Definition and Conceptualization

More details on the work conducted by TEDS can be accessed online at:

https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/studies/35094?geography[0]=Asia&paging.sta rtRow=51

3.6 Definition and Conceptualization

It is important to define and conceptualize concepts as precisely as possible if they are to be of any use in measuring this relationship. This is especially true of the independent variable ethnic identification. For the purposes of this study, ethnic identification is defined as the degree to which a citizen identifies as either Taiwanese or Mainlander. There are, of course, other possible avenues of identification: Hakka, for example, or as a member of one of the island’s many indigenous ethnic groups (Brown 2001: 153). These possibilities, while important, are not the focus of this study. For the record, according to official ROC government statistics, indigenous people make up slightly less than 2 percent of the population, with the remaining 98 percent being Han Chinese. Within that group, the Hakka make up approximately one-fifth of the Han population, with the Holo accounting for a reported 70 percent (“Han Peoples” 2009). It is not the purpose of this study to distinguish between Hakka persons self-identifying as Taiwanese or Chinese, and Holo persons self-identifying as Taiwanese or Chinese, as this distinction is minor and is not within the purview of this research.

The aforementioned Bornman (1999) study’s conceptualization of ethnicity as “a mode of social differentiation based primarily on perceptions of kinship, a common cultural focus, and an awareness of historical destiny” can provide guidance on the various aspects making up the concept of “ethnic identity” in Taiwan today. Moreover, Bornman adds that South African ethnic groups are often mobilized politically, as is the case in Taiwan. Thus, the survey employed in this research is designed to measure not just self-identification (via the aforementioned Question 7), but to provide a biological view of ethnicity with which to determine strength of voluntary self-identification, i.e. by including items on father’s ethnic background and mother’s ethnic background.

Using the multicultural society of Mauritius as the setting for her research, Lynn Hempel (2004) looks at the motivations underlying voluntary ethnic identification, in this case as one of the island nation’s two largest ethnic groups: Hindus (or Indiens) and Creoles. Hempel also chooses to narrow her focus down to these two ethnic groups from six possible ethnic identifications on Mauritius: Hindus, Creoles, Muslims, Tamils, Sino-Mauritians, and Whites.

Her purpose was to examine the degree to which individuals are motivated by access to social mobility and material benefit in their choices of ethnic identification, and thereby to provide renewed support for an instrumentalist theoretical approach to the study of ethnic processes, which she explains had fallen out of favor in the literature. Drawing on the work of Isajiw (1992), she conceptualizes ethnic identity as having three dimensions. The cognitive dimension measures the respondent’s perception of similarity to other members of the group;

the affective dimension gauges feelings of group belonging; and the moral dimension measures the respondent’s feelings of obligation to the group. Building upon this foundation, and taking the local conditions in Taiwan into account, the independent or explanatory variables have been composed for the present survey to provide a measure for issues such as self-identification, aspiration for cross-strait ties, and political party identification:

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 Q7．In Taiwan, some people think they are Taiwanese. There are also some people who think that they are Chinese. Do you consider yourself as Taiwanese, Chinese or both?

 Q8．Concerning the relationship between Taiwan and mainland China, which of the following six positions do you agree with: (1) immediate unification, (2) immediate independence, (3) maintain the status quo, decide either unification or independence in the future, (4) maintain the status quo, move toward unification in the future, (5) maintain the status quo, move toward independence in the future, (6) maintain the status quo forever.

 Q9．There are many political parties in Taiwan. Which one do you lean toward?

There has been much work done on the relationship of these three variables—for example, that people identifying as Chinese tend to identify with the pan-blue political parties (Huang and Yu 1999: 96)—and it is not within the purview of this present study to recreate this work.

Rather, the three questions were included to determine if the assumption commonly made, such as the one cited above, can be relied upon, or if there is a deeper phenomenon at work when measured against views on social-military relations. Thus the independent variable as enunciated in the research questions (self-identification as either Taiwanese or Chinese) can be tested against Q8 and Q9, rather than assuming the relationship. The relationship between these independent variables and the dependent variables, which are designed for the present research to serve as barometers for the respondent’s attitudes on issues related to those dimensions of Moskos’s Postmodern Military Model for which, as stated earlier, the citizenry’s perceptions and attitudes factor in. These dimensions are measured in the survey using the following items:

 Q10．Countries face many threats, but there is usually one main threat. What is the main threat facing Taiwan?

 Q13．Militaries have many jobs to do, but usually there is one main job. What should be the main job of your military?

 Q16．I have faith in the military’s ability to defend Taiwan from attack.

 Q18．The media in Taiwan is too critical in its coverage of the military.

 Q19．The military has recently declared that all jobs are open to female recruits, but some people believe that it is not appropriate for women to hold certain military positions. Do you agree or disagree that all military jobs should be open to women?

 Q20．Some people said that homosexuals should be allowed to serve openly in the military, while others believe that it can cause problems with discipline and morale.

What policy should your military adopt do deal with this issue?

 Q21 ． The government has been working on transitioning the military to an all-volunteer force, while others believe that the draft is still needed to safeguard Taiwan’s defense. What policy should your military adopt about conscription?

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 Q22．Many militaries have a policy on conscientious objection, allowing young men to opt out of conscription under certain circumstances. What policy should your military adopt about conscientious objection?

In addition to these items, a number of supplemental questions have been included in the survey to contribute to the understanding of citizens perceptions of the military. Some may provide a deeper or more nuanced estimation of one or more of the PMMM dimensions, while others are more general in nature and not specifically related to Moskos’s theory.

Moreover, this exercise was also exploratory in nature, and seeking connection where perhaps none were anticipated. These questions are as follows:

 Q11．Over the past year or two, as the situation across the Taiwan Straits has changed, the PRC has continually increased its military capabilities against Taiwan. Concerning these military threats from the PRC, some people are worried, and other people are not worried. Are you worried or not worried?

 Q12．Some people said that your military faces many problems today. What is the main problem facing your military?

 Q14．Some people say that the military should reflect the values of society. Which statement do you most agree with?

 Q15．If an enemy attacks Taiwan, I would be willing to fight.

 Q17．The military is fair and impartial when investigating cases in which young conscripts die during training.

 Q23．If you had any children under 18 years old, which of the following statements do you most agree with?

3.6(i) Extraneous Dimensions

Several of the PMMM dimensions are not applicable to measurement by public attitudes, for one reason or another, and thus they were assessed using a review of the literature and existing studies on those specific areas of study. These dimensions include: Dominant Military Professional, Civilian Employees, and Spouses and the Military Community.

Mostly this is due to the fact that these dimensions are opaque aspects of military structure and operation about which the general population is, by and large, uninformed. The issue of dominant military professional, for example, is related primarily to the inner workings of the military, yet to the outside observer, little distinction can be made by the laymen past seeing the uniform. Are the officers receiving promotion doing so because they represent the ethic of the soldier-statesman, for example, or because they are skilled in combat tactics? These are largely functions that remain unperceived by the outside observer. Likewise the issue of civilian employees: even in America, which employs an enormous degree of civilian contractors in its middle-east deployments, from the Blackwater-type operatives to support staff and personnel (albeit this is largely so that the number of active servicemen can be seen to be going down in those theatres of operation), public perception is still one of soldiers being in harm’s way overseas. Finally, the complex issue of spouses and the military

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community is generally one with which only those directly affected will be familiar. To what degree does the military as an institution provide the good things in life? This becomes important also in Moskos’s (1988) Institutional/Occupational model, but only at the micro level, and thus there are far more accurate ways to measure this (policy analysis; solder’s individual experience) than through public perception.