The main variables and terms used in this research are defined as follows:
1. Passion: Passion is defined as a strong inclination towards an activity that one enjoys, finds important and in which individuals invest time and energy (Vallerand et al., 2003). Although passion ensures willing participation, it has the potential to underpin both positive and negative outcomes, defined as follows:
1) Harmonious Passion (HP):
A type of passion where the activity was autonomously internalized into the individual's identification. The individual has made a free, conscious, contingency-free choice to engage in the activity and does not feel compelled to do the activity. The individual is at harmony with the activity and other aspects of their lives and the activity is viewed as an important part of the person but it does not control him or her (Vallerand et al., 2003).
2) Obsessive Passion (OP):
A type of passion where the activity is not internalized into the individual’s identification or a controlled internalization of the activity into their identification exists. OP normally occurs due to interpersonal and/or intrapersonal pressure perceived by the person due to contingencies, such as self-esteem and social acceptance, attached with the activity. This pressure may lead to the person feeling compelled to participate, regardless of the situation, thus leading to conflict with other areas of the person’s life (Vallerand et al., 2003).
2. Enduring Involvement: Enduring involvement “emerges when there is congruence between personal needs, goals and values and the attributes of an activity” (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007).
It allows individual to experience enjoyment and fun over a period of time in participating in a leisure activity (Kyle & Chick, 2004).
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3. Well-being: Well-being is synonymous with wellness and refers to a harmonious balance of the mental, physical, and spiritual elements of the self (Vella-Brodrick & Allen, 1995). It is reflective of the positive dimensions of (mental, physical, and spiritual) health generally associated with the quest for an optimum state of living that each person is capable of
achieving (Myers, Sweeney, & Witmer, 2000). It also refers to a holistic way of life oriented toward optimal health/well-being in which body, mind, and spirit are well-integrated and the individual lives more fully within the natural and human community (Myers, Sweeney, &
Witmer, 2000).
4. T2 LIGA: Chinese Professional Football League Association (CPFLA) is operated independently of social groups in Taiwan after the permission to organize from the Ministry of the Interior National Association. CPFLA promoted professional soccer league for amateur athletes in Taiwan, and T2 LIGA was one of the leagues. LIGA in Latin meant for “league,” it was easier to remember comparing to the English word “league.”
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Chapter Two
Literature Review
The literature review for this study was divided into three sections. The first segment highlighted the importance of passion in sports. In addition, the concept of different types of passion that played a significant role towards sports. The second part focused on enduring involvement of sport. Particularly, the relationship between leisure involvement and enduring involvement are comprehensively examined. The last section introduced the concept of well-being. This portion specifically examined the importance of well-being in sports.
2.1 Passion
Vallerand and Miquelon (2007) stated that the concept of passion was based on
self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Passion was defined as
“a strong inclination toward an activity that people like, that they find important, and in which they invest time and energy” (Vallerand al., 2003). The construct of passion may be seen as representing “an important source of motivational energy underlying such persistent
involvement that may be conducive to performance attainment” (Vallerand et al., 2008).
Passion was considered by Vallerand et al. (2003) to be dualistic with two types of passion: Harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive passion (OP). Harmonious passion and obsessive passion were distinguished by how the valued activity was internalized into the individual’s self-identification. Harmonious passion would occur when the activity was autonomously internalized and the person had made a free, conscious, contingency-free, choice to engage in the activity. These people did not feel compelled to do the activity but were at harmony with the activity and other aspects of their lives in such a way that the activity was an important part of the person but it did not control them. Obsessive passion
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occurred when there was a controlled internalization of the activity into the individual’s self-identification and normally occurred due to interpersonal and/or interpersonal pressure felt on the person due to contingencies that affect the person’s self-esteem and social
acceptance which were related to involvement of the activity. This pressure led to the person feeling compelled to participate, thus, leading to conflict with other areas of the person’s life.
2.1.1 Harmonious and Obsessive Passion
In their first study of a series of studies, Vallerand and colleagues (2003) attempted to validate the Passion Scale and assess the relationship between HP and OP and outcomes (e.g., flow, positive emotions, and concentration) experienced while engaged in activities. The sample consisted of 332 female and 203 male college students. Outcomes were assessed using the Flow Scale of Jackson and March (1996) including subscales that assessed challenge, absence of self-consciousness, control, and measures which assessed positive emotions, anxiety, and concentration. The results of the study supported the dualistic approach.
