Brain Drain: Factors that Influence Students’ Intention to Stay in the Host Country after Studying Abroad

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(1)Brain Drain: Factors that Influence Students’ Intention to Stay in the Host Country after Studying Abroad by Sofana Marisse Rojas Vargas. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: C. Rosa Yeh, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2015.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Conducting this research was a wonderful and enriching experience for both my personal and academic life. I would like to deeply thank my advisor Dr. Rosa Yeh, for encouraging, supporting and guiding me throughout this process. Her wisdom, professionalism, direction and extraordinary example were important to the fulfillment of this research. I would like to thank my beloved family, who inspire me and gave me the courage needed to conquer this important goal in my life. To my Mom: Madre, gracias por enseñarme a soñar en grande y por alentarme a ir tras mis sueños sin importar que tan imposibles, locos o inalcansable èstos parezcan; and to my guardian angel who is always looking after me, Dad I know you are proud and you are celebrating this with me! ICDF Taiwan, I appreciate the opportunity awarded and the investment you made in my education. Thank you for the support and for providing me with this unforgettable and unique experience. Also to my outstanding project managers, their academic support and guidance was of great help during these years. My lovely Taiwanese, foreign classmates and friends, you all made the struggles and difficulties of these past two years become an opportunity to create bonds amongst us through support for each other and inevitably turning us into an international family. I compiled remarkable memories, breathtaking laughs, and incredible stories I will treasure for the rest of my life. Most importantly, thank you God, I entirely dedicate this to you. Without you, this would not have been possible. You have blessed me not only with education but also by bringing new experiences, cultures and wonderful people into my life; I will never forget this stage of my existence. Your support and love is always unconditional..

(3) ABSTRACT ‘Brain drain’ is a phenomenon in which people with high qualifications and a high level of skills and competences, emigrates. One major case of the brain drain occurs when students from developing countries, studying in the developed ones, decide not to return home after they graduate. This study attempted to identify the factors that influence the intention of students to stay in the host country, after they graduate. A group of students from developing countries were examined, in order to confirm if family ties, institutional and social support of the host country were direct important factors that influence their intentions moderated by their perception of the host country labor market. Each factor was analyzed on a dimensional level: perceived support from students and professors, perceived support from university regarding immigration inquiries and internship inquiries, and family ties; moderated by perceived labor market job opportunities and labor market career advancement. After running a pilot study, a survey was conducted on a sample of 303 students from developing countries, studying in different host countries all around the globe. To ensure statistical validity, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed and Chronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated. Correlation and regression analysis were performed to test the hypotheses. The results show that support received from professors is positively associated with the students’ intention to stay and that strong family ties is negatively associated with that intention. However, the relationship between family ties and intention to stay can be weakened by the positive perception the student has towards the labor market (job opportunities dimension) of the host country. The study also found partial moderator effect of the perceived labor market from both dimensions on the relationship between social support and intention to stay. Finally, the association between support received from the university (from both dimensions) and the intention to stay was not supported by the results of this research. Keywords: Social support, labor market, foreign students, brain drain, talent flow. I!! !.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT. ...................................................................................................................................... I. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ........................................................................................................... II. LIST OF FIGURES. .................................................................................................................... IV. LIST OF TABLES. ....................................................................................................................... V. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION. ............................................................................................ 1. Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 2 Motivation for the study ........................................................................................................ 4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 4 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................... 5. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW. ............................................................................ 7. Brain Drain ............................................................................................................................. 7 Theoretical Background ...................................................................................................... 11 Social Support .................................................................................................................... 12 Perception of University Support ....................................................................................... 16 Family Ties .......................................................................................................................... 19 Perception of Labor Market ............................................................................................... 22. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................... 26 Research Framework ........................................................................................................... 26 Hypothesis ........................................................................................................................... 27 Research Procedure ............................................................................................................. 29 Sampling .............................................................................................................................. 30 Data Collection .................................................................................................................... 31 Measurement ....................................................................................................................... 32 Instrument Design ............................................................................................................... 37 Validity and Reliability ....................................................................................................... 39 Data Analysis Methods ........................................................................................................ 48. II!! !.

(5) CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................... 49 Sample Profile ..................................................................................................................... 49 Correlation Analysis ............................................................................................................ 52 Regression Analysis ............................................................................................................ 56. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ........................................... 68 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 68 Research Implications ......................................................................................................... 69 Practical Implications .......................................................................................................... 70 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 71 Future Research Suggestions .............................................................................................. 72. REFERENCES. ............................................................................................................................. 73. APPENDIX A THE QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................................... 81 APPENDIX B LIST OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !. III! ! !. ........................................... 85.

(6) !. LIST OF FIGURE Figure 2.1. The social convoy model by Khan & Antonucci, 1980 ........................................ 12 Figure 3.1. Research framework ............................................................................................. 26 Figure 3.2. Research procedure .............................................................................................. 30 Figure 3.3. Confirmatory factor analysis for perceived social support variable ...................... 44 Figure 3.4. Confirmatory factor analysis for perceived support from university variable ...... 45 Figure 3.5. Confirmatory factor analysis for family ties variable ........................................... 46 Figure 3.6. Confirmatory factor analysis for labor market variable ....................................... 46 Figure 4.1. Interaction plot for the moderating effect of perceived labor market-career on perceived social support from students and intention to stay ............................... 61 Figure 4.2. Interaction plot for the moderating effect of perceived labor market-career on perceived social support from professors and intention to stay ........................... 62 Figure 4.3. Interaction plot for the moderating effect of perceived labor market-career on family ties.............................................................................................................. 64 Figure 4.4. Interaction plot for the moderating effect of perceived labor market-job opportunities on family ties .................................................................................. 64 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! IV! ! !.

(7) !. LIST OF TABLES !. Table 3.1. Measurement Scale Items ...................................................................................... 36 Table 3.2. Items Adjustment ................................................................................................... 38 Table 3.3. Reliability Analysis of Pilot Test (N= 41) .............................................................. 39 Table 3.4. Exploratory Factor Analysis for all Variables ........................................................ 41 Table 3.5. Summary of Goodness-of-Fit for Confirmatory Factor Analysis ......................... 43 Table 3.6. Multi-group Comparison Results (Cross Validation) ............................................ 45 Table 3.7. Summary of Chronbach’s Alpha Coefficient Reliability Results for Each Variable Dimension (N= 303) ................................................................................ 47 Table 4.1. Descriptives Statistics of Sample (N=303) ............................................................. 49 Table 4.2. Correlation Analysis .............................................................................................. 55 Table 4.3. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis ......................................................... 60 Table 4.4. Overview of Hypothesis Testing ........................................................................... 65!. V! ! !.

