臺北市足球俱樂部參與者熱情、持續涉入與幸福感之研究

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學運動與休閒學院體育學系碩士學位論文. 臺北市足球俱樂部參與者熱情、持續涉入與幸福感之研究. 研究生 : 朱芳儀指導教授 : 張少熙. 中華民國 103 年 6 月中華民國臺北市.

(2) A study on passion, leisure involvement, enduring involvement and well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei June, 2014 Graduate student: Chu Fang-Yi Advisor: Chang Shao-Hsi. Abstract This study is based on passion, enduring involvement and well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei. Questionnaires were conducted to participants from T2 LIGA of Northern Division. The researcher took 300 participants as the research subjects through the questionnaires and all 300 were valid. According to the data collected from the questionnaire, descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were performed. The results were derived as following: 1. The main group of soccer club participants in Taipei was between 21-30 years old male who are college / university graduates. 2. There was a significant relationship at 81.2% between passion and enduring involvement of soccer club participants. 3. Passion of soccer club participants could predict well-being and obsessive passion explanation strength was the highest. 4. Enduring involvement of soccer club participants could predict well-being and centrality explanation strength was the highest. According to this research, we found that passion and enduring involvement could be used to predict well-being of soccer club participants. Therefore we suggest different soccer club teams should target participants between 21-30 years old male in order to develop more T2 LIGA teams to compete.. Key words: soccer, passion, enduring involvement, well-being. i.

(3) 臺北市足球俱樂部參與者熱情、持續涉入與幸福感之研究 2014 年 6 月研究生：朱芳儀指導老師：張少熙. 摘要. 本研究目的主要在於分析不同人口統計變項之足球俱樂部參與者熱情、持續涉入與幸福感之影響情形。以臺北市足球俱樂部參與 2013-2014 年 T2 LIGA 者，共計 300 位選手為對象母群體，於 2014 年 3 月 8 日與 3 月 9 日，透過問卷調查法得有效樣本 300 份，以瞭解足球俱樂部參與者熱情、持續涉入與幸福感之現況，並以描述性統計、皮爾森積差相關、多元迴歸進行資料分析。研究結果: 一、臺北市足球俱樂部參與者現況以男性、 21 至 30 歲、大專院校程度的參與者居多。二、臺北市足球俱樂部參與者熱情與持續涉入之間有顯著相關 81.2%。三、臺北市足球俱樂部參與者熱情有效影響幸福感，其中以強迫式熱情（β = 0.055）最高。四、臺北市足球俱樂部參與者持續涉入有效影響幸福感之，其中以中心性的（β = 0.317）最高。從研究結果中，我們可以發現運動熱情與持續涉入有效的影響幸福感，故相關單位可參考此研究結果進行足球運動之推廣，透過賽事及活動維持原有參與者的熱情與涉入程度，提升其幸福感，同時足球俱樂部也能針對 21 至 30 歲男性的族群宣傳，以提升台灣足球運動之參與人數，並發展更多 T2 LIGA 的隊伍。. 關鍵詞 : 足球、運動熱情、持續涉入、幸福感. ii.

(4) ACKNOWLDEDGEMENTS To successfully navigate the journey of writing, proposing, and defending a master thesis, it requires the sacrifice of many more than just the author. Due to this fact, I would be remiss not to acknowledge the individuals who assisted my progression. First, I would like to thank my boss, Dr. Chang Shao-Hsi. Without your guidance, support, and professionalism, I would have been left toiling with unanswered questions and a lack of focus. You have been a wonderful mentor for the past two years and I hope to draw upon your wealth of knowledge for years to come. I hope to acquire these attributes and take them with me as I begin my career in academe. To committee members, Dr. Cheng Hui-Ping and Dr. Shin Chin-Pin, thank you for your constant support for my research topic. This paper would not have been completed without your expert advice, guidance, and thoughtful encouragement. I would like to graciously thank Dr. Tan Tien-Chin for all of his assistance during my two years of masters at National Taiwan Normal University. Your unending thirst for knowledge and genuine enthusiasm for our filed have been inspirational. I would also like to thank some additional National Taiwan Normal University Department of Physical Education faculty and staff for their integral role in this research process. Next, I would like to acknowledge the two people that made all this possible, my parents, Monica and Patrick Chu. I would not be who I am today, if it were not for you guys. You are the foundation on which I was built, the shoulders on which I stand, and the roots upon which I grow. I truly appreciate your unrelenting support from day one, and I hope I can fulfil your parenting legacy someday. You are, and continue to be the best role models I have ever had. I would also like to thank my siblings, George and David. Your constant encouragement has meant a lot to me. I cannot forget my soccer coaches and teammate from NTNU and from the National Team, thank you for all of your help and support during the past couple years. I am so glad that I had the chance to meet you and know you all.. iii.

(5) Next, I would like to deeply thank the efforts of my colleagues at the University of National Taiwan Normal, both past and present, most notably Chou Tai-Ying, Tseng Ming-Sheng and Tsai Chien-Lu. I cannot thank you enough for all your guidance during this process. All of you served as excellent mentors and I look forward to many years of collaboration, scholarship, and most importantly, friendship. Lastly, and most importantly, I would like to thank everyone from the “Hsi” house, especially to Huang Pin-Chi, Fang Pei-Hsin, Fang I-Hsueh Ming-Chun, Lu Yi-Ze and Ho Hsin-Hong. There are no words to explain how much you guys have helped me in this process. Not did you guys proofread nearly the entire document, but your patience, strength, and ability to keep me grounded are the reasons I was able to keep my sanity and survive. I just hope one day I can return the favor. I am really thankful to be in this environment with you guys, thank-you.. National Taiwan Normal University Department of Physical Education Masters Chu, Fang-Yi June, 2014. iv.

(6) Table of Contents. English Abstract .......................................................................................................................... i Chinese Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... v Contents of Figures ................................................................................................................. viii Contexts of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix. Chapter I.. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 1. 1.1 Research Background ........................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Purpose of Research ............................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Research Question ................................................................................................................ 5 1.4 Delimitations ........................................................................................................................ 5 1.5 Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 6 1.6 Justification of the Research ................................................................................................ 6 1.7 Definition of Key Terms ...................................................................................................... 7. II. Literature Review............................................................................................................. 9 2.1 Passion .................................................................................................................................. 9 2.1.1 Harmonious Passion and Obsessive Passion ......................................................... 10 v.

