第五章 補充分析
第三節 研究限制與未來研究建議
本研究參考前導研究的結果，發現辯解者可同時使用多個策略，因此在實驗 設計中，除了包含單一策略，也納入兩兩策略搭配，甚至是三個策略一併使用的 可能。在前導研究的非正式訪談中，雖然業界主管表示他們曾在面談場合中看到 應徵者同時運用不同策略，卻也認為這三種策略的組合有其順序性，提出外在因 素的推託之詞是最直覺的反應，如果還有其他資訊可以提供以降低負面事件的疑 慮（合理化），可能會在開脫之後使用，至於道歉策略則被認為是收尾策略，既 已承認自己的錯誤，後續再開脫表示自己沒錯顯得反覆而多餘，因此考量策略組 合的合理性，劇本中的策略順序是固定的，在多策略的組別中，順序一律為開脫
－合理化－道歉，以開脫與道歉為例，面試官將先接收到應徵者的開脫之詞，再 看到她承認錯誤。不過，在主要研究後的非正式訪談中，受試者也表示實際狀況 不盡然如這組說詞順序，還是曾經看過應徵者先道歉後續又進行外歸因或提出合 理化說詞，雖然會讓人覺得前後矛盾，不過他們也指出在面談情境中應徵者容易 感受到壓力，在緊張的情緒下說詞反覆並不讓人意外。可知策略的順序還是可能 有先後之別，考量排序差異，再依據前導研究的非正式訪談，推測說詞順序的合
理性仍會影響說服力 (Tata, 2002a)，舉例來說，相對不合理的說詞順序，如：先 道歉後開脫，是否可能削弱說服力？而使其辯解效果比先開脫後道歉更差？值得 後續研究進一步驗證。
研究結果驗證了應徵者的防禦型印象管理策略會引發面試官的認知與情感評 價，後續可以進一步應徵者個人特質如何影響其策略選取，像是勤勉審慎性高的 應徵者有較高的責任感，將與自己相關的失誤視作自己的責任，因此在受到質疑 時，可能傾向承擔責任，承諾改善；若面試官所提出的質疑超出應徵者預期，在 沒有多餘反應時間的情況下，應徵者可能以自己慣有的方式來回應，這個時候的 策略選擇或許可以用以推估應徵者的個人特質，進而成為面談決策的參考。
最後，本研究提出兩個並存的心理歷程，而面試官的個人特質可能進一步影 響路徑強度，像是具有偏向系統性思考 (systematic thinking style) 的面試官偏好 蒐集客觀資訊進行判斷，而傾向投入較多認知資源 (Forgas & George, 2000)，因 此對他／她而言，認知評價的機制較情感評價來得強，換句話說，即使是相當真 誠的道歉也不見得能影響其情感評價，推測面試官個人特質對於防禦型印象管理 的有效性有關鍵性的影響，未來或許可以進一步探究其 moderated mediation 的歷 程。
另外，本研究依據 Campbell (1990) 提出情境重要性，在組織情境中討論辯 解策略的特點及影響歷程，是以員工甄選面談作為情境設定，然而情境對於二元 機制的影響相當值得探究，主要研究整理過去文獻後推論，人際互動下追求維繫 長久關係，情感評價可能扮演關鍵角色，而在面談情境中重視員工的職缺適任 性，能力評價可能是影響最終面試官評分的主要路徑，未來可以進一步探究情境 所扮演 mediated moderator 的角色。
【參考文獻】
104 教育網（2007 年 8 月 27 日）。企銷企劃人員工作技能與學習建議。2007 年 8 月 27 日，取自 http://www.104learn.com.tw/career/marcom/skill.htm。
全球華文行銷知識庫（2006 年 10 月 3 日）。利誘良才，企業招募的現實課題！
2007 年 8 月 27 日，取自
http://marketing.chinatimes.com/ItemDetailPage/MainContent/05MediaContent.asp x?MMContentNoID=33824。
長庚大學職涯發展電子報（2006 年 11 月 30 日）。躍升企業核心，行銷企劃職缺 熱門。2007 年 8 月 27 日，取自 http://memo.cgu.edu.tw/Student_Affairs/osa/js/職 涯發展電子報/第三十七期/37.htm。
尤慧慧 (2005)，應徵者外表吸引力與行為對甄選面談決策之影響：以職務性別 取向符合程度、顧客接觸需求程度為干擾變項，國立台灣大學商學研究所碩士 論文。
羅逸琁 (2007)，工作面談情境中應徵者防衛型印象管理策略應用之有效性研 究，國立政治大學企業管理研究所碩士論文。
Abelson, R. P., Kinder, D. R., Peters, M. D., & Fiske, S. T. (1982). Effective and semantic components in political person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 619-630.