Harmonious passion was found to be associated with positive affect, OP was found to be associated with negative affect, and the Passion Scale was validated.
In their second study, Vallerand et al. (2003) explored how generalizable and how long lasting the differences in affect towards activities were in relation to HP and OP. The purpose was to investigate whether HP and OP would be independent of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and to assess future intentions of the athletes to participate. It was hypothesized that HP would be associated with increased positive affect, future intentions to participate, and would be unrelated to negative affect. Obsessive passion was anticipated to be unrelated to positive affect but related to negative affect and future intentions to participate. Two hundred and five male Canadian intercollegiate football players completed the instrument twice (beginning and end of the season). The instrument comprised of the Passion Scale, the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) (Brière et al., 1995), questions taken from the Positive and
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Negative Affect Schedule scale (PANAS) (Watson et al., 1988), and behavioral intention questions (Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). The results of the study suggested that HP was associated with increased positive affect and OP was associated with negative affect over the season. However, HP was not a predictor as anticipated but OP was a predictor for future intention to participate (returning the following season). Vallerand and colleagues (2003) termed this intention as rigid persistence or returning to play the next season “no matter what.”
The purpose of Study 3 was to investigate rigid persistence revealed in Study 2. The Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003) was completed by 59 recreational cyclists during the month of August then 6 months later in February. It was hypothesized that those who had cycled in the winder (February) would have higher OP in the summer (August) but would not differ in HP. The results of the study suggested that those cyclists who did cycle in the winter, putting them in dangerous winter weather found in Quebec, had higher levels of OP and that OP may lead to rigid persistence.
Building upon the results of Study 3, the purpose of Study 4 was to investigate whether OP would lead to rigid persistence in the form of self-destructive behavior. Vallerand and colleagues (2003) gave 146 gamblers the Passion Scale and the revised South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; Lesieur & Blume, 1993). Approximately half (71) of the participants were part of the Montreal Casino self-exclusion program which was designed to allow individuals with serious gambling problems to ask the Casino to ban them from entry for at least one year.
It was hypothesized that the self-excluded participants would have higher OP but no
difference was expected in the HP levels. The results of the study indicated that gamblers in the program had higher levels of OP than the other gamblers. However, there were no differences in HP levels. Through these studies, it has been suggested that HP and OP led to persistence, however; OP may lead to rigid persistence and self-destructive behavior.
Harmonious passion has also been suggested to be associated with positive affect and OP
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associated with negative affect.
2.1.2 Affective experiences of Passion
Three other studies were conducted by Vallerand et al. (2006) investigating affective experiences and passion. Study 1 (Vallerand et al., 2006) focused on the determinants of passion, specially the value of the activity and personality orientation. It was anticipated that a personality with high autonomy and high sport valuation would be positive predictor of HP.
Conversely, OP would be positively predicted by a controlling personality orientation and high sport valuation. The instrument was completed by 206 recreational athletes participating in 5 sports and consisted of Passion Scale (Vallerand, 2003), the Global Motivation Scale (GMS; Guay, Mageau, & Vallerand, 2003), and sport valuation questions. The results of the study indicated that high sport valuation and autonomous personality positively predicted HP and high sport valuation and a controlling personality positively predicted OP.
Building upon Study 1, Study 2 (Vallerand et al., 2006) further investigated the integrative sequence by investigating the outcomes of positive and negative affect, vitality, and satisfaction in sport. It was hypothesized that HP would positively predict positive affect and vitality and OP would be negatively related or unrelated to positive affective variables.
Conversely, OP would be positively related to negative affect and HP was expected to be negatively related or unrelated to negative affect. The sample was comprised of 210
competitive basketball players. The results of the study indicted that HP was associated with positive affect and negatively related to negative affect and OP was related to negative affect and unrelated to positive affect.
The purpose of the final study (Vallerand et al., 2006) was to test the entire integrative sequence involving determinants and affective experiences. Vallerand and colleagues
postulated that high levels of sport valuation coupled with an autonomous personality would lead to HP. Alternatively; high sport valuation coupled with a controlling personality would
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lead to OP. Harmonious passion was also anticipated to positively predict subjective well-being and OP would be negatively related or unrelated to SWB. The sample was comprised of 107 elite water polo and synchronized swimmers. The athletes completed an instrument in October and another instrument four months later in February. The first instrument consisted of questions from the Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003), the Global Mood Scale (Guay et al., 2003), and a sport valuation question. The second instrument consisted questions from the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Blais, Vallerand, Pelletier, &
Brièrem, 1989), the short PANAS scales (Watson et al., 1988), and a subjective well-being index. The results of the study indicated that sport valuation and autonomous personality positively predicted HP and sport valuation and a controlling personality predicted OP. Also, HP in October positively predicted subjective well-being in February and OP was negatively related to subjective well-being.
