A Study of Intercultural Effectiveness for American and Japanese Expatriates in Taiwan 吳永欽、韓必霽
E-mail: 8919328@mail.dyu.edu.tw
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the research was to investigate Intercultural Effectiveness Competencies (ICE) for American and Japanese
Expatriates in Taiwan. The ICE were success or competence in cross-cultures. Han (1997) concluded ICE were: 1.Communication competence 2.Psychological stress 3.Relationship building 4.Cultural empathy 5.Cross-cultural awareness. The research quoted 5 ICE items from Han and revised in English and Japanese questionnaires. The target population were American and Japanese expatriates in Taiwan. The data were analyzed with the SPSS software package and were submitted to MANOVA procedures corresponding to each hypothesis. Conclusion: 1.for all: ICE of respondents located in the category of American expatriates reported higher means than those respondents located in the category of Japanese expatriates. 2.for American expatriates:The following people have higher ICE: The higher stratum in the organization; working more than three years in other countries; willing to work in multinational enterprises in their career planning; having international co-workers. 3.for Japanese expatriates: The following people have higher ICE: local languages ability; international experience; having experience with other cultures; having participated in cross-cultural training programs; having international co-workers.
Keywords : International human resource management ; Intercultural effectiveness competence ; Cross-cultural Table of Contents
封 面 簽 名 頁 博碩士論文電子檔案上網授權書 iii 授 權 書 iv 中文摘要 v Abstract vi 誌 謝 vii 目 錄 viii 圖 目 錄 x 表 目 錄 xi 第一章 緒 論 1 第一節 研究背景 1 第二節 研究動機 4 第三節 研究問題陳述 6 第四節 研究目的 7 第五節 研究範圍 8 第六節 名詞定義 8 第二章 文獻探討 10 第一節 文化與文化差異 10 第二節 跨文化衝擊 22 第三節 跨文化研究的相關理論 26 第四節 跨文化效能 29 第三章 研究方法 46 第一節 研究架構 46 第二節 研究假設 49 第三節 研究對象 50 第四節 研究工具 51 第五節 資料分析方法 53 第六節 研究限制 54 第四章 實証研究 55 第一節 問卷回收及樣本結構 55 第二節 個人人口變項與跨文化效 能之分析 68 第三節 情境變項與跨文化效能之分析 76 第五章 結論與建議 96 第一節 研究發現 96 第二節 結 論 100 第三節 研究建議 102 參考文獻 107 一、中文部份 107 二、英文部份 109 附錄一 英文問卷 122 附錄二 日文問卷 128
REFERENCES
一、中文部份 1. 外交部北美司(1999)，網址:www.mofa.gov.tw/data/ country/r-ut.htm。 2.呂昆儒(1994)，美國多國籍企業駐台經理人員跨 文化調整之研究，大同工學院事業經營研究所未出版之碩士論文。 3.吳萬益(1995)，中美日在台企業經營環境、組織結構及策略運作互 動關係之研究，管理科學報，第十三卷第一期。 4.吳萬玲(1998)，我國跨文化訓練現況與架構之探討--以資訊電子業為例，國立東華大學 國際企業研究所未出版之碩士論文。 5.林清山(1991)，多變項分析統計方法，台北:東華。 6.林彩梅(1977)，美日國多國籍企業經營策略，
五南，p.5~6。 7.李蘭甫(1994)，國際企業論，台北:三民書局。 8.胡國強、林建安、賴劉炎(1993)，由企業國際化談派外人員之管理，因 應國際化之人力資源管理學術研討會。 9.洪世雄(1998)，國際企業人力任用導向研究，私立中國文化大學國際企業管理研究所未出版之 博士論文。 10.戚樹誠(1997)，派外經理人的跨文化溝通適能之研究:探討管理能力與派駐期的影響，中國行政，8月，p.1~22。 11.黃復 明(1999)，台商派駐大陸人員訓練與海外適應之研究－以台商高爾夫產業為例。 12.趙怡淵 (1993)，在台外國人跨文化適應之研究，私立 中國文化大學新聞研究所未出版之碩士論文。 13.顧鳳姿(1993)，資訊業駐外經理海外適應之研究，國立政治大學企業管理研究所未出版 之博士論文。 二、英文部份 1.Abe H. & Wiseman, R. L. (1983). A cross-cultural confirmation of the dimension of intercultural effectiveness.