Allen, T. D., & Rush, M. C. (1998). The effects of organizational citizenship behaior on performance judgments: A field study and a laboratory experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 247-260.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411-423.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1991). Multitrait-multimethod matrices in consumer research.
Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 426-439.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 11,
497-529.
Bell, A. H. (1992). Extraviewing: Innovative ways to hire the best. Homewood, IL:
Business One Irwin.
Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public Relations Review, 23, 177-186.
Bies, R. J., Shapiro, D. L., & Cummings, L. L. (1988). Causal accounts and managing organizational conflict: Is it enough to say it's not my fault? Communication
Research, 15, 381-399.
Bozeman, D. P., & Kacmar, K. M. (1997). Cybernetic model of impression management processes in organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 9-30.
Bradford, J. L. & Garrett, D. E. (1995). The effectiveness of corporate communicative response to accusations of unethical behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 14, 875-892.
Burgoon, J. K., & Hoobler, G. D. (2003). Nonverbal signals. In M. L. Knapp & J. A.
Daly (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (pp. 241-299). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Buttny, R. (1993). Social accountability in communication. London: Sage.
Byrne, D. (1961). Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 713-715.
Campbell, J. P. (1990). The role of theory in industrial and organizational psychology.
In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 39-74). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Cody, M. J., & McLaughlin, M. L. (1990). Interpersonal accounting. In H. Giles & W.
P. Robinson (Eds.), Handbook of language and social psychology (pp. 227-255).
Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Collins, B. E., & Hoyt, M. F. (1972). Personal responsibility for consequences: An integration and extension of the forced compliance literature. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 8, 558-593.
Cupach, W. R., & Metts, S. (1994). Facework. Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ekman, P. (1992). Facial expressions of emotions: New findings, new questions.
Psychological Science, 3, 34-38.
Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expression and emotion. American Psychologist, 48, 376-379.
Ellis, A. P. J., West, B. J., Ryan, A. M., & DeShon, R. P. (2002). The use of impression management tactics in structured interviews: A function of question type? Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 1200-1208.
Ferris, G. R., & Judge, T. A. (1991). Personnel/human resources management: A political influence perspective. Journal of Management, 17, 447-488.
Fiske, S. T. (1980). Attention and weight in person perception: The impact of negative and extreme behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 889-906.
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd. Ed.). NY: McGraw-Hill.
Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The affect infusion model (AIM).
Psychological Bulletin, 117, 39-66.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement errors. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39-50.
Forgas, J. P., & George, J. M. (2000). Affective influences on judgments and behavior in organizations: An information processing perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86, 3-34.
Fukuno, M., & Ohbuchi, K. (1998). How effective are different accounts of
harm-doing in softening victims’ reactions? A scenario investigation of the effects of severity, relationship, and culture. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 167-178.
Gardner, W. L. & Martinko, M. J. (1988). Impression Management in Organizations.
Journal of Management, 14, 321-338.
George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (1997). Experiencing work: Values, attitudes, and moods. Human Relations, 50, 393-416.
Gilmore, D. C., Beehr, T. A., & Love, K. G. (1986). Effects of applicant sex, applicant physical attractiveness, type of rater and type of job on interview decisions. Journal of Occupational psychology, 59, 103-109.
Goei, R., Roberto, A., Meyer, G., & Carlyle, K. (2007). The effects of favor and apology on compliance. Communication Research, 34, 575-595.
Graves, L. M., & Powell, G. N. (1995). The effect of sex similarity on recruiters’
evaluations of actual applicants: A test of the similarity- attraction paradigm.
Personnel Psychology, 48, 85-98.
Greenberg, J. (1991). Using explanations to manage impressions of performance appraisal fairness. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 4, 51-60.
Greenberg, J. (1996). “Forgive me, I’m new”: Three experimental demonstrations of the effects of attempts to excuse poor performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 66, 165-178.
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black,W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5 ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Higgins, C. A., & Judge, T. A. (2004). The effect of applicant influence tactics on recruiter perceptions of fit and hiring recommendations: A field study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 622-632.