(8) ! ! !. !. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The high unemployment rate around the world has become a major concern for students that are about to enter the labor market. The labor market is becoming more arduous to enter and even a degree from a well-known local university does not guarantee employment in the area of the students’ expertise anymore. Employers focus more on quality and international education when hiring employees (Ermólieva, 2011). Moreover, the students from the developing countries are concerned, as well, about their education as a direct consequence of increasing globalization, which, in turn, greatly augments the already fierce competition amongst their peers. Therefore, a plethora of the aforementioned pupils decide to study abroad to pursue a high-quality education that they believe will ensure a superb pecuniary quittance post-graduation (Hayes & Lin, 2011). However a high percentage of those considered as “international students” remain in the host country due to job opportunities and benefits they received in the host country compare to what their own countries have to offer them. According to CELADE (Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia, Latin-American Center of Demography), the number of Latin-American professionals outside of their home countries was approximately 300,000 in 1990, with an increase of almost 1 million in 2000 (Ermólieva, 2011). In most of the so-called developing countries, brilliant minds can be found, but, because of a scarce amount of resources and funds, cannot be employed at their maximum potential. Therefore, many companies and organizations, national and international, have encouraged students to pursue studies abroad. However, the tendency shows that once student finish and obtain their degree they do not return to the home country which leads to a brain drain phenomenon (Miyagiwa, 1991). Many countries, especially developing countries, such as Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Mexico, Guatemala, Jamaica and Iran are currently facing and dealing the problem of migration of highly skilled personnel. In some cases, more than two-thirds of their highlevel educated population has left to a developed country (Irogbe, 2013 as cited in Fakhrutdinova, Kolesnikova, Suleimanov, & Khalikov, 2014) and countries like Argentina, 1! ! !.

(9) ! ! !. !. Chile and even Britain reported since many years ago a loss of four thousands professionals over a ten-year period (Portes, 1976). In Mexico, for example, between the years of 2004-2007 it was reported an approximate 6.8 million of high-level educated citizens and the expatriates’ rate was 6.5% with a result of 411,000 Mexicans outside of the country. In Argentina the estimation was an approximate of 165,600, in Brazil 184,000 and in Dominican Republic 99,000 citizens with a high-level education outside of the country (Ermólieva, 2011). The brain drain can indeed be seen as a negative externality on the population left in the source country (Bhagwati & Hamada, 1974), due, for example, to imperfect substitution between skilled and unskilled labor (Luo & Ping, 2003). The negative impact of the brain drain has also been stressed in the literature; Haque and Kim (1995) underline the positive impact of migrations on human capital formation, but when turning to the issue of the brain drain, conclude that there is a detrimental growth effect. Globalization is primarily manifested in the possibility of educational mobility. The growth of international mobility of scientific personnel is an integral feature of the globalization of science, and in this context, the problem of "brain drain" in developing countries is particularly worrying.. Statement of the Problem Many studies focus on the phenomenon of brain drain and how it affects the economy of both host and home country. This study attempted to understand the phenomenon of brain drain on an individual level. Specifically, this study attempted to understand the reasons that drive the students to make such an important decision as to remain in the host country or return to their home countries. Previous work focused on identifying the factors that influence students on this type of decision; however, this study adds value to previous work by analyzing results from students coming from developing countries. Students will react to the way in which the society (classmates or friends and professors) welcome them and how this network actually guide them or provide them with tips or advices on how to enter the market in the host country. Moreover, family plays an important role in a student’s life, especially when it comes to an important decision as to 2! ! !.

(10) ! ! !. !. become an expatriate. In some cases families encourage the talent flow because it is beneficial for both the student and the family. In other cases, the strong family ties (more common among women) encourage the student to return to home country (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). The decision of staying in the host country, made after the students’ arrival, is no longer just an adventure or an opportunity to get to know a different culture, yet a personal investment and a family strategy to improve the quality of lifestyle either for the individual or the entire family (Cevallos, 2013). Another important factor that may influence students is the perception on the labor market of the host country. Due to a bad economy in developing countries salary, career advancement and job opportunities are being affected and this does not motivate student to return to their home country. The perception of the job market plays an important role as a push factor away from home country as the oversaturation of the local job market leads to a fierce competition for better jobs. As a result, these students consider that being trained and working outside of their countries gives them an advantage over other students who does not possess local, regional and international experience like them (Akl et al., 2007). One of the first host-country environments a foreign student interacts with is the University and if the university has programs that promote internships or job opportunities for foreign students they would be informed as to how to enter the labor market of the host country. The student may feel more optimistic about the chances and probabilities they have career wise, and be influenced to the decision to remain in the host country. The same effect can happen if they know the process of becoming a permanent resident or obtaining work permit while still in the campus. Finally, this study attempts to replicate a previous study by Baruch, Budhwar and Khatri (2007) that researched the brain drain phenomenon and the factors that influenced the decision of the students of staying in the host country or returning to the home country. However, this study adds value to the literature because it fills the gap of the previous one that did not emphasize on the students coming from developing countries. No similar studies have been found on this sample. 3! ! !.

