II. Literature Review
2.2 Enduring involvement
2.2.4 Related literatures on Enduring Involvement
Leisure activity participation cannot be sustained; participation was a very important key factor. The proportion of people in different studies continued to participate in regular
exercise and a lower percentage of the situation is presented. It is evidenced in the change process in stages, or in cognition stage. Table 2 showed the number of individual who are enduring involved:
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Table 2
Enduring regular exercise behavior research summary
Researcher (Year) Research subjects Regular sports involvement ratio
Huang et al. (1991) Elders from the community 37.16 % of male; 31.30 % of female
Chi (1992) People from the community 47.9 % of male; 32.2 % of female Wu (1992) Junior college students 29 % of male; 9 % of female Huang et al. (1993) College students 47.1 % of male; 14.5 % of female Chang et al. (1995) 40 years and older from the
community of New Taipei city
35 % of all people
Lee et al. (1995) Adults in Taiwan 41.1 % of all people do not participants in any exercise Liu (1995) Commercial college students 29.9 % of all students Lin (1996) College students 29.3 % of all students Tsai (1996) 60 years and older people 68.2 % of all people Niu (1997) Teachers from National Chiao
Tung University
30 % of all teachers
Yu (1998) 20-60 resident from Taipei 19.9 % of all people Chu (1999) Elementary school teachers 21.6 % of all teachers Hsu (1999) Elementary school teachers 31.5 % of all teachers Sources: Hung (2007)
From the research above, scholars observed on gender, males engaged in regular exercise ratio is higher than women. While in terms of age, regular exercise has a higher percentage of the elderly than the young. In addition, by excluding the elderly, people
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(including primary school teachers) engaged in regular exercise ratio is not too high. Although the benefits of regular exercise on human health has been proven, but the population ratio gauge movement is still not ideal, this is a very worthy reflection issues.
Cho (1986) pointed out that people who do not have the habit of regular exercise would have a difficult time to understand the benefits of a regular exercise would give them. The general principles of Lee (1997) included the movement of pressure-treated, noting ongoing regular games improve heart and lung function, lower blood pressure, reduce anxiety, reduce autonomic nervous system responses and muscle tension, reduce body fat and help
self-concept upgrading and improvement of self-control.
Lin and Lu (2000) pointed out that those who endured to participate in regular exercise was engaged in the joy of movement, so you can have the joy of life, to contribute to
psychological and physical development, thereby enhancing the quality of life in the study.
Kuo (2003) mentioned a study on 458 climbers. The study found that the behavior of the number involved in the high mountain with psychological and physiological aspects of satisfaction, and was positively correlated with the total number of days hiking.
Psychological, educational, social, physiological levels were significantly positive
correlations. Equipment spending and psychological, educational, relaxation, physiological levels were positively correlated. Important facets of pleasure psychosocial involvement positively correlated with satisfaction showed significantly. Different levels of risk perception and psychological dimensions, relaxation level were significant negative correlation. And symbolic value dimensions in addition to relaxation levels, but were positively correlated with other aspects of satisfaction.
2.2.5 Enduring involvement to Well-being
Health status was profoundly influenced by lifestyle, behavior, and emotion; an optimal health status can be achieved by individuals who participate in leisure activities regularly
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(Biddle & Mutrie, 1991; Steptoe & Bolton, 1988). Leisure involvement allowed an individual to experience enjoyment from participating in leisure activities (Kyle & Chick, 2004). In the 1980s, the importance of leisure involvement and participation was promoted (Wiley, Shaw,
& Havitz, 2000). This movement facilitated the development of people’s awareness of their individual intrinsic motivation and personal leisure interests (Havitz & Dimanche, 1990; Kyle
& Chick, 2004).
Different degrees of leisure involvement lead to different leisure behaviors and levels of intrinsic motivation. Although any such involvement may be temporary, it could motivate individuals to participate consistently in their chosen leisure activities. Leisure benefits resulted when perceived status and the social relationships of an individual are improved through leisure activities (Driver, 1997). Leisure activity also reduces unpleasant thoughts, releases stress, and produces well-being (Frey & Stutzer, 2002; Godbey, 2003). A review of the extant literature suggested that happiness was a positive attitude and enhanced quality of life (Diener & Seligman, 2002; Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). Despite the apparent simplicity and directness of these observations, happiness was, nonetheless, difficult to measure because it is a personal, interior state. White (2006), however, reported that
well-being, which was used to assess an individual’s mental achievement and intrinsic value, is also an indicator of happiness (Argyle, 1987; Diener, 1984). Therefore, by studying
well-being, researchers may be able to gain a better understanding of those lifestyle choices that lead to better and more valued outcomes (Christopher, 1999).
