II. Literature Review
2.1 Passion
2.1.3 Related literatures on Passion
Vallerand et al. (2003) based on the concept of passion made four empirical studies, surveys, including 949 university students, university men’s soccer players, amateur cycling participants and four participants who participate in gambling research, through research investigate the extent of the athletes in the sport of passion, results showed that: (1) by factor analysis of two dimensions, the sports enthusiasm divided into two harmonious passion and obsessive passion; (2) harmonious passion and positive emotions, focus force and fluency about; rather obsessive passion is negative emotions and conflict with other aspects of life, and will result in a rigid insistence on participation, so that people in the risky situation is still engaged in sports; (3) the development passion scale for sports, the scale can be used as a passion instrument.
In a subsequent study, Vallerand et al. (2006) studied the mood in sports context, the results indicate: (1) the value of sports passion and sport value were highly correlated, and
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blending type of passion and autonomous personality has a significant relationship between obsessive passion and controlled personality; (2) harmonious passion of enthusiasm and positive emotions and subjective well-being (SWB), has a positive correlation; obsessive passion is negatively correlated with positive emotions and subjective well-being, but the obsessive passion positively correlated with negative emotions.
Mageau & Vallerand (2007) researched on 154 college students for the study
investigating the association agreement in sexual activity with a passion pattern of positive emotions. The results showed that harmonious passion will generate positive emotions; rather obsessive passion will produce negative emotions. This study further validates the Vallerand et al. (2006) findings.
Passion research, Vallerand et al. (2007) mentioned passion and performance for empirical studies to 143 university students for the study. Practice and planning to explore deliberate practice and subjective well-being (SWB) between association found harmonious passion positively predicted planning practice and subjective well-being; obsessive passion positively predicted planning practice, but with subjective well-being is not associated or negative predictive, shown in figure 1.
Figure 1. Passion and performance correlation (Vallerand et al., 2007)
To athletes perform association studies between sports performance and sport passion, in the study of 184 high school basketball players as the research subjects, harmonious passion
Subjective Well-being
Harmonious Passion
Obsessive Passion Deliberate Practice Performance
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and obsessive passion for the practice among athletes and sports performance impacted. The results showed that harmonious passion and obsessive passion were positively predicting planning practice, but also positively predict athletic performance.
In recent years, passion literatures have been sort out to the following:
Table 1
Related literatures on passion
Researcher (Year) Research Topic Research results and findings Rip, Fortin, &
Chen & Chi (2007) The studies of movement in recreational tennis
dependence of passion
Tennis fitness clubs in Taipei had research subjects of 103
individuals. The results showed:
(1) Exercise dependence score with two types of passion, a significant positive correlation.
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Table 1. Related literatures on passion (Continued)
Researcher (Year) Research Topic Research results and findings Lee, Chi, & Peng validity of the passion scale with internal mode.
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Table 1. Related literatures on passion (Continued)
Researcher (Year) Research Topic Research results and findings Hu (2009) Passion towards cheerleading There are 498 subjects in this
cheerleader research. The findings were: (1) universities generally hold cheerleader cheerleading highly participation and passion have accounted paranoid nearly 2/3 of the high proportion. (2) Dual passion is higher, the better the performance award.
According to research results collected, the concept needed various sports to test the different facets of sports passion on both behavior and mental state, which will produce different results. Participants in different types of sports passion exhibited by the participants will also affect whether their goal orientation can be verified through this research in order to further confirm the impact of sports on passion of the participants.
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2.1.4 Passion and Well-being
Carpentier, Mageau, & Vallerand (2012) pointed out that the two types of passion have also been shown to be related differently to well-being indicators. More specifically, while having more harmonious passion toward an activity seems to enhance one’s well-being.
People who are more obsessively passionate about an activity seem to experience higher levels of psychological distress. For instance, researching with teenagers, young adults and elderly people showed that harmonious passion is positively associated with well-being indicators such as: life satisfaction, positive affect, meaning in life, and vitality, while being negatively related to anxiety and depression (Philippe et al, 2009b; Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2007; Vallerand et al., 2008). On the contrary, obsessive passion predicts higher levels of anxiety and depression, but it is negatively related or unrelated to the positive indices (Philippe et al, 2009b; Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2007; Vallerand et al., 2008).