(11) ! ! !. !. Motivation for the Study The study is significant because it attempts to obtain a more precise explanation to the brain drain phenomenon that developing countries are experiencing. As the sample of this study comes from the developing countries and also this sample was not previously studied in depth, it is important to obtain findings that help understand the personal and social reasons why students decide not to return home after graduating abroad. To point out the factors that influence the foreign students’ intention to stay in the host country should be of interest to the ministries of education and job employment departments of the developing countries to amend their policies if they want to keep their talents in the home countries. On the other hand this study adds valuable information to the relevant government ministers or agencies in the host countries to improve labor and immigration policies when they have an interest of retaining those talented foreigners with a willingness to stay in that host country.. Research Questions Factors that were studied in this research are social support, family ties, perceived support from the university and perceived labor market. These factors are linked to the intention of foreign students to remain in the host country, in an individual level of analysis. The adjustment process when moving to a different culture is of high relevance for performance and effectiveness, and students who experience a smooth adjustment to the new country may be happy to stay in the environment where they felt welcomed by the society (Shay & Baack, 2004). This environment refers to the social support such as connections with personal friends, networking with classmates, assistance provided by professors and staff from the university (university support), relationship with family members and the perceived career and job opportunities in the labor market of the host country. Therefore, this study aims to find out whether social support, family ties and perceived university support moderated by the perception of job market have an influence over foreign students’ intention to remain in the host country. The research questions this study attempts to answer are as follows: 4! ! !.

(12) ! ! !. !. •. Does the external environment in the host country have an influence on foreign students’ intention to remain in the host country after graduating?. •. What are the personal factors that influence foreign students’ decision to remain in the host country?. •. What are the social factors that influence foreign students’ decision to remain in the host country?. •. Does perceived job market have an effect on the influence of personal and social factors on foreign students’ decision to remain in the host country?. Definition of Terms Brain drain: “The phenomenon in which people of a high level of skills, qualifications, and competence, leave their countries and emigrate” (Baruch et al., 2007). For this study brain drain focuses on students from developing countries that pursue studies in developed countries and decide to remain in the host country after graduating. Social support: For the purpose of this study the perception of social support entails a collection of support, aid and advices that a student receive from her/his classmates and professors in a personal level that helps them to get more information about the labor market and how to enter it. This study considers two dimensions of social support: support from other students and support from professors. The support received from classmates or professors promotes a positive influence for a student to decide to remain in the host country. (Sarason & Duck, 2001). Perception of university support: The support a foreign student receives from the university about internship or career opportunities, help to find employment (Tharenou, 2014) and orientation regarding visa processes, work permits and other matters related to the process of relocation after the graduation. Therefore, two dimensions were analyzed for this variable: Internship inquiries and Immigration inquiries Family ties: For this study family ties was the strong ties, attachments and commitment that students have with their family back home in which case, these ties will work as a push away factor that influences the student to leave the host country. Instead, if 5! ! !.

(13) ! ! !. !. the student has family in the host country, this factor will work as a pull to factor and the intention for the student to stay in the host country will increase (Baruch et al., 2007). Perceived labor market: In this study, perceived labor market is defined as the perception of opportunities that a student has access to base on his own abilities, labor conditions and other external factors that represent job opportunities and opportunities of career advancement or lack of it (Vos, Clippeleer, & Dewilde, 2009). Therefore, the two dimensions analyzed for this variable are career advancement and job opportunities. Intention to stay in the host country: Refers to the conclusion that a student intends to arrive at whether to permanently relocate to the host country by entering the host country labor market or to return home after graduating. Developing countries: For this research this refers to the countries included in the official list of developing countries by the International Monetary Funds (IMF). List is attached in the Apendix B.. 6! ! !.

(14) ! ! !. !. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW To serve the study’s need, the following literature review focused on the relationship of mainly four factors and how these influence the decision of a student on remaining in the host country after finishing with their studies. This chapter is divided into the following sections: Brain drain, theoretical background, social support, perception of university support, family ties and the perception of labor market and how they influence students’ decision as to remain in host country.. Brain Drain The phenomenon of brain drain was originated in Grain Britain in the late 70’s and has gained a lot of attention in the past couple of decades because of its rapid increase (Mahroum, 2000, as cited in Baruch et al., 2007). The phenomenon refers to people with high level of skills, qualifications and competence that leave their countries and emigrate (Baruch et al., 2007). In most cases, people who come from developing countries immigrate to developed countries (Cevallos, 2013). Early literature review tended to conclude that brain drain was detrimental to the senders’ countries (Bhagwati, 1976), he explained that the phenomenon started by foreign students going abroad which sometimes was not one of the most efficient channels of developing world resources. Bhagwati (1976) identified different reasons such as the international student not wanting to return home once graduated resulting in a contribution to the “brain drain”, which is a lost for the developing country. Or on the contrary, the student may return home with too advanced and high quality skills and knowledge that does not suit his/her home country conditions resulting in a waste of talent. Some definitions from early literature for this phenomenon are as follow: brain drain is hemorrhaging of talent from less developed to more developed economies (Cevallos, 2013). Also ‘brain drain’ according to Cheng and Yang (1998, p.626) is “an integral component of international migration and the global restructuring process”.. 7! ! !.

(15) ! ! !. !. Since the phenomenon of brain drain started and even before the term ‘brain drain’ was developed, many studies have been conducted in order to understand this phenomenon advantages and disadvantages, the causes and impacts and many others (Bhagwati & Hamada, 1974; Grubel & Scott, 1966; Pedersen, 1991; Rodriguez & Horton, 1995; Stark, Helmenstain & Prskawetz, 1997). Many countries, especially developing countries have faced this situation in the past and still in the present. One of the biggest concerns is that countries are investing in the education of their people but then losing their most talented workers (Faini, 2007). In the case of Jamaica, for example, had to train five doctors to retain one, Grenada 22 and Caribbean countries are predominantly affected by the brain drain phenomenon, apparently because of their closeness to United States (Faini, 2007, p.178). Docquier, Lohest and Marfouk (2007), gives extensive confirmation about this trend of countries losing talented workers. In his study he confirmed that African countries undergo from a massive emigration of highly educated and skilled workers, with more than 30 percent of their finest and best citizens working abroad, mainly in the European countries because of its geographical closeness position. In a different line of argument, literature review has tried to emphasize on the positive impacts of this phenomenon such as the role of remittances (World Bank, 2003 as cited in Canales, 2005). Remittances are very important and they play an important role for developing countries’ economy. In 2004, remittances sent by people working abroad were of 120 million of dollars from which 40% was sent to Latin American countries indicating this region as the one that receives the most remittances (Canales, 2005). However, workers that are linked to sending remittances are those who are willing to take those less liked jobs in the developed countries such as agricultural jobs or the ones that entail more physical skills than academic skills (Ratha, 2005). In fact, Rodriguez and Horton (1995) presumed that migrants earn more money than if they were in their home countries due to their high level of education and skills therefore they were likely to remit more. However, the evidence in other studies shown that the majority of skilled workers that emigrate to develop countries and are indeed earning more money came from a wealthy family able to financially support themselves and therefore those workers have less or none intention to send money back to their countries (Rodriguez & Horton, 1995). 8! ! !.