In the past, researchers who studied perceived health status were more likely to focus on demographics and quality of life, and, for this reason, individual perspectives on leisure have not been sufficiently studied to date (Koyama, 2000; Lin & Huang, 2006). An additional research avenue worthy of attention is how individuals benefit from leisure involvement and how well-being can be accurately assessed. Consequently, with the ultimate intent of
enhancing the health status and quality of life of soccer club participants in Taiwan, in the
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present research we investigated the relationship between perceived leisure involvement, enduring involvement, and well-being of soccer club participants in Taiwan.
2.3 Well-being
“Happiness” has always been the pursuit of life goal, because each individual’s
differences, the physical and the psychological needs of the environment are different as well;
therefore, the definition of happiness may vary. The rise of Western happiness research was back in AD 1970, the important topics were the happy-oriented psychology (Hedonic Psychology), well-being and happiness (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999).
2.3.1 The definition of well-being and conceptual development
Subjective well-being was a construct that concerned optimal experience and functioning.
It referred to people’s affective experience and cognitive evaluations of their lives and
consisted of combination in high positive affect, low negative affect and high satisfaction with life (Diener, 1984). Thus, well-being was a broad phenomenon, including personal
satisfaction for important events, emotions, and overall life satisfaction evaluation. Each node required one ring through personal understanding, but these factors are difficult to clarify and often highly correlated (Diener, Lucas, & Richard, 1999). It was an issue of debate whether subjective well-being was sufficient for well-being generally or if other elements are necessary (Haybron, 2008). This issue was beyond the scope of the present study but even where well-being theories posited the value of goods other than subjective well-being, it was rarely contested that subjective well-being was a central component of well-being (Ferguson, Conway, Endersby, & MacLeod, 2009). Therefore, enhancing subjective well-being was often the obvious goal.
Diener (1984) emphasized that human well-being was actively involved in activities.
Individuals can feel happiness through work, leisure sports, or human interaction between
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people; develop their potential and to meet individual needs, and produce a pleasant sense of accomplishment. Andrew and Withey (1976) believed that well-being was a feeling of life satisfaction and the overall assessment of the positive and negative affectivity made of a feeling, including life satisfaction, positive affect and negative affect. Buss (2000) pointed out that well-being meant an individual or even this moment in life, a continual feeling of one kind, self-ambition, meaningful and enjoyable life. Relative to the term well-being, it was defined abroad; the three main emphasized dimensions include: emotional, cognitive, and mental health. The following are different definition of well-being summarized by various scholars.
Table 3
Definition of well-being
Scholar/ Year Definition of well-being
Arkoff (1974 & 1979) Those who have nine mental health characteristics: happiness, harmony, sense of self-esteem, personal growth, person maturity, personal integration and maintain good contract with the
environment adapt to the environment and independence.
Andrew & Withey (1976)
Referred to the individual happiness with positive emotion increase and negative emotions decrease, as well as overall life satisfaction.
Diener (1984) Happiness referred to an individual’s perception of overall life evaluation; positive and negative emotions showed a lack of emotion.
Dirksen (1990) Happiness is a personal event of the past and present in experiences and feelings.
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Table 3
Definition of well-being (Continued)
Scholar/ Year Definition of well-being
Veehoven (1994) Personal happiness is reflected in the degree of their love lives;
it is a positive emotion. Both positive and negative emotions are illustrated to different level of happiness.
Meyer & Diener (1995) Well-being, happiness and life satisfaction means in three very similar ways. Both personal and subjective well-being referred to the evaluation in which happiness is subjective and transient feeling of life satisfaction.
Lucas et al. (1996) Happiness is formed in three separate construct of positive emotion, less negative affect and life satisfaction.
Diener & Suh (1998) Subjective well-being (SBJ), economic indicators and social indicators are related to the quality of life. And SBJ is the only subjective indicator, showing that it is the understanding of the individual and society; the important measure in quality of life.