International Journal of intercultural Relations, 7, 53-67. 2.Amaya, T. (1993). Japanese HRD: A futuristic view. In A. Reynolds & L. Nadler(Eds.), Globalization: The international HrD consultant and practitioner (pp. 487-492). Amherst, MA: Human Resource Development Press, Inc.
3.Ansoff, H. I. (1991). Strategic management in a history perspective in hussey D. E. ed, International review of stragetic management, 2(1), 3-69.
4.Baker, J. C., & Ivancevich, J. M. (1971). The assignment of American executives abroad: Systematic, haphazard or chaotic? California
Management Review, 13(3), 39-44. 5.Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1992). The measurement Of Intercultural Sensitivity Using the Concepts Of Individualism and Collectivism. International Journal Of Intercultural Relations, 16, 413-436. 6.Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managemers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19, 277-294. 7.Black, J. S. (1991). The U-curve adjustment Hypothesis Revisited: A Review and Theroretical Framework; Journal of international Business Studies, Second Quarter, 225-247. 8.Black, J. S., &
Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review and a theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management
Review, 15, 113-136. 9.Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1991) Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: An integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16, 291-317. 10.Brein, M., & David, K. (1971). Intercultural Communications and the adjustment of the sojourner. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 215-230. 11.Brislin, R. W., Cushner, k., Cherie, c., & Yong, m.
(1986). Intercultural interatctions: A practical guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. 12.Brislin, R. , & Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural Communication training: An introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. 13.Briscoe, D. R. (1995). International Human Resource Management. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 14.Brush, M. J., Moch, M. K., & Pooyan, A. (1987). Individual demographic differences and job satisfaction. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 8, 139-155. 15.Budd, D. H. (1993). Criteria used to select personnel for cross-cultural assigments.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University ,Fort Collins. 16.Church, A. T. (1982). Sojourner adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 91(3), 540-572. 17.Cleveland, H., Managone, G. J., & Adams, J. C. (1960). The overseas Americans: Areported on Americans abroad. New York:
McGraw-Hill. 18.Copeland, L., & Griggs, L. (1985). Going international. New York: Random House. 19.Cui, G. (1989). Intercultural effectiveness:
An integrative approach. Paper presented at the 35th Annual Conference of the International Communication Association, San Francisco, CA.
20.Cui, G. & Awa, N. E. (1992). Measuring Intercultural Effectiveness: An Intergrative Approach. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16, 311-328. 21.Cui, G. & Van Den Berg, S. (1991). Testing the Construct Validity of intercultural effectiveness. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 15, 227-241. 22.Dean, O. & Popp.G. E. (1990). Intercultural Communication effectiveness as Perceived by American Managers in Saudi Arabia and French Managers in the U.S.. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 405-424. 23.Dowling, P. I, &
Schuler, R. S. (1990). International dimensions of human resource management. Boston, Mass: PWS-Kent. 24.Dowling, P. J., & Welch D. E., &
Schuler R. S. (1999). International Human Resource Management. Ohio: South-Western College Publishing. 25.Earley, P. C. (1987). Intercultural training for managers: A comparison of documentary and interpersonal methods. Academy of Management Journal, 30, 685-698. 26.English, H.
B. (1958). A comprehensive dictionary of psychological and psychoanalytical terms. New York: David McKay. 27.Fayerweather, J. (1978).
International Business and Stragegy, New York: Ballinger. 28.Furnham, Adrian & Bochner Stephen (1994). Culture Shock, Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar Environments, London: Routledge. P.131. (reprint of original published by Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1986). 29.Gilley, J. W., Eggland, S. A. (1989). Principle of human resource development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 30.Grove, C. (1990, Summer). An ounce of prevention: Supporting International Job transitions. Employment Relations Today, 17(2), 111-119. 31.Grove, C. L., &
Torbiorn, I. (1985). A new conceptualization of intercultural adjustment and the goals of training. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 9, 205-233. 32.Gullahorn, J. T., & Gullahorn, J. E. (1963). An extension of the u-curve hypothesis. Journal of Social Issues, 19, 33-47.
33.Gudykunst, W. B., & Hammer, M. R. (1983). Basic Training design: Approaches to inter-cultural training. In D. 34.Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of inter-cultural training volume I: Issues in theory and design (pp. 118-154). New York: Pergamon Press. 35.Gudykunst, W. B.,
& Kim Y. Y. (Eds.). (1984). Methods for intercultural communication research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. 36.Gudykunst, W. B., Wiseman, R. L., &
Hammer, M. R. (1977). Determinants of a sojourner''s attitudinal satisfaction: A path model. In B. Ruben (Ed.), Communication vearbook I, (pp.