(16) ! ! !. !. On an institutional level, immigration policies have been one of the biggest concerns linked to brain drain because high-level educated people are immigrating to developed countries but due to hard and unfriendly immigration policies they are not able to legally settle in the host country. Instead, they have to accept the unwanted jobs by the locals and they are not able to use their skills at its highest potential (Brecht, Davidson, & Ginsberg, 1995). In other cases, “they may end up unemployed or working in other sectors rather than in the field they studied, contributing to ‘brain waste’” (Sager, 2014, p.562). That is why in order to make the best use of their skills people choose countries that have immigration systems that take relaxed rather than an unwelcoming approach to foreigners (Luo & Ping, 2003). In order to stop the phenomenon, home countries are also contributing to put obstacles to brain drain. Most recent literature review show that in order to avoid this brain drain phenomenon or more specifically ‘brain waist’, some emigration restrictions has been implemented by some countries to prevent skilled workers from leaving (Ypi, 2008). Reinforcing emigration restrictions is an understood policy that prevents skilled workers from leaving because they possess skills that are valuable to their community. However, many disagreements have arisen due to some paradoxes to human rights, the right to emigrate (Harvey & Barnidge, 2007). Due to many negative opinions about brain drain in the past years, some studies attempted to find ways to compensate the negative impact of this phenomenon in the developing countries. Therefore, Bhagwati (1976) studied another aspect of brain drain: taxation. He proposed that people that immigrate to developed countries should keep paying taxes for their home countries so this supplements in a monetary way their emigration from the home country (Sager, 2014). The second argument presented by Bhagwati (1976) is that paying taxes to the home country may consider being unfair by migrants who are also requested to pay taxes in their country of residence. However, this is the cost for migrants who want to continue enjoying the benefits of citizenship in their home countries. Nonetheless, the study proposed that migrants have also the option to renounce their citizenship if they would prefer to not pay the taxes in both countries (Mirrlees, 1982). 9! ! !.

(17) ! ! !. !. Other concerns related to brain drain in previous and recent literature are from a macro-point of view and a national level. In some countries such as Russia, information security is really important for the governments; this refers to a certain level of protection of the state against external threats. Because of the brain drain phenomenon, highly sensitive information has been filtered and disclosed, especially by those skilled workers associated with intellectual work and scientific or technical developments who leave the country and expatriate (Fakhrutdinova, Kolesnikova, Yurieva & Kamasheva, 2013). Nonetheless, recent literature also recognized the positive role of brain drain at the same national level. If a highly educated person cannot find a job in their home county, then they should be free leave the country for their economy and well-being. At the same time this relives the problem of unemployment and stimulates ‘brain circulation’ (Bhargava, Alalade, Ellamushi, Yeh and Hunter, 2013); which is another side of brain drain. It involves a person to stay in the host country, remain expatriate for a couple of years, which in the meantime receives training and international work experience, and then return to their home country spreading all the knowledge acquired in the host country (Fakhrutdinova et al., 2014). Some other concerns are the moral implications of brain drain; skill workers are actually the ones in the capacity to build and sustain governments, schools, hospitals. They are the one able to promote development. In essence this is the reason of the fear of brain drain. (Kapur & McHale, 2005). Another concern that is very important and related to what this research attempts to study is the migration policies and the waste of talent (Akakpo & Lenard, 2014). Some international students that come from developing countries decide not to return home once they graduate; but due to unfavorable policies of the host country regarding legal immigration, they cannot enter the labor market of their specialty or field. Therefore, in order to be able to enter the host country labor market, highly educated foreigners seem to be forced to fill in vacancies that are with a low payment and their skills and knowledge are being wasted (Özden & Schiff, 2006).. 10! ! !.

(18) ! ! !. !. Previous studies have found this phenomenon to have negative impact on developing countries because they are the ones that loose these knowledge, talent and workforce. It is mainly due to bad political policies in these countries that make people not feel well appreciated (Cevallos, 2013). On the other hand, some studies (Carr, Inkson & Thorn, 2005) have even suggested the term ‘talent flow’ to replace the ‘Brain Drain’ label because it represents more fairly the gain of knowledge and talent for the developed countries. But what are the reasons why people decide to remain in the host country? Baruch (1995, p.99) believes that “globalization has fundamental implication for the mobility of people across geographical and cultural boundaries”. Many other factors at national, organizational or individual levels can also be implicated in this phenomenon; however, this study focuses on an individual level. According to the push-pull theory (Toren, 1976), a person move to a country because they are attracted by positive aspects of the country they are going to immigrate to and are driven away from their home countries by negative aspects. Another theory that adds information to this study is the expectancy theory (Ajzen, 1991) which explains that individuals’ motivations to transfer from their countries rise when they expect that by remaining in the host country, it will bring more positive results than those if they stay in their home countries. Therefore, different factors influence the students’ intention to remain in the host country; however, it is the individual choice of the student, thus it is the ones that are closest to the student that influence the final decision (Baruch et al., 2007).. Theoretical Background The factors that influence students’ intention to remain in the host country are examined trough the social convoy model, which serves as the study’s theoretical framework. In this model of social relations that individuals go through life embedded in a personal network of individuals from whom they give and receive support. Kahn and Antonucci (1980) came up with this model “that expresses the dynamics by which personal networks interact during social transition, while adapting to the demands of the environment” (GarciaRamirez, Martinez, Balcazar, et al., 2005, p.677) by three different circles that represent the support a person receives. The inner circle represents the ‘kin’: close affective links such as 11! ! !.