(7) 2.1.2 Affective experiences of Passion ........................................................................... 12 2.1.3 Related literatures on Passion ............................................................................... 13 2.1.4 Passion literatures towards well-being .................................................................. 18 2.2 Enduring involvement ........................................................................................................ 19 2.2.1 Involvement and Enduring Involvement ............................................................... 19 2.2.2 Leisure/ Recreation Involvement .......................................................................... 20 2.2.3 Development of measures in Enduring Involvement ............................................ 21 2.2.4 Related literatures on Enduring Involvement ........................................................ 27 2.2.5 Enduring Involvement literatures towards Well-being .......................................... 29 2.3 Well-being .......................................................................................................................... 31 2.3.1 The definition of well-being and conceptual development ..................................... 31 2.3.2 Theory of Well-being .............................................................................................. 33 2.3.3 Related literatures on Well-being ............................................................................ 37 2.3.4 The measurements of Well-being ............................................................................ 40 2.3.5 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 42. III. Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 44 3.1 Research Structure.............................................................................................................. 44 3.2 Research Design and Procedure ......................................................................................... 45 3.3 Research Participants ......................................................................................................... 47 vi.

(8) 3.4 Research Instruments ......................................................................................................... 47 3.5 Implementation of Research............................................................................................... 63 3.6 Data Processing .................................................................................................................. 64. IV. Results and Discussions ................................................................................................... 66 4.1 Statistical analyses of soccer club participants in Taipei ................................................... 66 4.2 The relationship between passion and enduring involvement of soccer club participants in Taipei.............................................................................................................................. 71 4.3 The relationship between passion towards well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei .................................................................................................................................. 73 4.4 The relationship between enduring involvement towards well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei ................................................................................................................ 74. V. Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................................ 76 5.1 Summary of Findings ......................................................................................................... 76 5.2 Implementations and Limitations ....................................................................................... 79 5.3 Recommendations for Future Researches .......................................................................... 79. References ............................................................................................................................... 81 Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 95 Appendix 1 Experts examine questionnaire ............................................................................. 95 Appendix 2 Formal questionnaire .......................................................................................... 106 vii.

(9) Contents of Figures Figure 1. Passion and performance correlation .................................................................... 14. Figure 2. Framework of research ........................................................................................... 45. Figure 3. Procedure of research ............................................................................................ 46. viii.

(10) Contents of Tables Table 1. Related literatures on passion................................................................................. 15. Table 2. Enduring regular exercise behavior research summary ......................................... 28. Table 3. Definition on well-being ...................................................................................... 32. Table 4. Different theories of well-being ........................................................................... 35. Table 5. Related literatures on well-being ........................................................................... 38. Table 6. Modern domestic well-being scales ..................................................................... 41. Table 7. Number of participants from each club ................................................................ 47. Table 8. Passion scale........................................................................................................... 49. Table 9. Enduring involvement scale ................................................................................... 50. Table 10. Well-being scale ..................................................................................................... 51. Table 11. Validity of Experts and Scholars............................................................................ 52. Table 12. Passion scale on item analysis – reliability and validity ........................................ 55. Table 13. Enduring involvement scale on item analysis – reliability and validity ................ 56. Table 14. Well-being scale on item analysis – reliability and validity .................................. 57. Table 15. Construct validity – Passion ................................................................................... 58. Table 16. Construct validity – Enduring Involvement ........................................................... 59. Table 17. Construct validity – Well-being ............................................................................. 61. Table 18. Reliability Analysis ................................................................................................ 62. Table 19. Gender Allocation Table ........................................................................................ 67. Table 20. Age Allocation Table ............................................................................................. 67 ix.

(11) Table 21. Education Level Allocation Table ......................................................................... 68. Table 22. Job Status Allocation Table ................................................................................... 68. Table 23. Number of Years in Participation Allocation Table .............................................. 69. Table 24. Number of Practice in a Month Allocation Table .................................................. 70. Table 25. Pearson Product-moment Correlation Analysis ..................................................... 71. Table 26. Multiple Regression Analysis of Passion towards Well-being .............................. 73. Table 27. Multiple Regression Analysis of Enduring Involvement towards Well-being ...... 74. x.

(12) Chapter One. Introduction. The purpose of this study was to explore passion and enduring involving towards well-being of soccer participants in Taipei. This chapter was divided into seven sections: research background, purpose of research, research question, delimitations, limitations, justification of the research, and definition of terms.. 1.1 Research Background With the daily changes in society, daily life styles of individuals have changed too. Mechanized production has been replaced to manual labor gradually. The condition of participation in recreation is getting more popular. In addition, the implementations of working hours are shortened and two-day weekends are added, which makes time for people to participate in recreation activities. The sport of soccer is played by over 240 million players in 1.4 million teams and in 300,000 clubs across the world by men and women, children and adults with different levels of expertise (FIFA, 2013). This sport is rapidly growing in many public schools, colleges, and in professional leagues (Chinese Taipei Football Association, 2013). FIFA (2013) mentioned, improving the game of soccer constantly and promoting it globally in the light of its unifying, educational, cultural and humanitarian values. Looking at world-class soccer action and passion at all levels to every corner of the world through 209 member associations (FIFA, 2013). Soccer is no longer considered merely a global sport, but also as unifying force whose virtues can make an important contribution to society. FIFA (2013) mentioned, by using the power of soccer as a tool for social and human development, 1.

(13) by strengthening the work of dozens of initiatives around the globe to support local communities in the areas of peace building, health, social integration, education and more. In Taiwan, soccer has been considered as an integral part of the physical education programs in public schools (Chinese Taipei Football Association, 2013). It is also included in the intramural programs of many colleges and universities (Ministry of Education, 2013). Soccer is a highly developed varsity sport in many schools and colleges all over the world. Industrial and professional leagues will present it in its excellence (FIFA, 2013). It encourages team cooperation, yet it is unique; it allows a great deal of individuality and initiative during the play. Soccer has great adaptation in various ages. The performance of soccer depended upon number of factors such as technical, tactical, mental, biomechanical, and physiological areas. One of the reasons why soccer is so popular worldwide is that players may not need to have an extraordinary capacity within any of these performance areas, but possess a reasonable level within all areas (Stolen, 2006). Soccer today is perhaps the most popular recreational sport for men and women around the world (FIFA, 2013). In Taiwan, soccer is not as popular as it is compared to other countries; however, soccer has been progressing throughout the years by Chinese Taipei Football Association (CTFA). There are competitions for both boys and girls in school, and in clubs; as well as tournaments for men and women. Therefore, soccer is an event that one might enjoy as a leisure activity. Maintaining the enjoyment of playing soccer would be a valuable concept to be discussed. Each individual has his/her own favorite activities and events, which might lead to different impact on the individual. In the field of sport, the psychological factors will transport participants to continue to participate according to the dualistic model of passion. Vallerand et al. (2003) defined passion as strong inclinations towards an activity that one enjoys and in which the individuals will invest time and energy in. Passion referred to the individual for their favorites and which devotes time and effort to show the movement of strong psychological tendencies (Vallerand et al., 2003). 2.