The negative consequences of obsessive passion for individual’s well-being have been most obvious when individual are prevented from engaging in their activity (Megeau &
Vallerand, 2007). In a study, Mageau and Vallerand (2007) followed college students for 14 days. Every night, before going to bed, participants rated their level of positive affect and indicated whether or not they had engaged in their passionate activity during the day. Results showed that the more people had an obsessive passion, the more they experienced an
accentuated decrease in positive affect on days when they did not engage in their passionate activity compared to days when they did (Mageau & Vallerand, 2007). Such decrease in positive affect was not observed for individual with higher levels of harmonious passion.
These findings suggest that obsessive passion may lead to lower the overall well-being when the individual cannot engage in the activity.
When interpreting the results, Mageau & Vallerand (2007) proposed that people with a more obsessive passion fail to experience positive affect in other activities because they tend
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to ruminate about their favorite activity (Ratelle et al., 2004). These ruminative thought would prevent the experience of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1982) during these other activities and, ultimately, the experience of positive affect and well-being (Cantor & Sanderson, 1999;
Csikszentmihalyi, 1982, Eisenberger et al., 2005; Kubovy, 1999; Mundell, 2000). Although theoretical model has never been tested, there is evidence suggesting that flow experiences and ruminative thoughts may mediate the relationship between passion and well-being.
2.2 Enduring Involvement
The earliest involvement theory can be traced back to Sheriff and Cantrell (1947), two scholars mentioned about the "self-involvement," which was to predict a person to persuade because of their status or role attitudes. After Kurgan (1967) proposed "low involvement of consumer behavior," the importance of involvement has been necessary to look at.
2.2.1 Involvement and Enduring Involvement
Involvement was most often defined in terms of personal significance and was a term which grew from research regarding consumer behavior (Kyle, Absher, Norman, Hammitt, &
Jodice, 2007). The concept of involvement "referred to the strength or extent of the cognitive linkage between the self and stimulus object" and encompasses the extent to which people are devoted to an activity and/or a product associated with it (Kyle, Absher, Norman, Hammitt, &
Jodice, 2007). The tie between the self and the activity or product depended upon how closely aligned the person's needs, values, or goals are with the benefits and attributes of the activity or product. In consumer research, the connection between a consumer's values, needs, and goals and his or her purchase behavior often resulted in a somewhat dynamic and changeable state, defined by Havitz and Mannell (2005) as reflecting "temporary feelings of heightened involvement that accompany a particular situation," a description of situational involvement.
By contrast, enduring involvement was seen as reasonably stable, a product of "ongoing
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feelings or concerns that a consumer or participant brings into a situation" (Decloe, Kaczynski,
& Havitz, 2009). Both situational involvement and enduring involvement are exhibited through consumer behavior.
Enduring involvement was a concept that grew out of marketing and consumer research, it was initially used to measure consumer attraction to, and identification with, a particular item or brand of item; early scales that measured aspects of enduring involvement included items to assess the type and amount of risk that a consumer would experience during the purchase of that item or brand (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Kyle, Absher. et al., 2007; Laurent
& Kapferer, 1985). Researchers have examined the differences between situational
involvement and enduring involvement (e.g.. Decloe, et al., 2009; Havitz & Howard, 1995;
Havitz & Mannell, 2005; Richins, Bloch & McQuarrie, 1992); the consensus was that enduring involvement is more stable over time (Havitz & Howard, 1995; Havitz & Mannell, 2005). Enduring involvement, then, was a "sustained level of care or concern with an issue, product, or activity" (Havitz & Howard, 1995), in contrast to the type of involvement evinced by any specific situation, particularly a purchase situation.
2.2.2 Leisure/ Recreation Involvement
Involvement was a key ingredient in leisure experiences (Dimanche, Havitz, & Howard, 1991). Leisure researchers are interested in the relationship between enduring involvement and leisure-related behaviors (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The term leisure involvement was
"used in reference to people's involvement with various recreation activities and associated products, leisure service agencies, or settings" (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Havitz and Dimanche (1999) stated that, "high levels of leisure involvement indeed appear to drive or influence the behaviors of many people." Kyle, Absher, et al. (2007) asserted that several
"studies have shown that involved recreationists tend to participate more often and are more inclined to engage in other activity-related behaviors (e.g. club membership, magazine
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subscription)" than those whose behavior is not as involved.
Havitz and Dimanche (1999), in their examination of research propositions about the relationships among leisure/recreation-based behaviors and involvement profile scores, found that the proposition most strongly supported by research was that participants, involvement profile scores would be positively related to how frequently they traveled, participated, or purchased related goods. This relationship between involvement and frequency of
participation, travel, or purchase was borne out in various studies, and included those conducted with kayakers (Schuett, 1993); birders (Kim, Scott, & Crompton, 1997); and fans of professional sports teams (Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2004). Because enduring
involvement was a concept that was tied to frequency of participation as well as purchase behavior, a measure of enduring involvement was used in the current study to examine the potential connection between passion, and well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei.