(19) ! ! !. !. family and significant others (immediate family), which for this study can work as a pull or push factor depending if the student has family in the host country or not. Next, is the ‘insiders’: Friends, classmates, and even professors with the student have a rapport with. And finally the ‘outsiders’: roommates, members of organization that supports immigrants in that country and university staff who can provide support, technically and emotionally, as well as provide guidance regarding the process of entering the job market, residence and visa processes at the host country. Figure 2.1 represents the three level of the social support a person can receive and describes who belongs to each level.. Kin:%Family%or%significant%others%in%the%host% country%. Insiders:%Friends%,%classmates,%professors%. Outsiders:%Society%such%as%Roommates,% Employers,%Neighbors,%University%Staff%. Figure 2.1. The social convoy model by Khan & Antonicci, 1980.. Social Support There is diverse literature about social support and in this section many approaches from previous studies are going to be compiled. In the early literature one of the most common approaches for social support is in the area of health because it has been demonstrated to have dramatic health-related effects (Kaplan, Cassel & Gore, 1977). Most commonly, social support has been related to stress and people’s behavior towards unfortunate consequences, crisis or change they experience trough out their lifetime and how they reacted based on the support received (Cobb, 1976). 12! ! !.

(20) ! ! !. !. Concepts for social support changes depending on the approach it is been studied. Cobb (1976) describes that social support is the information received by an individual that leads them to believe he/she is cared or loved by someone. Moreover, it can be information that leads the subject to sense that he/she belongs to a network of communication and mutual responsibility, a group in the society. This description meets findings from Alderfer (1969), who previously introduced emotional support. When a group in the society declares in public that an individual is valued his/her sense of personal worth is reaffirmed or increased. Other concepts of social support refer to the extent to which the relevant needs from the outside environment are met and depending on the culture, the social support an individual demands to satisfy those needs is going to be received through all our life mainly from the family members (French, Rodgers & Cobb, 1974). Lack of this type of support may result in adolescent with drinking and delinquency problems, low quality performance in the schools, stress-related and psychology-related diseases (Haynes & Sackett, 1974). In more recent literature, social support is related to immigration because these groups of people face themselves in a new environment, different cultures and also different conducts when they arrive at the host country. This can result in a ‘social loss’ (Heikkinen & Lönnqvist, 1993). Moreover, the term refers to the great sense of loss people experience because of their family, culture and social behaviors they left behind. As a consequence, they feel lonely or isolated and most of the time they struggle trying to identify functions necessary to their future wellbeing as foreigners (Schram & Lauver, 1988). The process is more complex if the language is included in this matter. Researchers have pointed out that low proficiency level of the host country language becomes an obstacle to immigrants who are trying to socially interact with and bend to the new society (Pedersen, 1991). To fill this emptiness and desolation in their social lives, they have the tendency of creating unions or strong ties to groups from their own ethnic communities (Kang, 1972). Furthermore, social support has been related to social network. Burt (2009) indicated that social networks helps people that are searching for a job because having an insider or 13! ! !.

(21) ! ! !. !. someone already working in a desired company provides information that can facilitate the opportunity to be hired. However, there may be some restrictions regarding social network that can, in the opposite way, reduce the access to information if the individual belongs to a minority ethnicity group, which becomes a disadvantage for the one trying to enter the labor market (Dreher & Cox, 2000). This leads to another approach founded in the literature review, which is the problem of stereotyping and discriminating certain ethnicity groups in a society. As mentioned before, Cobb (1976) defines social support as information received that makes an individual to believe or feel care of or loved. However, Ayres (1995) reported a series of dynamics when studying price negotiation. He found that dealers were more willing to provide information, more likely to provide discounts and more likely to have a better attitude to white-male customers than to those ones from other ethnicity group. Therefore, some behaviors from the society instead of supporting can also negatively affect an individual. In addition to the negativity that can be received by the society, in the early literature, a study described the support from women and the sex role differences. Caplan (1974), for example, studied the case of women who, at that time, were supposed to be considered more capable of providing support than men. This is because women are more feminine, delicate, compassionate, caring, and empathetic; therefore they had the resources to provide support when needed (Burda, Vaux & Schill, 1984). This point of view may be also related to discrimination or gender inequality. For this study the literature was focused on the one related to the social support that a specific group of individuals (international students) receives from professors and students while they are in the decision-making process of staying in the host country after graduating (Baruch et al., 2007). Many factors affect the decision-making process of a person when evaluating to expatriate. Psychological factors and social support have been shown in previous studies to play an active role in facilitating the adaptability of foreigners in host countries (Portes & Rumbaut, 1996). Also it is known in many countries that immigrants from all over the world, 14! ! !.

(22) ! ! !. !. especially developing countries, face many different cultural, social, language and legal difficulties that obstruct their integration and adaptation to the new community (Canales, 2005) and therefore, the opportunity to feel comfortable within the society reduces. Social support has an active role on the social and labor adaptability of immigrants (Portes & Rumbaut, 1996), in that it might increase the possibilities of employment (Vinokur, Price, & Schul, 1995) and also empower the student, leaning on the decision of remaining in the host country. This literature review explains how networking and having guidance from people of the host country is a key predictor of a student obtaining employment once they graduate, contributing to a decision to remain in the host country. Many opportunities come from locals in the personal network, who provide tips on how to get a job and who also have access to information about this job opportunities or help by referrals. Regarding friends or compatriots, it has been found that foreign students that have inside their personal network another person that is also after the same objectives will enhance the knowledge of the environment and reduce the feeling of being a vulnerable outsider who cannot fit in the host country labor market, thus not being able to remain in the host country (Baruch, et al., 2007). Moreover, studies that focuses on the immigrant populations have confirmed that the information, advices and feedback received from locals is of high quality and importance when the objective is to find a job in that host country (Garcia‐Ramirez, Martinez, & Santoyala, 2002). By learning the style of looking for a job from locals, students that are about to graduate increase their chances to get into the host labor market resulting in an easier permanent stay. On the other hand, social support can be an obstacle for an immigrant to achieve its independence and integrate to the community. If the social support is perceived as null or insufficient the transition into a new culture is slow (Williams, & Alliger, 1994) and in this case the student might not be influenced in a positive way to remain in the host country. In fact, previous studies have found that if the student is not able to break in their host country’s social circle it results in a potential returnee.. 15! ! !.