(14) The recognition of individual's passion will be impacted from different internalization processes. Therefore, passion was divided into harmonious passion (H.P.) and obsessive passion (O.P.). Vallerand et al. (2003) pointed out that harmonious passion, people's willingness to participate in an activity that they can control, resilient (flexible); individuals can decide whether or not to engage in this activity. The activity was not with other aspects of their lives which might be conflicted. In contrast, obsessive passion, which was subject to internal and external pressure to force individuals engaged in activities (Vallerand et al., 2003). The individual feels himself forced to participate in the activities. By having passion towards any sport, leisure involvement will be required. Leisure involvement is a very important topic for many reasons. For instance, a lot of people find having leisure time is more satisfying compared to work time. Leisure can be a major source of pleasure and sense of achievement; however, many people who have a lot of spare time fail to find satisfying forms of leisure (Lu & Hu, 2005). Involvement has been shown to be associated with positive behavioral and attitudinal aspects of leisure participation. Such as commitment to an activity, consumer loyalty, psychological attachment and frequency of participation (Alexandris et al., 2004b; Backmand & Crompton, 1991; Kyle et al., 2004a, 2006; Vlachopoulos et al., 2008). Involvement was a difference of degree; the higher the leisure involvement, the more enduring involvement will be relevant. Harvitz and Dimanche (1990) pointed out, enduring involvement leisure was an unobservable motivation, anxiety or interest status to face leisure activities or relative produces. Enduring involvement was thought as continuing physical activities on sports. Venkartaman (1990) stated, individual enduring involvement on sports are the deep-rooted, strong interest, crazy about taking exercises, and take exercises as a kind of hobby continuously. About the relationships between leisure activities and well-being, Campbell (1976) stated that leisure activities are the best predicted factor of well-being (Argyle, 1987). 3.

(15) Diener (1984) emphasized that human well-being was actively involved in activities. Individuals can feel well-being through work, recreational sports, or human interaction between people; develop their potential and to meet individual needs, and produce a pleasant sense of accomplishment and value sense. On the association between leisure involvement, and well-being, Loesch and Wheeler (1982) also mentioned that the potential benefits of leisure are the opportunities of well-being, creativity, self-growth, self-accomplishment, self-recognition, social recognition, independence, need satisfaction, and experiments gaining. The main impact of well-being on sports is from the physiological effect, such as the release of endorphin and other neurotransmitters and by relaxation. However, there are some psychological effects, such as regulating stimulating, having a rest from regular activities, obtaining self-respect from successful operation, etc. When a sport participator thinks of having power and the ability of control but not aware of other matters in the environment, as well as having high performance of own body, these will also cause well-being (Browne & Mahoney, 1984). From this research, the connection between passions, enduring involvement and well-being are linked to one another. Whether passion and enduring involvement will affect one another; passion towards well-being; and enduring involvement towards well-being were tested. From the growth of passion and enduring involvement towards participants in soccer activities, the growth of soccer population might grow in Taiwan. Sports is a good way for interaction between countries, therefore, not only it is important to contribute towards soccer club participants in Taipei, but also for development of our country.. 4.

(16) 1.2 Purpose of Research Based on the discussions above, the purpose of this research was to explore soccer club participant’s passion, enduring involvement and well-being. The relationship between passion and enduring involvement towards well-being was examined. To achieve the purpose of the research four objectives have been defined. These objectives are as follows. 1. To find out different demographic backgrounds of participants. 2. To investigate the relationships between passion and enduring involvement. 3. To explore the effect of passion towards well-being. 4. To explore the effect of enduring involvement towards well-being.. 1.3 Research Questions According to the purpose of the research, four questions are to be explored: 1. What are the different demographic backgrounds? 2. What is the relationship between passion and enduring involvement? 3. How will passion effect towards well-being? 4. How will enduring involvement effect towards well-being?. 1.4 Delimitations The study examined the relationship between passion and enduring involvement; passion towards well-being; and enduring involvement towards well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei. First, it cannot be assumed that the results of this study can be generalized to other sports such as: baseball, basketball, volleyball, or golf. Second, variables used in this study were selected after a review of literature regarding to passion, enduring involvement and well-being. This study does not imply the selected questionnaires are the only questions towards soccer club participants in Taipei.. 5.

(17) 1.5 Limitations This research aimed to investigate passion, enduring involvement, and well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei, the limitation of this study are as follows: 1. A self-administered survey instrument was used to collect data. It could not be assumed that the information provided by the participants in the survey was completely accurate. Participants completed the questionnaire voluntarily. It was assumed that participants responded accurately and in accordance with their true beliefs, feelings, and experiences. 2. A significant percentage of male participants may have a critical influence on the samples and the results of the study.. 1.6 Justification of the Research This study is significant and its importance will be discussed in two parts: 1. Theoretical contributions: There have not been a lot of studies on soccer club participants towards passion, enduring involvement, and well-being in Taiwan. Most of all soccer related studies are on training, but in order to find out how to increase participants to participate in soccer, investigating towards passion, enduring involvement and well-being is an important role. 2. Practical contributions: From the results of this research, soccer clubs can focus on the demographic group between 21-30 years old male participants in order to increase more club teams in T2 LIGA. By increasing the number of teams and participants, one’s passion and enduring involvement will increase from the significance. Therefore, when passion and enduring involvement are significant, the overall well-being will increase.. 6.

(18) 1.7 Definition of Key Terms The main variables and terms used in this research are defined as follows: 1. Passion: Passion is defined as a strong inclination towards an activity that one enjoys, finds important and in which individuals invest time and energy (Vallerand et al., 2003). Although passion ensures willing participation, it has the potential to underpin both positive and negative outcomes, defined as follows: 1) Harmonious Passion (HP): A type of passion where the activity was autonomously internalized into the individual's identification. The individual has made a free, conscious, contingency-free choice to engage in the activity and does not feel compelled to do the activity. The individual is at harmony with the activity and other aspects of their lives and the activity is viewed as an important part of the person but it does not control him or her (Vallerand et al., 2003). 2) Obsessive Passion (OP): A type of passion where the activity is not internalized into the individual’s identification or a controlled internalization of the activity into their identification exists. OP normally occurs due to interpersonal and/or intrapersonal pressure perceived by the person due to contingencies, such as self-esteem and social acceptance, attached with the activity. This pressure may lead to the person feeling compelled to participate, regardless of the situation, thus leading to conflict with other areas of the person’s life (Vallerand et al., 2003).. 2. Enduring Involvement: Enduring involvement “emerges when there is congruence between personal needs, goals and values and the attributes of an activity” (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). It allows individual to experience enjoyment and fun over a period of time in participating in a leisure activity (Kyle & Chick, 2004).. 7.

(19) 3. Well-being: Well-being is synonymous with wellness and refers to a harmonious balance of the mental, physical, and spiritual elements of the self (Vella-Brodrick & Allen, 1995). It is reflective of the positive dimensions of (mental, physical, and spiritual) health generally associated with the quest for an optimum state of living that each person is capable of achieving (Myers, Sweeney, & Witmer, 2000). It also refers to a holistic way of life oriented toward optimal health/well-being in which body, mind, and spirit are well-integrated and the individual lives more fully within the natural and human community (Myers, Sweeney, & Witmer, 2000).. 4. T2 LIGA: Chinese Professional Football League Association (CPFLA) is operated independently of social groups in Taiwan after the permission to organize from the Ministry of the Interior National Association. CPFLA promoted professional soccer league for amateur athletes in Taiwan, and T2 LIGA was one of the leagues. LIGA in Latin meant for “league,” it was easier to remember comparing to the English word “league.”. 8.

