computers read the labels on products and work out the bills for customers. In the library, a computer can tell you, in a second, if a book is available. Modern schools use computers to teach students. People even use computers to make friends on the BBS.
(1) Computers are used in many situations today.
(2) Computers are much smarter than human beings.
(3) Computers are products of modern technology.
2. __________________________________________________________
In the past, many people worked on farms or in factories making simple goods like shoes and umbrellas. Today, they are more likely to be working in high-tech fields such as electronics or telecommunications, or they may be part of the fast-growing service industry.
(1) The new communications technology will bring far-reaching changes to many people’s lives.
(2) The job market in Taiwan has changed tremendously in recent decades.
(3) The way of living today is different from that in the past.
3. __________________________________________________________
Like every good scientist, Newton had a curious mind. He was interested in finding out why things happen, He was also very observant. He paid attention to everything around him and he used his observations to support his ideas. He was also very skeptical. He would not say something was true until he had tested it and proved it. And he conducted his experiments very carefully.
(1) Newton was recognized as the leader of English science.
(2) Newton, one of the world’s greatest scientists, developed the theory of gravity.
(3) Newton’s success was due to his scientific attitude.
4. __________________________________________________________
For example, they are not afraid of making mistakes in front of others.
They enjoy talking with people, even in broken English. They enjoy
singing English songs or watching English movies, even though they may
not understand the meaning completely. They set goals and try any means to achieve them. They worked hard and never quit. They believe that there is no short cut to learning a foreign language.
(1) Successful English learners make good use of their time.
(2) Successful English learners usually have a positive attitude toward their studies.
5. __________________________________________________________
Some of them have just arrived by plane and are waiting for a car or a bus or a train to take them home. Some are departing passengers waiting to board planes that will take them to other cities or other countries. Many other people at the airport are not passengers. They have come to meet passengers who are arriving or to say goodbye to friends or relatives who are leaving.
(1) An airport is usually full of people.
(2) An airport is usually full of passengers.
4.2.5 Invention of the Topic Sentences
One week after the subjects had received instruction on how to select the topic
sentence from the passage they read, the researcher began the instruction of a more
challenging task—topic invention. Inventing a topic sentence posed a greater
challenge to the subjects because in completing the task, they had to make every
effort to understand the text in order to come up with their own topic sentences.
The subjects were given a worksheet with seven short paragraphs. They were asked to discuss with their partners what the paragraph was about and then write up the most appropriate topic sentence based on the given text. Below we cite the seventh paragraph as an example because it was extracted from an article in the textbook that they had studied when they were eleven graders, and the whole class worked together to brainstorm for the proper topic sentence. The other six paragraphs were assigned to the subjects and they were allowed to discuss with their partners, if necessary, before they came up with the topic sentences of their own choice.
➣ The following is the worksheet that the subjects use to practice inventing the topic
sentences:
A topic sentence in a paragraph indicates what the paragraph is about or what it will describe or discuss. Give a topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs.
1. _______________________________________________________________
You can find almost anything you want to know through the Internet. You can use it to reach any library around the world. You can choose from thousands of on-line books, magazines, and newspapers. You can even listen to news broadcasts.
2. _______________________________________________________________ In
China, for example, yellow is the color of the emperor, but in the West, when
people see yellow baby chickens or yellow flowers, they often think of spring. For
the Chinese, the color red suggests the wish for good things to happen. For
Americans, red means love. The Chinese wear white at funerals, but for most
Western people, white is for weddings.
3. _______________________________________________________________
After all, poor directions are useless. They can even get someone lost! Try to offer as many details as you can. If you are telling someone how to get somewhere by bus, for example, you could tell him or her exactly where to catch the bus, how often the bus arrives, and if you know, even what the bus looks like.
4. _______________________________________________________________The government releases important policies through the Internet. Students use computers to browse and collect data for their reports. Big businesses use computers to manage their factories and stores. Even some housewives make use of the computer to keep their homes running smoothly. We may well say that computers now help us to do almost everything.
5. _______________________________________________________________ If we want to visit another country, for example, we need to fill out a visa application form. When we arrive in that country, we must fill out a customs declaration form. If we want to order something from a foreign company, we may have to fill out an order form. If we apply for a job at a foreign firm, we will need to fill out an employment application form. When going to study or live in an English-speaking country, we may have to fill out forms to apply for a credit card, to open up a bank account, or to deposit money in an accountant. Because all of these need to be written in English, it is clear that having some English writing ability is increasing important in our modern global village.
6. _______________________________________________________________
In France, you cannot even live in a house of that number, because they simply don’t exist. After No.12 comes No.12
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