415-425). New Burnswick, NJ: Transaction, Inc. 37.Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press. 38.Hammer, M. R., Gudykunst, W. B., & Wiseman, R. L. (1978). Dimensions of intercultural effectiveness: An exploratory study. International Journal of intercultural Relations, 2, 382-393. 39.Han, P. C. (1997).An Investigation of Intercultural Effectiveness of International University Students with Implications for Human Resoruce Development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 40.Hannigan, T. P. (1990). Traits, attitudes and skills that are related to intercultural effectiveness and their implications for cross-cultural training: A review of the literature. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 89-111. 41.Hennan, D. (1970) Multinational Organization Development, MA: Addison-Wesley. 42.Hanvey, R. G. (1976).
Cross-cultural awareness. In E. C. Smith & L. F. Luce (Eds.), Toward internationalism: Readings in cross-cultural communication (pp.44-56).
Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers. 43.Harris, J. G. (1973). A science of the South Pacific: An analysis of the character structure of the Peace Corp Volunteer. American Psycholgist, 28, 232-247. 44.Harris, P. R., & Moran, R. T. (1991). Managing cultural differences. Houston, TX: GULF Publishing Company. 45.Hawes, F., & Kealey, D. J. (1979). Canadians in development: An empirical study of adaptation and effectiveness on overseas assignment. Ottawa: Canadian International Development Agency, Technical Report. 46.Hays, R. D. (1971). Ascribed behavioral determinations of success-failure among U.S. EXPATRIATE MANAGERS. Journal of International Business Studies, 2, 40-46. 47.Hodgetts, R.
M. & Luthans F. (1991). International Management, McGraw-Hill, Inc. 48.Hofstede(1980), Culture''s Consequence. Sage Publication.
49.Inamura, H. (1980). Nihonjin no kaigai futekio [The maladjustment of Japanese overseas]. Tokyo: NHK Books. 50.Inanaga, K (1956) Beikoku ni okeru nihon ryugakusei no seikatsu tekio [The adjustment of Japanese students in the United States]. Seishin Igaku, 7, 413. 51.Kauffmann, N.
L., Martin, J. N., Weaver, H. D., & Weaver, J. (1992). Students abroad: Strangers at home. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc. 52.Kealey, D.
J. (1989). A study of cross-cultural effectiveness: Theoretical issues, practical applications. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 141-165. 53.Kelley, C., & Meyers, J. (1995). CCAI(cross-cultural adaptability inventory) mnual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems, Inc. 54.Kim, Y. Y. (1979). Handbook of international and Intercultural communication: Intercultural Adaptation, 275-293. Sage Publications.
55.Kim, Y. Y. (1986, November). Cross-cultural adaptation: A critical assessment of the field, presented to the annual conference of the Speech Communication Association, Chicago, IL. 56.Kim, Y. Y. (1988). Communication and cross-cultural adaptation: An integrative theory. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters Ltd. 57.Kim, Y. Y. (1991). Intercultural communication competence: A systems-theoretic view. In S. Ting-Toomey,
& F. Korzenny (eds.), Cross-cultural interpersonal communication. (pp. 259-275). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publication, Inc. 58.Kim, Y. Y. &
Willliam, B. G. (1988). Cross-cultural adaptation current approaches, 53-58. Sage Publications. 59.Klein, M. H. (1979). Adaptation to new cultural
environments. In D. S. Hoopes, P. B. Pedersen, & G. W. Renwick (eds.) Overview of intercultural education, training and research: 1. Theroy.
LaGrange Park, IL: Intercultural Network, Inc. 60.Klineberg, O., & Hull, W. F. (1979). At a foreign university. New York, NY: Prager Publishers.
61.Knowles, M. S. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species. (4th ed.). Houston, TX:Gulf Publishing Company. 62.Kohls, L. R. (1984).
Survival Kit for Overseas Living, Second Ed., Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc., p.65-66. 63.Kondo, H. (1981). Karucha shokku no shinri [The psychology of culture shock]. Osaka: Sogensha. 64.LaFromobise, T., Coleman, H. L., & Gerton, J. (1993). Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 395-412. 65.Lawrie, J. (1986, June). Revitalization the HRD function.