2.2.3 Development of measures of Enduring Involvement
Interest in enduring involvement grew out of early research in the fields of psychology and consumer behavior (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). As researchers interested in leisure involvement began to use scales first developed through consumer research, instruments to measure enduring involvement in leisure gradually evolved from single to multifaceted scales (Kyle, Absher. et al, 2007). Until the mid-1980s, one-dimensional scales to measure enduring involvement were used by many researchers (Havitz & Dimanche. 1997). In Havitz and Dimanche (1997) synthesis of 50 leisure involvement data sets, the authors stated that almost all of the recent research efforts had used just four of the most widely-used scales to measure leisure involvement: (a) Zaichkowsky"s (1985) Personal Involvement Inventory (PII), a single-faceted, or one-dimensional, scale; (b) Laurent and Kapferer's Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP), which introduced a five-component involvement scale and was developed independently of the PII in the same year; (c) Watkins' (1987) derivation of the CIP (his scale
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eliminated the risk facet used in Laurent and Kapferer's CIP, but added a centrality facet or dimension); and, (d) the Revised Personal Involvement Inventory (RPII), developed by McQuarrie and Munson in 1987 (a multidimensional blend of the CIP and PII). "A fifth scale that has received multiple use in leisure research is Bloch et al.'s (1986) one-dimensional Enduring Involvement Index (EII)," focusing on the dimensions of interest and importance, dimensions which related to the perceived interest or importance of a product or activity to a person (Bloch et al., 1986).
Multifaceted scales, whether or not participants score equally high on all facets or dimensions, provided more information than single-dimension scales (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). In their discussion of participants' scoring patterns - high on one dimension, but low on another, depending on the participants and their relationships to the activity category.
Dimanche et al. (1991) stated that “a one-dimensional score would conceal valuable information." Multifaceted scales provided more information for studying leisure and recreation experiences (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Laurent and Kapferer"s (1985),
Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP) used five factors or facets to operationalize involvement (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The five facets were importance, pleasure, sign, risk importance, and risk probability. Importance referred to the congruence between a consumer's goals and the extent to which a particular product meets those goals. Pleasure measured the extent to which the product pleased the consumer. Sign referred to the congruence perceived between the identity of a product and the consumer's identity. Risk probability related to the possibility that the consumer might make a poor choice, while risk consequence examined possible negative consequences to the consumer of making a poor choice (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007;
Laurent & Kapferer, 1985). In subsequent studies, importance and pleasure were facets that tended to load on a single factor, which Mclntyre (1989) called attraction (Mclntyre, 1989;
Mclntyre & Pigram, 1992). Other studies showed the same one-factor loading of importance and pleasure (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Mclntyre (1989) dropped the risk items and added a
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facet called centrality, which referred to lifestyle choices and personal investments an
individual made to continue his/her association with an activity. Centrality was adapted from Wellman, Roggenbuck. and Smith's (1982) work on specialization, in which centrality to lifestyle was included as a facet; Selin and Howard (1988) discussed centrality as key to ego involvement through personal values. Mclntyre (1989) also used a third dimension,
self-expression, which was analogous to Laurent and Kapferer's (1985) sign.
In 1991, Dimanche et al. revised the Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP) to measure leisure involvement; their version of this scale, the Involvement Profile (IP) has been a standard for measures of leisure involvement, and was the most frequently used scale in the research studies included in the 1997 study by Havitz and Dimanche. In this analysis, the researchers compared measurement scales developed for involvement and enduring
involvement in order to extend the existing research and to address two propositions: (a) that
"multifaceted scales are more appropriate than single-faceted scales to measure leisure and tourism involvement" (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997); and, (b) that leisure involvement and experiences of tourism should be highly involving on all facets of the scales. Using factor analysis to determine the factor structure of the scale, Dimanche et al. (1991) version of the CIP called the IP had four dimensions, sign or importance of self-expression, status, or identity, importance-pleasure or the hedonic quality of the activity, risk consequences (the outcome of a poor choice), and risk probability (the likelihood of making a poor choice), and risk probability (the likelihood of making a poor choice.