Higgins, C. A., Judge, T. A., & Ferris, G. R. (2003). Influence tactics and work outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 89-106.
Hollmann, T. D. (1972). Employment interviewers’ errors in processing positive and negative information. Journal of Applied Psychology, 56, 130-134.
Howard, J. L., & Ferris, G. R. (1996). The employment interview context: Social and situational influences on interviewer decisions. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 26, 112-136.
Huang, Y., Lin, Y., & Su, S. (2005). Crisis communicative strategies in Taiwan:
category, continuum, and cultural implication. Public Relations Review, 31, 229-238.
Jones, E. E. (1964). Ingratiation. NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Kacmar, K. M., Delery, J. E., & Ferris, G. R. (1992). Differential effectiveness of applicant impression management tactics on employment interview decisions.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1250-1272.
Kelley, H. H. (1971). Attributions in social interactions. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Kelley, H. H. (1972). Attribution in social interaction. In E. E. Jones et al. (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior (pp. 1-26). Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Kim, P. H., Ferrin, D. L., Cooper, C. D., & Dirks, K. T. (2004). Removing the shadow of suspicion: The effects of apology versus denial for repairing competence- versus integrity- based trust violations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 104-118.
Kristof-Brown, A. L., Barrick, M. R., & Franke, M. (2002). Applicant impression management: Dispositional influences and consequences for recruiter perceptions of fit and similarity. Journal of Management, 28, 27-46.
Liden, R. C., & Mitchell, T. R. (1988). Ingratiatory behaviors in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 13, 572-587.
Lievens, F., Highhouse, S., & De Corte, W. (2005). The importance of traits and abilities in supervisors’ hirability decisions as a function of method of assessment.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 453-470.
McCullough, M. E., Worthington, E. L., & Rachal, K. C. (1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 321-336.
McFarland, L. A., Ryan, A. M., Sacco, J. M., Kriska, S. D. (2004). Examination of structured interview ratings across time: The effects of applicant race, rater race, and panel composition. Journal of Management, 30, 435-452.
McLaughlin, M. L., Cody, M. J., & O’Hair, H. D. (1983). The management of failure events: Some contextual determinants of accounting behavior. Human
Communication Research, 9, 208-224.
Molinsky, A. L., Krabbenhoft, M. A., Ambady, N., & Choi, Y. S. (2005). Cracking the nonverbal code: International competence and gesture recognition across cultures.
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36, 380-395.
Murphy, K. (2002). Using power analysis to evaluate and improve research. In S. G.
Rogelberg (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 119-137). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Ohbuchi K, Kameda M, & Agarie N. (1989). Apology as aggression control: its role in mediating appraisal of and response to harm. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 52, 219-227.
Peeters, H., & Lievens, F. (2006). Verbal and Nonverbal Impression Management Tactics in Behavior Description and Situational Interviews. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14, 206-222.
Prus, R. C. (1975). Resisting designations: An extension of attribution theory into a negotiated context. Sociological Inquiry, 45, 2-14.
Reeder, G. D., & Brewer, M. B. (1979). A schematic model of dispositional attribution in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 86, 61-79.
Roth, P. L., & Campion, J. E. (1992). An analysis of the predictive power of the panel interview and pre-employment tests. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65, 51-60.
Salancik, G. R., & Pfeffer, J. (1978). A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 224-253.
Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1992). Interpersonal processes involving
impression regulation and management. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 133-168.
Schlenker, B. R., Pontari, B. A., & Christopher, A. N. (2001). Excuses and Character:
Personal and Social Implications of Excuses. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 15-32.
Schneider, D. J. (1981). Tactical self-presentations: Toward a broader conception. In J.
T. Tedeschi (Ed.), Impression management theory and social psychological research (pp. 23-40). NY: Academic Press.
Schonbach, P. (1990). Account episodes: The management or escalation of conflict.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Scott, M. B., & Lyman, S. M. (1968). Accounts. American Sociological Review, 33, 46-62.
Shapiro, D. L. (1991). The effects of explanations on negative reactions to deceit.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 614-630.
Shaw, J. C., Wild, E., & Colquitt, J. A. (2003). To justify or excuse? A meta-analytic review of the effects of explanations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 444-458.
Silvester, J. (1997). Spoken attributions and candidate success in graduate recruitment interviews. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 61-73.
Silvester, J., Anderson-Gough, F. M., Anderson, N. R., & Mohamed, A. R. (2002).