(20) Chapter Two. Literature Review The literature review for this study was divided into three sections. The first segment highlighted the importance of passion in sports. In addition, the concept of different types of passion that played a significant role towards sports. The second part focused on enduring involvement of sport. Particularly, the relationship between leisure involvement and enduring involvement are comprehensively examined. The last section introduced the concept of well-being. This portion specifically examined the importance of well-being in sports.. 2.1 Passion Vallerand and Miquelon (2007) stated that the concept of passion was based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Passion was defined as “a strong inclination toward an activity that people like, that they find important, and in which they invest time and energy” (Vallerand al., 2003). The construct of passion may be seen as representing “an important source of motivational energy underlying such persistent involvement that may be conducive to performance attainment” (Vallerand et al., 2008). Passion was considered by Vallerand et al. (2003) to be dualistic with two types of passion: Harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive passion (OP). Harmonious passion and obsessive passion were distinguished by how the valued activity was internalized into the individual’s self-identification. Harmonious passion would occur when the activity was autonomously internalized and the person had made a free, conscious, contingency-free, choice to engage in the activity. These people did not feel compelled to do the activity but were at harmony with the activity and other aspects of their lives in such a way that the activity was an important part of the person but it did not control them. Obsessive passion 9.

(21) occurred when there was a controlled internalization of the activity into the individual’s self-identification and normally occurred due to interpersonal and/or interpersonal pressure felt on the person due to contingencies that affect the person’s self-esteem and social acceptance which were related to involvement of the activity. This pressure led to the person feeling compelled to participate, thus, leading to conflict with other areas of the person’s life.. 2.1.1 Harmonious and Obsessive Passion In their first study of a series of studies, Vallerand and colleagues (2003) attempted to validate the Passion Scale and assess the relationship between HP and OP and outcomes (e.g., flow, positive emotions, and concentration) experienced while engaged in activities. The sample consisted of 332 female and 203 male college students. Outcomes were assessed using the Flow Scale of Jackson and March (1996) including subscales that assessed challenge, absence of self-consciousness, control, and measures which assessed positive emotions, anxiety, and concentration. The results of the study supported the dualistic approach. Harmonious passion was found to be associated with positive affect, OP was found to be associated with negative affect, and the Passion Scale was validated. In their second study, Vallerand et al. (2003) explored how generalizable and how long lasting the differences in affect towards activities were in relation to HP and OP. The purpose was to investigate whether HP and OP would be independent of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and to assess future intentions of the athletes to participate. It was hypothesized that HP would be associated with increased positive affect, future intentions to participate, and would be unrelated to negative affect. Obsessive passion was anticipated to be unrelated to positive affect but related to negative affect and future intentions to participate. Two hundred and five male Canadian intercollegiate football players completed the instrument twice (beginning and end of the season). The instrument comprised of the Passion Scale, the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) (Brière et al., 1995), questions taken from the Positive and 10.

(22) Negative Affect Schedule scale (PANAS) (Watson et al., 1988), and behavioral intention questions (Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). The results of the study suggested that HP was associated with increased positive affect and OP was associated with negative affect over the season. However, HP was not a predictor as anticipated but OP was a predictor for future intention to participate (returning the following season). Vallerand and colleagues (2003) termed this intention as rigid persistence or returning to play the next season “no matter what.” The purpose of Study 3 was to investigate rigid persistence revealed in Study 2. The Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003) was completed by 59 recreational cyclists during the month of August then 6 months later in February. It was hypothesized that those who had cycled in the winder (February) would have higher OP in the summer (August) but would not differ in HP. The results of the study suggested that those cyclists who did cycle in the winter, putting them in dangerous winter weather found in Quebec, had higher levels of OP and that OP may lead to rigid persistence. Building upon the results of Study 3, the purpose of Study 4 was to investigate whether OP would lead to rigid persistence in the form of self-destructive behavior. Vallerand and colleagues (2003) gave 146 gamblers the Passion Scale and the revised South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; Lesieur & Blume, 1993). Approximately half (71) of the participants were part of the Montreal Casino self-exclusion program which was designed to allow individuals with serious gambling problems to ask the Casino to ban them from entry for at least one year. It was hypothesized that the self-excluded participants would have higher OP but no difference was expected in the HP levels. The results of the study indicated that gamblers in the program had higher levels of OP than the other gamblers. However, there were no differences in HP levels. Through these studies, it has been suggested that HP and OP led to persistence, however; OP may lead to rigid persistence and self-destructive behavior. Harmonious passion has also been suggested to be associated with positive affect and OP 11.

(23) associated with negative affect.. 2.1.2 Affective experiences of Passion Three other studies were conducted by Vallerand et al. (2006) investigating affective experiences and passion. Study 1 (Vallerand et al., 2006) focused on the determinants of passion, specially the value of the activity and personality orientation. It was anticipated that a personality with high autonomy and high sport valuation would be positive predictor of HP. Conversely, OP would be positively predicted by a controlling personality orientation and high sport valuation. The instrument was completed by 206 recreational athletes participating in 5 sports and consisted of Passion Scale (Vallerand, 2003), the Global Motivation Scale (GMS; Guay, Mageau, & Vallerand, 2003), and sport valuation questions. The results of the study indicated that high sport valuation and autonomous personality positively predicted HP and high sport valuation and a controlling personality positively predicted OP. Building upon Study 1, Study 2 (Vallerand et al., 2006) further investigated the integrative sequence by investigating the outcomes of positive and negative affect, vitality, and satisfaction in sport. It was hypothesized that HP would positively predict positive affect and vitality and OP would be negatively related or unrelated to positive affective variables. Conversely, OP would be positively related to negative affect and HP was expected to be negatively related or unrelated to negative affect. The sample was comprised of 210 competitive basketball players. The results of the study indicted that HP was associated with positive affect and negatively related to negative affect and OP was related to negative affect and unrelated to positive affect. The purpose of the final study (Vallerand et al., 2006) was to test the entire integrative sequence involving determinants and affective experiences. Vallerand and colleagues postulated that high levels of sport valuation coupled with an autonomous personality would lead to HP. Alternatively; high sport valuation coupled with a controlling personality would 12.