Another recently-developed multi-faceted involvement measure was Ragheb’s (1996) 37-item Leisure and Recreation Involvement (LRI) scale. It was the longest multi-faceted involvement measure of the scales discussed in the literature, even with a short form of 24 items (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Ragheb's (1996) scale included facets common to other leisure involvement scales {importance, interest, pleasure, and centrality importance- to lifestyle) but also included meaning and intensity, intensity being related to the facet of
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self-expression found in other measures. Although the reliability ranged for its six subscales were .78 to .90 for the long form and .74 to .84 for the 24-item short form, the scale "has not been used in published research to date" (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997).
Later researchers applied the concept of enduring involvement to subsequent studies which used leisure involvement with particular leisure activities, such as angling (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007) or bird watching (Kim et al., 1997). At the same time, researchers interested in enduring involvement began to develop and use multifaceted rather than
unidimensional scales (Dimanche et al., 1991; Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Iwasaki & Havitz, 2004; Kyle, Absher, et al. 2007; Mclntyre, 1989). Although the elements making up
multidimensional leisure involvement scales were somewhat comparable from one scale to the next, there were facets which were deliberately deleted from some scales while retained in others (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007).
Since risk initially was an item on involvement scales measuring consumer behavior in relation to goods and services, researchers questioned its applicability to leisure behavior measures, especially activities and experiences regularly enjoyed by an individual (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Because leisure behavior was most often intrinsically motivated, the individual involved in the activity brought to it expectations and experience which were integral to the activity (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Therefore, risk probability was much less a factor for leisure involvement and was not included as a dimension in Kyle, Absher, et al.
(2007) multi-faceted enduring involvement scale. As Kyle, Absher, et al. developed the Modified Involvement Scale (MIS), several other facets of leisure involvement underwent transformations.
Centrality was a facet or dimension of involvement that initially indicated an individual’s investment, either social or financial, in an activity (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Later this definition was split into two facet: centrality within an individual’s lifestyle and social
bonding (Kyle & Chick, 2004), which indicated how much a person’s involvement was driven
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by his/her social ties (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Due to research regarding leisure identities (Dimanche & Samdahl, 1994), Laurent and Kapferer’s (1985) sign facet and McIntyre’s (1989) self-expression facet were separated into two identity-related dimensions: identity expression and idendity affirmation (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). This evolution of the dimensions or facets of enduring involvement in leisure activity culminated in the development of the MIS (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007).
Kyle, Absher, et al.'s (2007) MIS scale consisted of five dimensions: attraction, centrality, social bonding, identity expression, and identity affirmation. Attraction referred to the
importance of an activity and the pleasure derived from it (Kyle & Chick, 2004), centrality referred to the importance of the activity in the individual's life (Kyle & Chick, 2004), and social bonding referred to social ties that connect individuals to an activity (Kyle, Absher, et al. 2007). Identity affirmation means the extent to which one's unique characteristics were expressed to one's own self through the activity, while identity expression is the extent to which the self could be expressed to others through a leisure activity (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007).
The MIS was tested in a study of campers and anglers in South Carolina (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The measure consisted of three statements for each of the five
dimensions, to which respondents used a Likert-type five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The researchers found reliability scores ranged from .71 to .85 for the five dimensions of the MIS (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007).
In an examination of motivation and involvement of campground recreationists in three settings in Sumter National Forest, Kyle, Absher, Hammitt, and Cavin (2006) found reliability scores of .71 to .86 for the five dimensions of the MIS in a pooled sample of participants.
However, to date, the MIS has not been used with a population of women, nor to measure involvement with a program of outdoor leisure activities rather than a single recreation activity.
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For the lack of involvement of the reliability of the measurement, Zaichkowsky (1985) often used to measure involved the use of the concept of self-relevance, established the first single facet-based measurement tools PII (personal involvement inventory) scale, to construct the appropriateness of the main issues of reliability items. Flynn & Goldsmith (1993) said that PII has become the most widely used scale to measure consumer involvement scale.
Laurent and Kapferer (1985) continued the discussion involved multi-faceted, thereby establishing a CIP Scale (consumer involvement profile), five dimensions CIP scale is based on the theory of development has also become involved in important aspects: importance, pleasure, sign, risk importance, and probability of error.
McIntyre (1989) measurements recreation areas in enduring involvement were reduced to three dimensions: attraction, self-expression and centrality which are selected for use in this study. McIntyre and Pigram (1992) studied the camp participant’s specialized behavior
through cognitive, behavioral and emotional systems to verify the attractiveness, self-expressive and life center of three dimensions, and is widely used in the field of
through cognitive, behavioral and emotional systems to verify the attractiveness, self-expressive and life center of three dimensions, and is widely used in the field of