Locus of control, attributions and impression management in the selection interview.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75, 59-76.
Skowronski, J. J., & Carlston, D. E. (1987). Social judgment and social memory: The role of cue diagnosticity in negativity, positivity, and extremity biases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 689-699.
Snyder, C. R., & Higgins, R. L. (1988). Excuses: Their effective role in the negotiation of reality. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 23-35.
Snyder, M., & Stukas, A. A., (1999). Interpersonal processes: The interplay of cognitive, motivational, and behavioral activities in social interaction. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 273-303.
Stevens, C. K., & Kristof, A. L. (1995). Making the right impression: A field study of applicant impression management during job interviews. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 80, 587-606.
Stone-Romero, E. F. (2002). The relative validity and usefulness of various empirical research designs. In S. G. Rogelberg (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 77-98). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Takaku, S. (2000). Culture and status as influences on account giving: A comparison between the United States and Japan. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 371-383.
Tata, J. (1994). Accounts in arbitration: Do they make a difference? International Journal of Conflict Management, 5, 369-381.
Tata, J. (2002a). The influence of accounts on perceived social loafing in work teams.
The International Journal of Conflict Management, 13, 292-308.
Tata, J. (2002b). The influence of managerial accounts on employees’ reactions to negative feedback. Group and Organization Management, 27, 480-503.
Tedeschi, J. T., & Melburg, B. (1984). Impression management and influence in the organization. In S. B. Bacharach & E. J. Lawler (Eds.), Research in the Sociology of Organizations (Vol. 3, pp. 31-58). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Tedeschi, J. T., & Reiss, M. (1981). Verbal strategies in impression management. In C.
Antaki (Ed.), The psychology of ordinary explanations of social behavior (pp.
271-309). London: Acadimic Press.
Tsai, W. C., Chen, C. C., & Chiu, S. F. (2005). Exploring boundaries of the effects of applicant impression management tactics in job interviews. Journal of Management, 31, 108-125.
Tsai, W. C., Huang, T. C., & Yu, H. H. (2006). Interviewer responses to applicant physical attractiveness and non-verbal behavior: A field study of moderating effects of interviewer fit perception of job sex-type and customer-contact requirements.
Paper presented at the 26th International Congress of Applied Psychology, Athens, Greece.
Van Iddekinge, C. H., McFarland, L. A., & Raymark, P. H. (2007). Antecedents of impression management use and effectiveness in a structured interview. Journal of Management, 33, 752-773.
Wayne, S. J., & Ferris, G. R. (1990). Influence tactics, affect, and exchange quality in supervisor-subordinate interactions: A laboratory experiment and field study.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 487-499.
Wayne, S. J., & Liden, R. G. (1995). Effects of impression management on
performance ratings: A longitudinal study. Journal of Management, 38, 232-260.
Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion.
Psychological Review, 92, 548-573.
Weiss, H. M. (2002). Deconstructing job satisfaction: Separating evaluations, beliefs and affective experiences. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 173-194.
Werbel, J. D., & Gilliland, S. W. (1999). Person-environment fit in the selection process. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 17, 209-243.
Wood, R. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1981). Manager behavior in a social context: The impact of impression management on attributions and disciplinary actions.
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28, 356-378.
Wood, W. (2000). Attitude Change: Persuasion and Social Influence. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 539-570.
Ybarra, O. (2002). Naïve causal understanding of balanced behaviors and its implications for social information processing. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 421-441.
Ybarra, O., & Stephan, W. G. (1999). Attributional orientations and the prediction of behavior: The attribution-prediction bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 718-727.
Zechmeister, J. S., Garcia, S., Romero, C. & Vas., S. N. (2004). Don’t apologize unless you mean it: A laboratory investigation of forgiveness and retaliation.
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 532-564.
【附錄一】專家問卷
您好！我是國立政治大學企業管理研究所博士班學生，目前在蔡維奇老師 的指導下，研究員工甄選面談相關議題，為使本研究能反映業界狀況，需要您 提供面談經驗中的實例，您的答案對我們了解面談中負面訊息有莫大的幫助。
您好！我是國立政治大學企業管理研究所博士班學生，目前在蔡維奇老師 的指導下，研究員工甄選面談相關議題，為使本研究能反映業界狀況，需要您 提供面談經驗中的實例，您的答案對我們了解面談中負面訊息有莫大的幫助。