(24) lead to OP. Harmonious passion was also anticipated to positively predict subjective well-being and OP would be negatively related or unrelated to SWB. The sample was comprised of 107 elite water polo and synchronized swimmers. The athletes completed an instrument in October and another instrument four months later in February. The first instrument consisted of questions from the Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003), the Global Mood Scale (Guay et al., 2003), and a sport valuation question. The second instrument consisted questions from the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Blais, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Brièrem, 1989), the short PANAS scales (Watson et al., 1988), and a subjective well-being index. The results of the study indicated that sport valuation and autonomous personality positively predicted HP and sport valuation and a controlling personality predicted OP. Also, HP in October positively predicted subjective well-being in February and OP was negatively related to subjective well-being.. 2.1.3 Related literatures on Passion Vallerand et al. (2003) based on the concept of passion made four empirical studies, surveys, including 949 university students, university men’s soccer players, amateur cycling participants and four participants who participate in gambling research, through research investigate the extent of the athletes in the sport of passion, results showed that: (1) by factor analysis of two dimensions, the sports enthusiasm divided into two harmonious passion and obsessive passion; (2) harmonious passion and positive emotions, focus force and fluency about; rather obsessive passion is negative emotions and conflict with other aspects of life, and will result in a rigid insistence on participation, so that people in the risky situation is still engaged in sports; (3) the development passion scale for sports, the scale can be used as a passion instrument. In a subsequent study, Vallerand et al. (2006) studied the mood in sports context, the results indicate: (1) the value of sports passion and sport value were highly correlated, and 13.

(25) blending type of passion and autonomous personality has a significant relationship between obsessive passion and controlled personality; (2) harmonious passion of enthusiasm and positive emotions and subjective well-being (SWB), has a positive correlation; obsessive passion is negatively correlated with positive emotions and subjective well-being, but the obsessive passion positively correlated with negative emotions. Mageau & Vallerand (2007) researched on 154 college students for the study investigating the association agreement in sexual activity with a passion pattern of positive emotions. The results showed that harmonious passion will generate positive emotions; rather obsessive passion will produce negative emotions. This study further validates the Vallerand et al. (2006) findings. Passion research, Vallerand et al. (2007) mentioned passion and performance for empirical studies to 143 university students for the study. Practice and planning to explore deliberate practice and subjective well-being (SWB) between association found harmonious passion positively predicted planning practice and subjective well-being; obsessive passion positively predicted planning practice, but with subjective well-being is not associated or negative predictive, shown in figure 1.. Subjective Well-being. Harmonious Passion. Obsessive Passion. Deliberate Practice. Performance. Figure 1. Passion and performance correlation (Vallerand et al., 2007) To athletes perform association studies between sports performance and sport passion, in the study of 184 high school basketball players as the research subjects, harmonious passion 14.

(26) and obsessive passion for the practice among athletes and sports performance impacted. The results showed that harmonious passion and obsessive passion were positively predicting planning practice, but also positively predict athletic performance. In recent years, passion literatures have been sort out to the following: Table 1 Related literatures on passion Researcher (Year). Research Topic. Research results and findings. Rip, Fortin, &. The relationship between. Obsessive passion for dance. Vallerand (2006). passion and injury in dance. injuries attitude has a positive. students.. correlation; harmonious passion for dance injuries attitude has negative correlation.. Chen & Chi (2007). The studies of movement in. Tennis fitness clubs in Taipei had. recreational tennis. research subjects of 103. dependence of passion. individuals. The results showed: (1) Exercise dependence score with two types of passion, a significant positive correlation. (2) Different levels of sports addicts, there are significant differences in obsessive passion, but not with harmonious passion. (Continue next page). 15.

(27) Table 1. Related literatures on passion (Continued) Researcher (Year). Research Topic. Research results and findings. Lee, Chi, & Peng. Statement of passion building. High school division I athletes,. (2007). structure validity. 221 were research subject. The findings confirmed the construct validity of the passion scale with internal mode.. Mageau & Vallerand. The moderating effect of. When obsessive passion. (2007). passion on the relation. occurred, positive emotions. between activity engagement. (harmonious passion) will. and positive affect.. reduce.. Lafrenière, Jowett,. Passion in sport: On the. Harmonious passion positively. Vallerand, Donahue,. quality of coach-player. affects mood and electoral. &. relationship.. practice. The relationship. Lorimer (2008). between the quality of players, coaches and further predict the movement of passion. Obsessive passion is on the relationship between coaches and athletes without relevance.. Vallerand et al.. Passion and performance. Harmonious passion positively. (2008). attainment in sport.. influence sport performance; obsessive passion has a negative impact on athletes. (Continue next page) 16.

(28) Table 1. Related literatures on passion (Continued) Researcher (Year). Research Topic. Research results and findings. Hu (2009). Passion towards cheerleading. There are 498 subjects in this cheerleader research. The findings were: (1) universities generally hold cheerleader cheerleading highly participation and passion have accounted paranoid nearly 2/3 of the high proportion. (2) Dual passion is higher, the better the performance award.. Carpentier, Mageau,. Ruminations and flow: Why. Research showed that harmonious. & Vallerand (2012). do people with a more. and obsessive passions are. harmonious passion. positively and negatively linked to. experience higher. well-being respectively.. well-being? Source: Reconstructed from the researcher According to research results collected, the concept needed various sports to test the different facets of sports passion on both behavior and mental state, which will produce different results. Participants in different types of sports passion exhibited by the participants will also affect whether their goal orientation can be verified through this research in order to further confirm the impact of sports on passion of the participants.. 17.

(29) 2.1.4 Passion and Well-being Carpentier, Mageau, & Vallerand (2012) pointed out that the two types of passion have also been shown to be related differently to well-being indicators. More specifically, while having more harmonious passion toward an activity seems to enhance one’s well-being. People who are more obsessively passionate about an activity seem to experience higher levels of psychological distress. For instance, researching with teenagers, young adults and elderly people showed that harmonious passion is positively associated with well-being indicators such as: life satisfaction, positive affect, meaning in life, and vitality, while being negatively related to anxiety and depression (Philippe et al, 2009b; Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2007; Vallerand et al., 2008). On the contrary, obsessive passion predicts higher levels of anxiety and depression, but it is negatively related or unrelated to the positive indices (Philippe et al, 2009b; Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003, 2008; Vallerand et al., 2007; Vallerand et al., 2008). The negative consequences of obsessive passion for individual’s well-being have been most obvious when individual are prevented from engaging in their activity (Megeau & Vallerand, 2007). In a study, Mageau and Vallerand (2007) followed college students for 14 days. Every night, before going to bed, participants rated their level of positive affect and indicated whether or not they had engaged in their passionate activity during the day. Results showed that the more people had an obsessive passion, the more they experienced an accentuated decrease in positive affect on days when they did not engage in their passionate activity compared to days when they did (Mageau & Vallerand, 2007). Such decrease in positive affect was not observed for individual with higher levels of harmonious passion. These findings suggest that obsessive passion may lead to lower the overall well-being when the individual cannot engage in the activity. When interpreting the results, Mageau & Vallerand (2007) proposed that people with a more obsessive passion fail to experience positive affect in other activities because they tend 18.