2.1.3 Related literatures on Passion
Vallerand et al. (2003) based on the concept of passion made four empirical studies, surveys, including 949 university students, university men’s soccer players, amateur cycling participants and four participants who participate in gambling research, through research investigate the extent of the athletes in the sport of passion, results showed that: (1) by factor analysis of two dimensions, the sports enthusiasm divided into two harmonious passion and obsessive passion; (2) harmonious passion and positive emotions, focus force and fluency about; rather obsessive passion is negative emotions and conflict with other aspects of life, and will result in a rigid insistence on participation, so that people in the risky situation is still engaged in sports; (3) the development passion scale for sports, the scale can be used as a passion instrument.
In a subsequent study, Vallerand et al. (2006) studied the mood in sports context, the results indicate: (1) the value of sports passion and sport value were highly correlated, and
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blending type of passion and autonomous personality has a significant relationship between obsessive passion and controlled personality; (2) harmonious passion of enthusiasm and positive emotions and subjective well-being (SWB), has a positive correlation; obsessive passion is negatively correlated with positive emotions and subjective well-being, but the obsessive passion positively correlated with negative emotions.
Mageau & Vallerand (2007) researched on 154 college students for the study
investigating the association agreement in sexual activity with a passion pattern of positive emotions. The results showed that harmonious passion will generate positive emotions; rather obsessive passion will produce negative emotions. This study further validates the Vallerand et al. (2006) findings.
Passion research, Vallerand et al. (2007) mentioned passion and performance for empirical studies to 143 university students for the study. Practice and planning to explore deliberate practice and subjective well-being (SWB) between association found harmonious passion positively predicted planning practice and subjective well-being; obsessive passion positively predicted planning practice, but with subjective well-being is not associated or negative predictive, shown in figure 1.
Figure 1. Passion and performance correlation (Vallerand et al., 2007)
To athletes perform association studies between sports performance and sport passion, in the study of 184 high school basketball players as the research subjects, harmonious passion
Subjective Well-being
Harmonious Passion
Obsessive Passion Deliberate Practice Performance
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and obsessive passion for the practice among athletes and sports performance impacted. The results showed that harmonious passion and obsessive passion were positively predicting planning practice, but also positively predict athletic performance.
In recent years, passion literatures have been sort out to the following:
Table 1
Related literatures on passion
Researcher (Year) Research Topic Research results and findings Rip, Fortin, &
Chen & Chi (2007) The studies of movement in recreational tennis
dependence of passion
Tennis fitness clubs in Taipei had research subjects of 103
individuals. The results showed:
(1) Exercise dependence score with two types of passion, a significant positive correlation.
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Table 1. Related literatures on passion (Continued)
Researcher (Year) Research Topic Research results and findings Lee, Chi, & Peng validity of the passion scale with internal mode.
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Table 1. Related literatures on passion (Continued)
Researcher (Year) Research Topic Research results and findings Hu (2009) Passion towards cheerleading There are 498 subjects in this
cheerleader research. The findings were: (1) universities generally hold cheerleader cheerleading highly participation and passion have accounted paranoid nearly 2/3 of the high proportion. (2) Dual passion is higher, the better the performance award.
According to research results collected, the concept needed various sports to test the different facets of sports passion on both behavior and mental state, which will produce different results. Participants in different types of sports passion exhibited by the participants will also affect whether their goal orientation can be verified through this research in order to further confirm the impact of sports on passion of the participants.
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2.1.4 Passion and Well-being
Carpentier, Mageau, & Vallerand (2012) pointed out that the two types of passion have also been shown to be related differently to well-being indicators. More specifically, while having more harmonious passion toward an activity seems to enhance one’s well-being.