Personnel, 63(6), 20-25. 66.Lee, C. (1983). Cross-cultural training: don''t leave home without it. Training, 20(7), p.20-25. 67.Lysgarrd, S. (1955).
Adjustment in a foreign society: Norwegian fulbright grantees visiting the United States. International Social Science Bulletin, 7, 45-71. 68.Miller, D. E. (1993). The development of an instrument to identify dispositions for interactive group communications in cross-cultural learning
environments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 69.Nakane, C. (1972). Tekio no jyoken [The conditions for adjustment]. Tokyo: Kodansha. 70.Nash, D. (1967). The fate of Americans In a spanish setting: A study in adaptation. Human Organization, 26(3), 157-163. 71.Nelson, D. A. (1986). A study of predeparture orientation programs for employees of business/industry and U.S. Agency for
international development projects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 72.Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock:
adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, 7, 177-182. 73.Paige, R. M. (1986). Training competencies: The missing conceptual link in orientation. International Journal of International Relations, 10, 135-158. 74.Paige, R. M, Ed.(1993). Education for the Intercultural Experience, Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc. 75.Padilla, A. M. (1980). The role of cultural awareness and ethnic loyalty in acculturation. In A. Padilla (ed.), Acculturation: Theory, models and some new findings. (pp. 47-84). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 76.Parker, B.
(1993). Initial Examination of a Model of Intercultural Adjustment. International Journal of intercultural Relations, 17, 355-379. 77.Peterson, R. B.
(1979). Systematic Management in Human Resources, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing. 78.Pruitt, F. J. (1978). The adaptation of foreign students on American campuses. Journal of the National Association for Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors, 41(4), 144-147.
79.Ronen, & Sincha, (1984). Comparative and International Management, New York: John Wiley. 80.Ruben, B. D. (1976, September). Assessing communication competency for intercultural adaptation. Groups and Organization Studies, 7(3), 334-354. 81.Ruben, B. D., & Kealey, D. J. (1979).
Behavioral assessment of communication competency and the prediction of cross-cultural adaption. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 3, p.15-47. 82.Sathe, Vijay (1983).Implications of Corporate Culture: A manager''s Guide to action, Organizational Dynamics(Autumn): 5-23.
83.Schnapper, M. (1973). Resistance to intercultural training. Paper presented at the thirteenth annual conference of the Society for International Development, San Jose, Costa Rica. 84.Searle, W. & Ward, C. (1990). The Prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 449-464. 85.Shear, E. B. (1993). Strange encounters: A communication model for cross-cultural adaptation and training. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky, Lexington.
86.Shimazaki, T. (1967). Kaigai ryugakusei no seishin igakuteki mondai [Psychosomatic problems of overseas students]. Seishin Igaku, 9, 699.
87.Sredl, H. J, & Rothwell, W. J. (1987). The ASTD reference guide to professional training roles and competencies. Amherst, MA: HRD Press, Inc. 88.Stening, B. W., & Hammer, M. R. (1989). The cultural context of expatriate adaptation: American and Japanese managers abroad.
Proceedings of the Academy of Management, 121-125. 89.Torbiorn, I. (1982). Living abroad: Personal adjustment and personal policy in the overseas setting. New York: Wiley. 90.Torrington, D. (1994). International Human Resource Management, New York: Prentice-Hall. 91.Tung, R.
L. (1981, Spring). Selection and training of personnel for overseas assignments. Columbia Journal of World Business, 16(1), 68-78. 92.Tung, R. L.
(1982). Selection and training procedures of U.S., European and Japanese multinationals, California Management Review, 25(1), 57-71. 93.Tung R. L. (1984). Human Resource Planning in Japanese Multinationals: A Model for U.S. Firm?. Journal of International Business Studies, Fall, 134-149. 94.Tung, R. L. (1987). Expatriate assignments: Enhancing success and minimizing failure. Academy of Management Review, 1(2), 117-125. 95.Tung, R. L. (1988). The new expatriates: Managing human resources abroad. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. 96.Ueda, N. (1982). Ikoku teiken to nihonjin [Cross-cultural experience and the Japanese]. Osaka: Sogensha. 97.Wallach, E. J. (1983). Individiuals and Organizations: The Culture Training and Development Journal,29-76.