(23) ! ! !. !. Hypothesis 1 Perceived level of social support in the host country is positively associated with the intention of foreign students to stay in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 1a. Perceived level of social support from students in the host country is positively associated with the intention of foreign students to stay in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 1b. Perceived level of social support from professors in the host country is positively associated with the intention of foreign students to stay in the host country after the studies.. Perception of University Support Studying abroad has significantly increased over the past years. Since 1989 many countries, such as United States, started to register an increase in the international students enrolled in their educational institutions (Pedersen, 1989). During all those years until now, the growing impact of international students has been both a positive and negative situation. Previous studies (Barber & Morgan, 1988) suggest that when the proportion of international students is half or more than local students, then the disadvantages may outweigh the advantages because culture, language, religion and others, can create difficulties between foreign and local students. Pedersen (1989) started studying the concerns that this situation arises to the educational institutions. Foreign students come from all over the world to study mainly in the field of engineering, business or management, mathematics and computer sciences and they can be both men and women (Eide, 1970). They receive their financial support from their families, government of both the host country or home country or any type of sponsorship that aids with the University tuition and others expenses (Eide, 1970 as cited in Pedersen, 1991). How should we refer to these students have been a debate since many decades ago. The terms international student or foreign student have been an argument in previous studies, this is because “the word ‘foreign’ have a negative connotation, and the word ‘international’ does not” (Pedersen, 1991, p.13). However, for this study both words are being used without any negative connotation. 16! ! !.

(24) ! ! !. !. Foreign students face grater difficulties than locals due to the adjustment process they have to go through in the host country. When these students arrive at the university this becomes the first place where they encounter new roles and behaviors which students are supposed to learn rapidly (Kasravi, 2009). The presences of these international students and the difficulties they may encounter have brought the concern of the ‘counseling’ they receive from the university. Unfortunately, they do not seek out for professional help from the university until the other resources have been exhausted. This tendency may not work on favor of the international student (Stroud, 2010). Some studies even suggest that international students are unwilling to ask for counseling or guidance from the university staff because there is a low level of awareness, usage and satisfaction with most of the services and programs that are believed to be exclusive for international students (Lomark, 1984). However, “international students who perceived high levels of internationalism on campus or had taken part in an orientation programs were more likely to depend on their faculty adviser, international office or other counseling resources” (Pedersen, 1991, p.24). Literature suggests that the most common reasons why an international student may need advising from the university are emotional situation like being away from family, cultural fatigue like having adjustment issues or the last one relating to financial difficulties, immigration problems and others (Carrintong & Detragiache, 1999). One of the first contacts students have in a foreign country is with the university staff. Therefore, this becomes one of the first channels of guidance and information providers for foreigner students. Trough out the time the student is surrounded by this environment which might, or might not, be in the “context of opportunity” (Sarver, 1983) in the way of internship opportunities, “facilitating factors” if the university have direct relations with the Foreign Affairs office, “resources” and “action control” if the university provides information on how to find a job after they graduate. All of this will motivate the student and provide ability and valuable opportunities, which can end up on a behavioral achievement (Ajzen, 1991) and decide to remain in the host country.. 17! ! !.

(25) ! ! !. !. For this study, ‘behavioral achievement’ refers to the interaction between situational variables and the individual subject’s motivation to achieve. Explicit (perceived support from university) and implicit (desire to remain in the host country) motivations work together to determine a behavior (Brunstein & Maier, 2005 as cited in Rabideau, 2005). The bond and perceived satisfaction that the students create with the institution, for this study the University, influence the student in a positive way to have intentions of remaining in their host country once they graduate. This is based on the fact that the responsibility of institutional formal systems is indeed instrumental in serving individuals to shape their future plans (Gutteridge, Leibowitz & Shore, 1993). Student’s orientation programs such as future career plans or internships programs provided by the university can make a significantly influence on foreign students and be of good influence for them to remain in the host country (Martin & Dixon, 1994). Therefore, if the university contributes to provide information and support programs, students will feel more comfortable adapting to that country and envision a promising future regarding their career success. Subsequently, the assistance that the university provides, through counseling, guidance, a department in charge or connecting the student with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or specific government institutions, is crucial because students would also face legal challenges if they decide to remain in the host country (Garcia-Ramirez et al., 2002). Whether they perceive these challenges as something they can overcome with the help of the staff of the university can influence the student’s intention to remain in the host country. Hypothesis 2 The level of support a foreign student receives from the host university is positively associated with the intention to stay in the host country after studies. Hypothesis 2a. The level of support a foreign student receives from the host university regarding internship inquiries is positively associated with the intention to stay in the host country after studies.. 18! ! !.

(26) ! ! !. !. Hypothesis 2b. The level of support a foreign student receives from the host university regarding immigration inquiries is positively associated with the intention to stay in the host country after studies.. Family Ties Early literature studied family ties from a health and wellbeing of an individual approach. Medical science is increasing the recognition that having a good health does not only means having a disease-free body, instead is a state of physical and mental well-being of an individual (Ryan & Willits, 2007). In the specific case of the elderly, scholars insists that interpersonal relations have a tremendous influence over the well-being and health and that, on the contrary, having bad relationships and no support from the closest one, such as family members, is associated with a greater susceptibility to illness (Cicirelli, 1990). Also the marital status has been studied for this approach. Because family ties not only influence a good health in elderly, Coombs (1991) analyzed married couples as well. He found that married couples are more probable to feel satisfied and perceived themselves as having an good health because the support provided by their spouses. Moreover, a loving and happy marriage promotes a sense of protection and the partner care of the significant motivating habits that are good for the health such as: medical checkups, attention to illness, and even sports activities and a healthier living style (Wickrama, Lorenz, Conger, & Elder, 1997). On the contrary, not having a good supporting family system may be harmful for an individual’s physical health. People that experienced a tempestuous and low quality marriage tend to be depressive and the possibilities of having sickness and also mental illness increased due to a delicate immune system (Coombs, 1991). The influence individuals receive from the family is one of the most important because it is the one received since childhood, in most cases. Also, it is the one received in special stages of a human being’s life such as: the transitions from a young boy to an adult that get financial independence, when they leave their house to start his/her own households and other important events such as getting married and starting his/her own family. In all of 19! ! !.