(30) to ruminate about their favorite activity (Ratelle et al., 2004). These ruminative thought would prevent the experience of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1982) during these other activities and, ultimately, the experience of positive affect and well-being (Cantor & Sanderson, 1999; Csikszentmihalyi, 1982, Eisenberger et al., 2005; Kubovy, 1999; Mundell, 2000). Although theoretical model has never been tested, there is evidence suggesting that flow experiences and ruminative thoughts may mediate the relationship between passion and well-being.. 2.2 Enduring Involvement The earliest involvement theory can be traced back to Sheriff and Cantrell (1947), two scholars mentioned about the "self-involvement," which was to predict a person to persuade because of their status or role attitudes. After Kurgan (1967) proposed "low involvement of consumer behavior," the importance of involvement has been necessary to look at.. 2.2.1 Involvement and Enduring Involvement Involvement was most often defined in terms of personal significance and was a term which grew from research regarding consumer behavior (Kyle, Absher, Norman, Hammitt, & Jodice, 2007). The concept of involvement "referred to the strength or extent of the cognitive linkage between the self and stimulus object" and encompasses the extent to which people are devoted to an activity and/or a product associated with it (Kyle, Absher, Norman, Hammitt, & Jodice, 2007). The tie between the self and the activity or product depended upon how closely aligned the person's needs, values, or goals are with the benefits and attributes of the activity or product. In consumer research, the connection between a consumer's values, needs, and goals and his or her purchase behavior often resulted in a somewhat dynamic and changeable state, defined by Havitz and Mannell (2005) as reflecting "temporary feelings of heightened involvement that accompany a particular situation," a description of situational involvement. By contrast, enduring involvement was seen as reasonably stable, a product of "ongoing 19.

(31) feelings or concerns that a consumer or participant brings into a situation" (Decloe, Kaczynski, & Havitz, 2009). Both situational involvement and enduring involvement are exhibited through consumer behavior. Enduring involvement was a concept that grew out of marketing and consumer research, it was initially used to measure consumer attraction to, and identification with, a particular item or brand of item; early scales that measured aspects of enduring involvement included items to assess the type and amount of risk that a consumer would experience during the purchase of that item or brand (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Kyle, Absher. et al., 2007; Laurent & Kapferer, 1985). Researchers have examined the differences between situational involvement and enduring involvement (e.g.. Decloe, et al., 2009; Havitz & Howard, 1995; Havitz & Mannell, 2005; Richins, Bloch & McQuarrie, 1992); the consensus was that enduring involvement is more stable over time (Havitz & Howard, 1995; Havitz & Mannell, 2005). Enduring involvement, then, was a "sustained level of care or concern with an issue, product, or activity" (Havitz & Howard, 1995), in contrast to the type of involvement evinced by any specific situation, particularly a purchase situation.. 2.2.2 Leisure/ Recreation Involvement Involvement was a key ingredient in leisure experiences (Dimanche, Havitz, & Howard, 1991). Leisure researchers are interested in the relationship between enduring involvement and leisure-related behaviors (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The term leisure involvement was "used in reference to people's involvement with various recreation activities and associated products, leisure service agencies, or settings" (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Havitz and Dimanche (1999) stated that, "high levels of leisure involvement indeed appear to drive or influence the behaviors of many people." Kyle, Absher, et al. (2007) asserted that several "studies have shown that involved recreationists tend to participate more often and are more inclined to engage in other activity-related behaviors (e.g. club membership, magazine 20.

(32) subscription)" than those whose behavior is not as involved. Havitz and Dimanche (1999), in their examination of research propositions about the relationships among leisure/recreation-based behaviors and involvement profile scores, found that the proposition most strongly supported by research was that participants, involvement profile scores would be positively related to how frequently they traveled, participated, or purchased related goods. This relationship between involvement and frequency of participation, travel, or purchase was borne out in various studies, and included those conducted with kayakers (Schuett, 1993); birders (Kim, Scott, & Crompton, 1997); and fans of professional sports teams (Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2004). Because enduring involvement was a concept that was tied to frequency of participation as well as purchase behavior, a measure of enduring involvement was used in the current study to examine the potential connection between passion, and well-being of soccer club participants in Taipei.. 2.2.3 Development of measures of Enduring Involvement Interest in enduring involvement grew out of early research in the fields of psychology and consumer behavior (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). As researchers interested in leisure involvement began to use scales first developed through consumer research, instruments to measure enduring involvement in leisure gradually evolved from single to multifaceted scales (Kyle, Absher. et al, 2007). Until the mid-1980s, one-dimensional scales to measure enduring involvement were used by many researchers (Havitz & Dimanche. 1997). In Havitz and Dimanche (1997) synthesis of 50 leisure involvement data sets, the authors stated that almost all of the recent research efforts had used just four of the most widely-used scales to measure leisure involvement: (a) Zaichkowsky"s (1985) Personal Involvement Inventory (PII), a single-faceted, or one-dimensional, scale; (b) Laurent and Kapferer's Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP), which introduced a five-component involvement scale and was developed independently of the PII in the same year; (c) Watkins' (1987) derivation of the CIP (his scale 21.

(33) eliminated the risk facet used in Laurent and Kapferer's CIP, but added a centrality facet or dimension); and, (d) the Revised Personal Involvement Inventory (RPII), developed by McQuarrie and Munson in 1987 (a multidimensional blend of the CIP and PII). "A fifth scale that has received multiple use in leisure research is Bloch et al.'s (1986) one-dimensional Enduring Involvement Index (EII)," focusing on the dimensions of interest and importance, dimensions which related to the perceived interest or importance of a product or activity to a person (Bloch et al., 1986). Multifaceted scales, whether or not participants score equally high on all facets or dimensions, provided more information than single-dimension scales (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). In their discussion of participants' scoring patterns - high on one dimension, but low on another, depending on the participants and their relationships to the activity category. Dimanche et al. (1991) stated that “a one-dimensional score would conceal valuable information." Multifaceted scales provided more information for studying leisure and recreation experiences (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Laurent and Kapferer"s (1985), Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP) used five factors or facets to operationalize involvement (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The five facets were importance, pleasure, sign, risk importance, and risk probability. Importance referred to the congruence between a consumer's goals and the extent to which a particular product meets those goals. Pleasure measured the extent to which the product pleased the consumer. Sign referred to the congruence perceived between the identity of a product and the consumer's identity. Risk probability related to the possibility that the consumer might make a poor choice, while risk consequence examined possible negative consequences to the consumer of making a poor choice (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007; Laurent & Kapferer, 1985). In subsequent studies, importance and pleasure were facets that tended to load on a single factor, which Mclntyre (1989) called attraction (Mclntyre, 1989; Mclntyre & Pigram, 1992). Other studies showed the same one-factor loading of importance and pleasure (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Mclntyre (1989) dropped the risk items and added a 22.