Sources: Reconstructed by the researcher
2.3.2 Theory of Well-being
For the past years, researchers have related scientific basis for the construction of a sense of well-being. In addition, many scholars attempted to further raise its theoretical hypotheses and verified its actual argument, thereby establishing the theory of well-being through empirical research. Through these studies (Li, 2007; Wu, 2001; Shih, 1995; Lu, 1998; Kuo, 2008) four mainstream theories of well-being, which are interpreted to have the effect of well-being are part of the degree. Discussed hereby are presented as followed:
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1. Demand Theory
On the proposition of well-being to meet the needs of major legislation based on the individual needs are met, well-being depended on whether their needs can be met, and this needs to satisfy two different levels of conscious and unconscious demand are included.
Among them, the joy of this theory can be subdivided into a mixed theory. The two main theories that are completely developed are:
(1) Telic Theory: Assuming that each individual has the implicit demand, when the demand is met, it will produce well-being. As Maslow (1968) hierarchy of needs that humans strive for physical, psychological, love and belongingness, respect,
self-fulfillment, at different levels of demand, when the demand is met, well-being will be generated.
(2) Activity Theory: To get along with others and their relationships based on an
individual cannot live alone in the community, the process of getting along with others will affect the individual’s emotion. Well-being is generated from participation in social activities and to gain social recognition.
2. Personality Theory
Personality trait theory advocated explaining the generation of well-being.
Veenhoven (1994) pointed out that well-being may come from the characteristics (personality traits) on individual innate, acquired or is the result of learning (cognitive traits). Therefore, trait theory can be from personality trait and associationstic theory. The two can cut into two categories perspectives to explore.
3. Judgment Theory
Advocated well-being was based on the past life experiences and values arising. The process often compares with others (Social Comparison Theory) or comparing to their own ideals and goals (Adaptation Theory). Well-being will produce when the current situation is better than others or higher than what they expected.
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4. Theory of Dynamic Equilibrium
Theory of dynamic equilibrium focused on the changes in short-term events or long personality influence on the time series.
Based on the four variation of well-being theory, it can further be categorized into two types of theoretical thinking dimension. Luo (1998) purposed a “top-down / bottom-up”
theory. The main difference was that the dimensions of this theory, some scholars’ emphasized on human well-being angle, and some take it as an interpretation of the standard of living.
Under the two different theoretical bases, this raised to three different modes of thinking. The four theoretical paradigms above can be summarized as the following:
Table 4
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In recent years, as studies in well-being research topics and research variables trend have significantly increased, the relationships between variables are to be examined in related literatures. The following compiled relevant literatures on well-being in recent researches.
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Table 5
Related literatures on well-being Researcher
(Year)
Research Topic Research results and findings
Chen (2004) The study of elementary school teacher’s well-being and related factors.
1. Subjective feelings of happiness and well-being manifestations to moderate positive correlation.
2. Gender, seniority, marital status and health status of elementary school teachers are different layers of happiness were significantly different.
3. Social support higher in elementary school teachers; the better their well-being the social support source and types are positively correlated with happiness.
Job satisfaction and family satisfaction can predict well-being.
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Table 5
Related literatures on well-being (Continued) Researcher
(Year)
Research Topic Research results and findings
Huang (2006) Leisure satisfaction and well-being on college student.
1. Gender differences in leisure satisfaction will be different in well-being.
2. Different socioeconomic status was not significant different in well-being.
3. Canonical correlation exists between leisure satisfaction and well-being for college student.
involvement, and well-being have showed a significant positive correlation.
2. After controlling personality variables and subjective health, these are the two important factors that affected well-being.
Subjective well-being of different gender in overall life satisfaction, positive emotions and negative emotions reached significant
differences.
(Continued next page)
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Table 5
Related literatures on well-being (Continued) Researcher
(Year)
Research Topic Research results and findings
Yeh (2009) Spouse’s leisure constraints impact on well-being of
community support.
Social support and well-being was highly significant with positive correlation.
Sources: Reconstructed by the researcher
From the table above, past researches in the arrangement with combination of partial variables, most of the literatures are considered to be ultimate well-being of the dependent variables. And not only with the relevant personal background or psychological variables closely related, it will further be affected. In the results, the majority of studies were found between well-being and social support as both having a significant positive correlation, and in general, social support can predict well-being. This was important for the formation of the evidence supporting the structure.