People who are more obsessively passionate about an activity seem to experience higher levels of psychological distress. For instance, researching with teenagers, young adults and elderly people showed that harmonious passion is positively associated with well-being indicators such as: life satisfaction, positive affect, meaning in life, and vitality, while being negatively related to anxiety and depression (Philippe et al, 2009b; Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2007; Vallerand et al., 2008). On the contrary, obsessive passion predicts higher levels of anxiety and depression, but it is negatively related or unrelated to the positive indices (Philippe et al, 2009b; Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2007; Vallerand et al., 2008).
The negative consequences of obsessive passion for individual’s well-being have been most obvious when individual are prevented from engaging in their activity (Megeau &
Vallerand, 2007). In a study, Mageau and Vallerand (2007) followed college students for 14 days. Every night, before going to bed, participants rated their level of positive affect and indicated whether or not they had engaged in their passionate activity during the day. Results showed that the more people had an obsessive passion, the more they experienced an
accentuated decrease in positive affect on days when they did not engage in their passionate activity compared to days when they did (Mageau & Vallerand, 2007). Such decrease in positive affect was not observed for individual with higher levels of harmonious passion.
These findings suggest that obsessive passion may lead to lower the overall well-being when the individual cannot engage in the activity.
When interpreting the results, Mageau & Vallerand (2007) proposed that people with a more obsessive passion fail to experience positive affect in other activities because they tend
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to ruminate about their favorite activity (Ratelle et al., 2004). These ruminative thought would prevent the experience of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1982) during these other activities and, ultimately, the experience of positive affect and well-being (Cantor & Sanderson, 1999;
Csikszentmihalyi, 1982, Eisenberger et al., 2005; Kubovy, 1999; Mundell, 2000). Although theoretical model has never been tested, there is evidence suggesting that flow experiences and ruminative thoughts may mediate the relationship between passion and well-being.
2.2 Enduring Involvement
The earliest involvement theory can be traced back to Sheriff and Cantrell (1947), two scholars mentioned about the "self-involvement," which was to predict a person to persuade because of their status or role attitudes. After Kurgan (1967) proposed "low involvement of consumer behavior," the importance of involvement has been necessary to look at.
2.2.1 Involvement and Enduring Involvement
Involvement was most often defined in terms of personal significance and was a term which grew from research regarding consumer behavior (Kyle, Absher, Norman, Hammitt, &
Jodice, 2007). The concept of involvement "referred to the strength or extent of the cognitive linkage between the self and stimulus object" and encompasses the extent to which people are devoted to an activity and/or a product associated with it (Kyle, Absher, Norman, Hammitt, &
Jodice, 2007). The tie between the self and the activity or product depended upon how closely aligned the person's needs, values, or goals are with the benefits and attributes of the activity or product. In consumer research, the connection between a consumer's values, needs, and goals and his or her purchase behavior often resulted in a somewhat dynamic and changeable state, defined by Havitz and Mannell (2005) as reflecting "temporary feelings of heightened involvement that accompany a particular situation," a description of situational involvement.
By contrast, enduring involvement was seen as reasonably stable, a product of "ongoing
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feelings or concerns that a consumer or participant brings into a situation" (Decloe, Kaczynski,
& Havitz, 2009). Both situational involvement and enduring involvement are exhibited through consumer behavior.
Enduring involvement was a concept that grew out of marketing and consumer research, it was initially used to measure consumer attraction to, and identification with, a particular item or brand of item; early scales that measured aspects of enduring involvement included items to assess the type and amount of risk that a consumer would experience during the purchase of that item or brand (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Kyle, Absher. et al., 2007; Laurent
& Kapferer, 1985). Researchers have examined the differences between situational
involvement and enduring involvement (e.g.. Decloe, et al., 2009; Havitz & Howard, 1995;
Havitz & Mannell, 2005; Richins, Bloch & McQuarrie, 1992); the consensus was that enduring involvement is more stable over time (Havitz & Howard, 1995; Havitz & Mannell, 2005). Enduring involvement, then, was a "sustained level of care or concern with an issue, product, or activity" (Havitz & Howard, 1995), in contrast to the type of involvement evinced by any specific situation, particularly a purchase situation.
Havitz & Mannell, 2005; Richins, Bloch & McQuarrie, 1992); the consensus was that enduring involvement is more stable over time (Havitz & Howard, 1995; Havitz & Mannell, 2005). Enduring involvement, then, was a "sustained level of care or concern with an issue, product, or activity" (Havitz & Howard, 1995), in contrast to the type of involvement evinced by any specific situation, particularly a purchase situation.