(34) facet called centrality, which referred to lifestyle choices and personal investments an individual made to continue his/her association with an activity. Centrality was adapted from Wellman, Roggenbuck. and Smith's (1982) work on specialization, in which centrality to lifestyle was included as a facet; Selin and Howard (1988) discussed centrality as key to ego involvement through personal values. Mclntyre (1989) also used a third dimension, self-expression, which was analogous to Laurent and Kapferer's (1985) sign. In 1991, Dimanche et al. revised the Consumer Involvement Profile (CIP) to measure leisure involvement; their version of this scale, the Involvement Profile (IP) has been a standard for measures of leisure involvement, and was the most frequently used scale in the research studies included in the 1997 study by Havitz and Dimanche. In this analysis, the researchers compared measurement scales developed for involvement and enduring involvement in order to extend the existing research and to address two propositions: (a) that "multifaceted scales are more appropriate than single-faceted scales to measure leisure and tourism involvement" (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997); and, (b) that leisure involvement and experiences of tourism should be highly involving on all facets of the scales. Using factor analysis to determine the factor structure of the scale, Dimanche et al. (1991) version of the CIP called the IP had four dimensions, sign or importance of self-expression, status, or identity, importance-pleasure or the hedonic quality of the activity, risk consequences (the outcome of a poor choice), and risk probability (the likelihood of making a poor choice), and risk probability (the likelihood of making a poor choice. Another recently-developed multi-faceted involvement measure was Ragheb’s (1996) 37-item Leisure and Recreation Involvement (LRI) scale. It was the longest multi-faceted involvement measure of the scales discussed in the literature, even with a short form of 24 items (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Ragheb's (1996) scale included facets common to other leisure involvement scales {importance, interest, pleasure, and centrality importance- to lifestyle) but also included meaning and intensity, intensity being related to the facet of 23.

(35) self-expression found in other measures. Although the reliability ranged for its six subscales were .78 to .90 for the long form and .74 to .84 for the 24-item short form, the scale "has not been used in published research to date" (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Later researchers applied the concept of enduring involvement to subsequent studies which used leisure involvement with particular leisure activities, such as angling (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007) or bird watching (Kim et al., 1997). At the same time, researchers interested in enduring involvement began to develop and use multifaceted rather than unidimensional scales (Dimanche et al., 1991; Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Iwasaki & Havitz, 2004; Kyle, Absher, et al. 2007; Mclntyre, 1989). Although the elements making up multidimensional leisure involvement scales were somewhat comparable from one scale to the next, there were facets which were deliberately deleted from some scales while retained in others (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Since risk initially was an item on involvement scales measuring consumer behavior in relation to goods and services, researchers questioned its applicability to leisure behavior measures, especially activities and experiences regularly enjoyed by an individual (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Because leisure behavior was most often intrinsically motivated, the individual involved in the activity brought to it expectations and experience which were integral to the activity (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Therefore, risk probability was much less a factor for leisure involvement and was not included as a dimension in Kyle, Absher, et al. (2007) multi-faceted enduring involvement scale. As Kyle, Absher, et al. developed the Modified Involvement Scale (MIS), several other facets of leisure involvement underwent transformations. Centrality was a facet or dimension of involvement that initially indicated an individual’s investment, either social or financial, in an activity (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Later this definition was split into two facet: centrality within an individual’s lifestyle and social bonding (Kyle & Chick, 2004), which indicated how much a person’s involvement was driven 24.

(36) by his/her social ties (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Due to research regarding leisure identities (Dimanche & Samdahl, 1994), Laurent and Kapferer’s (1985) sign facet and McIntyre’s (1989) self-expression facet were separated into two identity-related dimensions: identity expression and idendity affirmation (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). This evolution of the dimensions or facets of enduring involvement in leisure activity culminated in the development of the MIS (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). Kyle, Absher, et al.'s (2007) MIS scale consisted of five dimensions: attraction, centrality, social bonding, identity expression, and identity affirmation. Attraction referred to the importance of an activity and the pleasure derived from it (Kyle & Chick, 2004), centrality referred to the importance of the activity in the individual's life (Kyle & Chick, 2004), and social bonding referred to social ties that connect individuals to an activity (Kyle, Absher, et al. 2007). Identity affirmation means the extent to which one's unique characteristics were expressed to one's own self through the activity, while identity expression is the extent to which the self could be expressed to others through a leisure activity (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The MIS was tested in a study of campers and anglers in South Carolina (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The measure consisted of three statements for each of the five dimensions, to which respondents used a Likert-type five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). The researchers found reliability scores ranged from .71 to .85 for the five dimensions of the MIS (Kyle, Absher, et al., 2007). In an examination of motivation and involvement of campground recreationists in three settings in Sumter National Forest, Kyle, Absher, Hammitt, and Cavin (2006) found reliability scores of .71 to .86 for the five dimensions of the MIS in a pooled sample of participants. However, to date, the MIS has not been used with a population of women, nor to measure involvement with a program of outdoor leisure activities rather than a single recreation activity. 25.

(37) For the lack of involvement of the reliability of the measurement, Zaichkowsky (1985) often used to measure involved the use of the concept of self-relevance, established the first single facet-based measurement tools PII (personal involvement inventory) scale, to construct the appropriateness of the main issues of reliability items. Flynn & Goldsmith (1993) said that PII has become the most widely used scale to measure consumer involvement scale. Laurent and Kapferer (1985) continued the discussion involved multi-faceted, thereby establishing a CIP Scale (consumer involvement profile), five dimensions CIP scale is based on the theory of development has also become involved in important aspects: importance, pleasure, sign, risk importance, and probability of error. McIntyre (1989) measurements recreation areas in enduring involvement were reduced to three dimensions: attraction, self-expression and centrality which are selected for use in this study. McIntyre and Pigram (1992) studied the camp participant’s specialized behavior through cognitive, behavioral and emotional systems to verify the attractiveness, self-expressive and life center of three dimensions, and is widely used in the field of recreation-related. 1. Attraction This meant that a person brought to the perceived importance of their activities and pleasure (Chen & Lin, 2011). Although Laurent and Kapferer (1985) described the importance and pleasure of different concepts, Havitz and Dimanche (1997) pointed out the importance and pleasure during factor analysis, the results are often extracted was consistent. Explored the reasons discussed originated from the involvement of consumer motivation comes from consumers, and therefore the importance and pleasure sometimes different face. When consumers buy cleaner, focusing on its importance, but not necessarily bring pleasure. Conversely when consumers buy diamonds emphasis on pleasure, it is not necessarily the most important. McIntyre and Pigram (1992) developed a theory of recreation involvement, which 26.