2.3.4 The measurement of Well-being
Well-being measurement scale already showed a tendency to increase diverse with different definitions and theoretical basis. Thus, construct to meet the individual research questions of consciousness research instruments. At present, most researchers engaged in the study of well-being preferred to adopt self-report questionnaire as a research instruments (Shih, 1995). Modern domestic well-being scales are divided into the following:
41 score. A score of life satisfaction are to be weighted the sum of single issues. This can be the case for the level of individual
Will be treated as an individual’s life overall concept; the
development of a universal scale of life satisfaction (Pavot & Diener,
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An overview of the relevant literatures on well-being; well-being often measures its research orientation and theoretical basis in differences. Scholars discussed about well-being current framework, and are trying to integrate the concept to carry out the measurement of well-being. It can be broadly divided into two parts: first, the overall life satisfaction was measured; second, the measurement frequency of individual’s positive and negative emotions.
In each study, different measurements are used for well-being scale, thus, different results are found in scale surface, self-affirmation, self-confidence, life satisfaction, social network, physical and mental health dimensions.
2.3.5 Chapter Summary
The concept of passion depended on the context in which passionate activities are internalized in an individual’s identity; one can experience a more harmonious or a more obsessive passion toward certain activity. People with a more harmonious passion have internalized their activity in an environment where they felt autonomous (Mageau et al., 2009). In contrast, obsessive passion resulted from a controlled internalization of the activity into one’s identity, which occurs when people internalize their activity in a context where they feel pressured to invest themselves in the activity (Mageau et al., 2009). From the dualistic types of passion, the more passionate an individual is, the more involvement will happen. And the greater the involvement in an activity, the increase of enduring involvement will happen as well.
Enduring involvement reflected the behavior of individuals and lead to a specific pre-existing relationship between the intensity of the situation. Situational involvement affected by temporary exogenous situational, contextual conversion involvement will change;
but continued personal involvements were originated in persistent endogenous reasons (needs, values, interest or the pursuit of goals). Involvement with difficult situation of the conversion have been modified, it is not because of enduring involvement and situational goal are to meet
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the specific exogenous disappear (Bloch & Richins, 1983). From passion and enduring involvement of an activity, if an individual likes to endure in an activity that he/ she was passionate about, the individual will have higher chance of gaining well-being.
Diener (1984) emphasized that human well-being was actively involved in activities.
Individuals can feel well-being through work, leisure sports, or human interaction between people. Developing their potential and to meet individual needs, and produces a pleasant sense of accomplishment.
There was limited knowledge on the relationship between passion and enduring
involvement; passion towards well-being; and enduring involvement towards well-being from soccer club participants in Taipei. From the literatures above, both passion and enduring involvement are important contributors to well-being. The relationship among passion, enduring involvement, and well-being were specifically investigated over a league season in this research.
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Chapter Three
Methodology
The purpose of this research was to investigate passion, enduring involvement and well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei. Understanding the nature of these relationships over time may ultimately help in this research.
In this chapter, the research methodology was designed to explore and examine the research questions. It is divided up into six parts; research structure, research design and procedure, research participants, research instruments, implementation of research and data processing.
3.1 Research Structure
The main purpose of this study was to examine, “passion, enduring involvement and well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei.” The research framework and processes can be referred to figure 2; and the procedure of this research can be referred to figure 3.
1. Framework of Research
In this research, the background characteristics of soccer club participants used demographic variables to examine various analyses. Between passion and enduring involvement; passion towards well-being; and enduring involvement towards well-being;
regression analysis was used after the significance showed in Pearson product-moment correlation between the variables.
45 Multiple regression analysis
Figure 2. Framework of research
3.2 Research Design and Procedure
After the concept formation was formed, the research problems were assured and data collections from relevant literatures (passion, enduring involvement, and well-being) was also established for the preparation in research instruments. After examining the revised
questionnaire with relevant experts and scholars, the formal questionnaire was formed. The results of the data analysis discussed the findings of this research; and from the conclusion of
Passion
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the research, there are suggestions and recommendations for future researches. The research procedure is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Procedure of research Define research topic
Collect related literatures
Establish research framework and scope
Research instruments
Questionnaire design
Questionnaire design