(27) ! ! !. !. those examples the support from the family someone receives influences many decisions that need to be taken. Depending on the culture the family ties can be really strong or not (Caplan, 1974). Family support, in many cases, refers to an economical-type of support that is provided from parents or family members to the student while they are pursuing a degree (Cevallos, 2013). For this study family support will consider to be, the strong ties, attachments and commitment a student has with the family back home in which case work as a push away factor that influence the student to leave the host country. Instead, if the student has a family in the host country, this factor will work as a pull factor to the host country and the intention for the student to stay in the host country will increase (Baruch et al., 2007). Previous studies have shown in their results that students that have strong family ties decide to return home based on the need they have to be with their relatives. Their commitment with their own country and personal family matters lead them to decide to return immediately to their home countries after graduating. Another reason is the need to help their families with their own family business or financially support them (Shen, 2004). In the family system theory (Brett & Stroh, 1997), “the family consists of a set of elements in a dynamically balanced equilibrium”. Therefore, family support is a very important pull factor to the home country that influences a student decision not to remaining in the host country because this family equilibrium may be affected if the student decides to relocate (Tharenou, 2014). Theories indicate various reference groups, such as family, can exert different types of influence on one’s performance and behavior (Park & Lessig, 1977). Depending on the situation, students may find the decision of staying in the host country a positive one. Bearden and Eztel (1982) explained that if an individual have strong family ties any important decision that affects their wellbeing and stability will be made base on the opinion of the family members. Some students may intend to return to their home countries to take care of aging parents or because their parents’ opinions (Kellogg, 2012). This will depend on the culture that the student comes from. China for example, with a collectivistic culture and the share of 20! ! !.

(28) ! ! !. !. Confucius values, promotes harmonious relationships especially through hierarchical relationships (Fei, 1992). Therefore Chinese students and students from other countries as well, can be very influenced by elderly parent to return to their home countries. In contrast, in societies with individualistic cultures parents promote the pursuit of individual dreams and goals. Literature review also shows that ‘family support’ can be a factor that influences the students’ decision in the other way (as a pull factor to the host country). An explanation of the two scenarios follows. If the family live in the home country they may encourage the student to remain in the host country because otherwise local friends will perceive that returnee had in part repatriated because they failed overseas and they were not of enough quality to enter the society and labor market while there (Ryan, & Willits, 2007). Therefore, student is motivated to remain in the host country to satisfy the family expectations of them to find work and succeed overseas (Gill, 2010). Some families have taught the idea to children since they were very young that education of an overseas university and living quality of some other countries are superior to local. (Pimpa, 2003) The second scenario is when the student has family or found her/his significant other in the host country or brought the dependents to the host country during her/his student period, in which case this factor influence, in a positive way (pull factor to host country) to the student intention to remain in the host country. This is supported by ‘the support of family theory’ (Brett & Stroh 1997) which evidence suggests that the family affects the decision whether the family remains in the host country or return home with the graduate. Mainly is because the family members will have good career opportunities too along with a happy family life and access to better quality education for their children. These are strong barriers to the return to the home country (Coombs, 1991, as cited in Tharenou, 2014). Hypothesis 3 The strength of family ties of foreign students to their family members (or significant others) in the home country is negatively associated with their intention to stay in the host country after their studies.. 21! ! !.

(29) ! ! !. !. Perception of Labor Market Early literature review refers to labor market from a microstructural approach which developed into a fine distinction between internal and external labor markets (Brett & Schill, 1984). Internal labor markets stimulate the development of an individual career pathway and develop market opportunities for that individual. Because of this previous statement such as ‘turnover patterns’ and ‘career trajectories’ has been associated to labor market (Kirschenbaum, & Mano-Negrin, 1999). Some finding from previous studies in the early literature (Cotton & Tuttle, 1986) describes that the perception of labor markets is related to characteristics of the individual such as age, education level, experience and in some cases even gender. In general studies proves that “job perceptions are particularistic and evolve along two distinct ‘opportunities’: the organizational and the external labor market” (Kirschenbaum, 1999, p. 1240). Furthermore, external labor market is associated with racial discrimination and gender inequality. More recently researchers such as Brett and Stroh (1997) found that men and women do not equally benefit from the strategies of the external labor market. This is because results show that male managers who have changed companies receive higher monetary compensations than female ones. In their study it is explained that it is possible for female managers to meet more obstacles and encounter significant discrimination in the external labor market compared to male managers. For this study the perception of labor market was analyzed through two dimensions which are the perception of opportunities that a student has access to base on own skills, abilities and knowledge and other factors that represent opportunity of career advancement or lack of it (Vos et al., 2009). Also, the perception that a foreigner student has towards the opportunities for employment and better job positions than what they can have access to in their home countries (Vertovec, 2002). The Human capital theory (Becker, 2009) can reinforce the relation between a good perception of labor market and the decision for a student to remain in the host country and how this can work as a pull factor. The theory explains that “people develop new skills, 22! ! !.

(30) ! ! !. !. knowledge and abilities by investing in education, work experience and training” (Tharenou, 2014, p.61) and therefore in order to recognize a return on the investment in education abroad, foreign graduates will remain in the host country to obtain a high-level job and financial remuneration. Depending on the country of origin the perception of labor market quality in the host country may differ (Bilke, & Nes, 1982). For a student choosing an educational institution, such as the university, is important, but equally important is the image the host country has regarding the job opportunities or labor market it can be provided to them (Drecher & Cox, 2000). Research showed that one of the most important factors of production in the world economy is a highly skilled workforce (Davis & Hart 2010), however, finding work for a foreigner can be very challenging. Therefore, it is important that the labor market of the host country have friendly labor policies for foreigners. If the foreign student has the perception of those labor policies to be very hard to accomplish, the intentions to stay are going to be reduced. When the law and policies allows the abiding of foreigners in the country the recruitment of the highly educated students is done through normal channels, therefore the perception of the labor market is more appealing for the student (Hugo, 2009) who want to at least try to place him/herself in the labor market of the host country and remain there. The perception of labor market can also work as a push away factor to the student intention to remain in the host country. Economic growth has slowed in develop countries as well, for example United States (Wadhwa, Saxenian, Rissing, & Gereffi, 2008), and therefore students may fear they would not be able to find jobs once they graduate. Based on the literature review, labor market can directly affect the dependent variable of this study; however this research attempts to analyze the moderating effect of the perceived labor market on international students. Factors such as social support, university support or family ties can work to push away or pull to the host country; nonetheless no matter how positive those factors are, the student will not make the final decision of staying 23! ! !.