(38) attracted nature-oriented from the merger importance and pleasure, and pointed out the need to meet specific physical pleasure or target is to have a person in terms of importance and meaningful, otherwise does not have the involvement of highly attractive (Dai et al., 2008). This research focused on the participants who are involved in club soccer, using the same point of view, the pleasure and importance into attractive. 2. Self-expression This referred to a person involved in leisure activities who showed personality and style (Chen & Lin, 2011). Kapferer and Laurent (1985) pointed out, self-expression of a particular object or target with symbols and symbolic meaning of a person to make an impression on others who used to influence participation (Dai et al., 2008). 3. Centrality Centrality meant that the individual life and leisure activities highly correlated. (Chen & Lin, 2011) if the individual lives with other related activities, this activity will have a central (Dai et al., 2008). Chen and Huang (2008) considered the center of life for containing a central role by participating in activities with friends of social interaction and personal life in the event played.. 2.2.4 Related literatures on Enduring Involvement Leisure activity participation cannot be sustained; participation was a very important key factor. The proportion of people in different studies continued to participate in regular exercise and a lower percentage of the situation is presented. It is evidenced in the change process in stages, or in cognition stage. Table 2 showed the number of individual who are enduring involved:. 27.

(39) Table 2 Enduring regular exercise behavior research summary Researcher (Year). Research subjects. Regular sports involvement ratio. Huang et al. (1991). Elders from the community. 37.16 % of male; 31.30 % of female. Chi (1992). People from the community. 47.9 % of male; 32.2 % of female. Wu (1992). Junior college students. 29 % of male; 9 % of female. Huang et al. (1993). College students. 47.1 % of male; 14.5 % of female. Chang et al. (1995). 40 years and older from the. 35 % of all people. community of New Taipei city Lee et al. (1995). Adults in Taiwan. 41.1 % of all people do not participants in any exercise. Liu (1995). Commercial college students. 29.9 % of all students. Lin (1996). College students. 29.3 % of all students. Tsai (1996). 60 years and older people. 68.2 % of all people. Niu (1997). Teachers from National Chiao. 30 % of all teachers. Tung University Yu (1998). 20-60 resident from Taipei. 19.9 % of all people. Chu (1999). Elementary school teachers. 21.6 % of all teachers. Hsu (1999). Elementary school teachers. 31.5 % of all teachers. Sources: Hung (2007) From the research above, scholars observed on gender, males engaged in regular exercise ratio is higher than women. While in terms of age, regular exercise has a higher percentage of the elderly than the young. In addition, by excluding the elderly, people 28.

(40) (including primary school teachers) engaged in regular exercise ratio is not too high. Although the benefits of regular exercise on human health has been proven, but the population ratio gauge movement is still not ideal, this is a very worthy reflection issues. Cho (1986) pointed out that people who do not have the habit of regular exercise would have a difficult time to understand the benefits of a regular exercise would give them. The general principles of Lee (1997) included the movement of pressure-treated, noting ongoing regular games improve heart and lung function, lower blood pressure, reduce anxiety, reduce autonomic nervous system responses and muscle tension, reduce body fat and help self-concept upgrading and improvement of self-control. Lin and Lu (2000) pointed out that those who endured to participate in regular exercise was engaged in the joy of movement, so you can have the joy of life, to contribute to psychological and physical development, thereby enhancing the quality of life in the study. Kuo (2003) mentioned a study on 458 climbers. The study found that the behavior of the number involved in the high mountain with psychological and physiological aspects of satisfaction, and was positively correlated with the total number of days hiking. Psychological, educational, social, physiological levels were significantly positive correlations. Equipment spending and psychological, educational, relaxation, physiological levels were positively correlated. Important facets of pleasure psychosocial involvement positively correlated with satisfaction showed significantly. Different levels of risk perception and psychological dimensions, relaxation level were significant negative correlation. And symbolic value dimensions in addition to relaxation levels, but were positively correlated with other aspects of satisfaction.. 2.2.5 Enduring involvement to Well-being Health status was profoundly influenced by lifestyle, behavior, and emotion; an optimal health status can be achieved by individuals who participate in leisure activities regularly 29.

(41) (Biddle & Mutrie, 1991; Steptoe & Bolton, 1988). Leisure involvement allowed an individual to experience enjoyment from participating in leisure activities (Kyle & Chick, 2004). In the 1980s, the importance of leisure involvement and participation was promoted (Wiley, Shaw, & Havitz, 2000). This movement facilitated the development of people’s awareness of their individual intrinsic motivation and personal leisure interests (Havitz & Dimanche, 1990; Kyle & Chick, 2004). Different degrees of leisure involvement lead to different leisure behaviors and levels of intrinsic motivation. Although any such involvement may be temporary, it could motivate individuals to participate consistently in their chosen leisure activities. Leisure benefits resulted when perceived status and the social relationships of an individual are improved through leisure activities (Driver, 1997). Leisure activity also reduces unpleasant thoughts, releases stress, and produces well-being (Frey & Stutzer, 2002; Godbey, 2003). A review of the extant literature suggested that happiness was a positive attitude and enhanced quality of life (Diener & Seligman, 2002; Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). Despite the apparent simplicity and directness of these observations, happiness was, nonetheless, difficult to measure because it is a personal, interior state. White (2006), however, reported that well-being, which was used to assess an individual’s mental achievement and intrinsic value, is also an indicator of happiness (Argyle, 1987; Diener, 1984). Therefore, by studying well-being, researchers may be able to gain a better understanding of those lifestyle choices that lead to better and more valued outcomes (Christopher, 1999). In the past, researchers who studied perceived health status were more likely to focus on demographics and quality of life, and, for this reason, individual perspectives on leisure have not been sufficiently studied to date (Koyama, 2000; Lin & Huang, 2006). An additional research avenue worthy of attention is how individuals benefit from leisure involvement and how well-being can be accurately assessed. Consequently, with the ultimate intent of enhancing the health status and quality of life of soccer club participants in Taiwan, in the 30.

(42) present research we investigated the relationship between perceived leisure involvement, enduring involvement, and well-being of soccer club participants in Taiwan.. 2.3 Well-being “Happiness” has always been the pursuit of life goal, because each individual’s differences, the physical and the psychological needs of the environment are different as well; therefore, the definition of happiness may vary. The rise of Western happiness research was back in AD 1970, the important topics were the happy-oriented psychology (Hedonic Psychology), well-being and happiness (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999).. 2.3.1 The definition of well-being and conceptual development Subjective well-being was a construct that concerned optimal experience and functioning. It referred to people’s affective experience and cognitive evaluations of their lives and consisted of combination in high positive affect, low negative affect and high satisfaction with life (Diener, 1984). Thus, well-being was a broad phenomenon, including personal satisfaction for important events, emotions, and overall life satisfaction evaluation. Each node required one ring through personal understanding, but these factors are difficult to clarify and often highly correlated (Diener, Lucas, & Richard, 1999). It was an issue of debate whether subjective well-being was sufficient for well-being generally or if other elements are necessary (Haybron, 2008). This issue was beyond the scope of the present study but even where well-being theories posited the value of goods other than subjective well-being, it was rarely contested that subjective well-being was a central component of well-being (Ferguson, Conway, Endersby, & MacLeod, 2009). Therefore, enhancing subjective well-being was often the obvious goal. Diener (1984) emphasized that human well-being was actively involved in activities. Individuals can feel happiness through work, leisure sports, or human interaction between 31.