(31) ! ! !. !. in the host country, if their perception of the host labor market is weak because their future career prospects at the host country will not fulfill their desired goals. Hypothesis 4 The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will moderate the relationship between personal and social factors of a foreign student and the intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4a. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from students and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4b. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from professors and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4c. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding internship inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4d. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding immigration inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4e. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will weaken the negative relationship between a foreign student’s family ties and his/her intention to remain in the host country after studies. Hypothesis 5 The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will moderate the relationship between personal and social factors of a foreign student and the intention to remain in the host country after the studies.. 24! ! !.

(32) ! ! !. !. Hypothesis 5a. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from students and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies Hypothesis 5b. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from professors and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies Hypothesis 5c. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding internship inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 5d. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding immigration inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 5e. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will weaken the negative relationship between a foreign student’s family ties and his/her intention to remain in the host country after studies.. 25! ! !.

(33) ! ! !. !. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter explains the research framework, the research hypothesis, research procedure, research design, data collection, sample profile, instrument design, measurement, validity and reliability and data analysis methods. The study adopts a quantitative approach in order to achieve its objective to analyze the relationship among four factors that influence international students from developing countries and their intentions to stay in the host country after finishing their studies, as moderated by the perception of the labor market.. Research Framework Figure 3.1 illustrates the factors that might influence students’ intentions to stay in the host country, which represents the independent variables in this study. It also shows the moderating effect of the perception on labor market between these personal and social factors and the intention to stay in the host country, which represents the dependent variable.. Figure 3.1. Research framework 26! ! !.

(34) ! ! !. !. Research Hypothesis Hypothesis 1 Perceived level of social support in the host country is positively associated with the intention of foreign students to stay in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 1a. Perceived level of social support from students in the host country is positively associated with the intention of foreign students to stay in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 1b. Perceived level of social support from professors in the host country is positively associated with the intention of foreign students to stay in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 2 The level of support a foreign student receives from the host university is positively associated with the intention to stay in the host country after studies. Hypothesis 2a. The level of support a foreign student receives from the host university regarding internship inquiries is positively associated with the intention to stay in the host country after studies. Hypothesis 2b. The level of support a foreign student receives from the host university regarding immigration inquiries is positively associated with the intention to stay in the host country after studies. Hypothesis 3 The strength of family ties of foreign students to their family members (or significant others) in the home country is negatively associated with their intention to stay in the host country after their studies. Hypothesis 4 The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will moderate the relationship between personal and social factors of a foreign student and the intention to remain in the host country after the studies.. 27! ! !.

(35) ! ! !. !. Hypothesis 4a. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from students and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4b. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from professors and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4c. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding internship inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4d. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding immigration inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 4e. The perceived labor market on job opportunities in the host country will weaken the negative relationship between a foreign student’s family ties and his/her intention to remain in the host country after studies. Hypothesis 5 The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will moderate the relationship between personal and social factors of a foreign student and the intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 5a. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from students and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies Hypothesis 5b. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s social support from professors and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. 28! ! !.

(36) ! ! !. !. Hypothesis 5c. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding internship inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 5d. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will strengthen the positive relationship between a foreign student’s perceived university support regarding immigration inquiries and his/her intention to remain in the host country after the studies. Hypothesis 5e. The perceived labor market on career advancement in the host country will weaken the negative relationship between a foreign student’s family ties and his/her intention to remain in the host country after studies.. Research Procedure This section explains the procedure followed for the completion of this study, as shown in Figure 3.2. The first step of the study was to identify a research topic based on literature. The second step was developing the theoretical framework and to review literature to identify viable areas of interest related to the topic and to support it. After the areas were narrowed down the hypothesis were proposed. Moreover, research framework was developed in order to have a structure of the relationship among the variables. Some parts of the measurement were adapted and adopted for this study, while some others were self-developed. The instrument for this study was supported by literature, reviewed by a panel of experts, followed by a pilot study in order to ensure the reliability and validity. Data was collected, analyzed, tested and lastly interpreted to obtain the findings. Finally, the results, conclusions and future research suggestions were proposed.. 29! ! !.

(37) ! ! !. !. Identification of the research topic!. Research theoretical background and literature review!. Defining hypothesis !. Design and adoptation of research instrument !. Development of research framework!. Pilot study and collection of data!. Analisis of data!. Findings, conclusions and future research suggestions!. Figure 3.2. Research procedure.. Sampling For this research, quantitative method was chosen through distribution of survey questionnaires to collect the data on the factors that were presumed to influence the students’ intention to stay in the host country. Survey questionnaires were distributed to students from developing countries, who were pursuing a Master Degree in a university located outside of 30! ! !.

(38) ! ! !. !. their country of origins. This was because they were the ones about to enter the labor market, settle down to gain work experience, and also decide where to reside. Since there was no sampling frame available for this population, convenience sampling was used and participants were reached through the snowball method. The criteria for inclusion in this study, ensured by two screening questions, were the following: 1. Students’ country of origin was a developing country. 2. The student did not have a solid intention to remain in the host country prior to his arrival.. Data Collection Initial contact was made with the Embassy of El Salvador and Nicaragua located in Taiwan to ask for their support to this research. It was agreed that a recruiting letter was going to be elaborated to explain to the participants the importance of their contribution and the value that the results were going to provide. An email was sent containing the recruiting letter and a Gmail survey link for those two embassies to distribute to the students in their database. Moreover, the project manager of Taiwan International Cooperation and Development Funds (TaiwanICDF) at National Taiwan Normal University was also contacted to become another distribution channel. She forwards the email containing the recruitment letter and the Gmail survey link to other TaiwanICDF project managers at Tamkang University, Ming Chuan University, National Cheng Kung University and National Chung Hsing University who distributed to their students. TaiwanICDF is an organization that provides scholarship to students from developing countries and therefore, more students were reached through this channel. Furthermore, the snowball sampling method was used trough social media (Facebook), and in this way students from a wide variety of developing countries studying in many different countries all over the world participated in this study. In Facebook, a request for participation as well as the Gmail survey link, was posted in different pages of Latin-. 31! ! !.