Coffee-pickers in the Northern Region of Nicaragua: Their Challenges as Migrant Labor

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(1)Coffee-pickers in the Northern Region of Nicaragua: Their Challenges as Migrant Labor. by. Maria Martha Aguilar Centeno. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph. D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2013. .

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Firstly, I would like to start thanking God for his guidance, infinite blessings and giving me the chance to accomplish all my goals in life, this time I have been blessed with the opportunity to study my Master Degree in Taiwan. On the other hand, I want to dedicate this achievement to my family, my parents Roberto and Martha and my little brother Albin. Thank you for all your love, support and faith in me. You’re the best and I could have not done this without you. I love you with all my heart. Father, your emotional support has played an important role through my whole life and your smile has always motivated me to pursue my dreams. Mother, thank you for always being there with me, supporting all my decisions and being the motor of my life and finally Albin, all your love has given me the strength to be a better person for you, somebody you can be proud of, thanks for being the caring brother, any girl would love to have. Moreover, without your help, I would have not been able to finish this project in life, we are a great research team. I want to specially thank my thesis advisor Dr. Chang for all your guide and support through this process. Without you I would have not been able to finish my thesis project. Thank you for all your caring and never hesitate to provide me your guidance when I needed it. You are an amazing human being. I respect and admire you so much and you are an example of excellence for me, you always have the right words to make me feel better and I will keep in my heart all what you have thought me. In addition, I could not leave my friends behind, the ones that from Panama were always supporting me and cheering me up everyday and the friends I have had the opportunity to make in this country, from different parts of the world but with one thing in common our precious friendship, which has been a motivation to keep going trough this journey. To conclude, I would like to thank to all my professors and IHRD staff for all your support, Vicky and Olli thank you so much for everything!!! More than your guidance and availability to help, I have also found two amazing friends. I also, want to express my gratitude to Dr. Tsay and Dr. Lee for being my committee members. Thanks a lot for all your suggestions, since the beginning of this project.. Thank you all! .

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(4) ABSTRACT. This research explores the life of coffee-pickers in the Northern Region of Nicaragua. This group is an important workforce for the agricultural industry in Nicaragua, which is the main industry of the country’s economy. The focal point is their life experience as migrant labor being the primary research purpose is to provide an in-depth explanation about the labor migration phenomenon that is given during the coffee harvesting in Nicaragua. The reasons why these labors migrate, how is the migration experience and what are difficulties of the process, were explored. For the migration process, the pull and push theory was used as theoretical framework to analyze the influence it has on the coffee-pickers decisions to migrate. Notable challenges faced by these migrant labors as employees have been identified therefore the compliance of the labor employment practices code laws as well as the coffee harvesting employment regulations from the employers side were investigated, issues such as salary compliance, child labor in the workplace, accommodation, health security have been addressed. Qualitative techniques are the main method of inquiry; previous observation has been conducted by the researcher. For data collection the triangulation method has been used in order to gather different perspectives about this issue from three important sources. 10 experts and 6 employers have been in depth interviewed to collect data about coffee pickers’ migration process. In order to collect data from the 50 employees’ that were part of sample, a structured interview was conducted. The review of documentation has also been a vital source of information that helped the researcher to have a better understanding of the research topic and about this particular workforce. The results obtained have direct implications on the public sector and the role it plays in the coffee production, as well on the employers and their management of migrant workers and finally and most important for employees as an opportunity to express their satisfaction as coffee pickers and the law compliance from the employers. Key words: coffee harvesting, migrant labor. I .

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract …………………………………………………………………………..………I Table of contents…………………………………………………………………..…..…II List of tables……………………………………………………………………….…….IV List of figures……………………………………………………………………….….....V. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………………………………………….………..1 Background of the Study………………………………………………………….……1 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………….………...4 Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………….………......6 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………….6 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………..……..7 Definitions of Terms……………………………………………………………..….…7. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW……………...………………………......9 Push and Pull Migration Theory………………………………………………….........9 Seasonal Migrant Labor …………………………………………………………..….11 Coffee Harvest Season………………………………………………….…………….14 Nicaragua Employment practices code: relevant articles for coffee-pickers….….…. 18. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS………………………….……....…….29 Research Approach………………………………………………………….…….….29 Research Framework………………………………………………………………….30 Research Participants…………………………………………………………………31 Data Collection………………………………………………………………………..33 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………....34 Research Procedure…………………………………………………………………...35. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ………………………….…37 Employees perspective……………………………………………………...…………37 Migration motivations…………………………………………………………..……..48 Migration …………………………………………………………………………...…51 Migration difficulties……………………………………………………………….....55 Migration Consequences……………………………………………………………....59 II .

(6) Law Compliance…………………………………………………………………..…..64 Other findings…………………………………………………………………….…...76 Discussions…………………………………………………………………………....77. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS……………..………..83 Research implications……………………………………………………………...…..85 Research Limitations…………………………………………………..……………...87 Suggestions for further study……………………………………………… ………..88. REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………...89 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS……………..………………...…....93 APPENDIX B: STRUCTURED INTERVIEW……………………………….....97 APPENDIX C : THEMATIC CODING ……..…………………………….........105 APPENDIX D : IMAGES ……………………………………………………….....111. III .

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Push and Pull Factors………………………………………………………….9 Table 4.1 Migration Data…………………………………………………………….….8 Table 4.2 Migration Process……………………………………………………………..40 Table 4.3 Children presence in coffee farms ………………………………………...….42 Table 4.4 Employees’ satisfaction……………………………………………………….45 Table 4.5 Migration motivations…………………………………………………………48 Table 4.6 Perceptions about migration…………………………………………………..52 Table 4.7 Migration difficulties……………………………………...…………………..56 Table 4.8 Migration consequences…………...………………………………………….59 Table 4.9 Law compliance…......………………………………………………………..64 Table 4.10 Benefits for the employee……………………………………...…………….80. IV .

(8) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Push and Pull Migration Process………………………………………….10 Figure 3.1 Research Framework…………………………………………………...….30 Figure 3.2 Triangulation research participants…………………………..……………32 Figure 3.3 Research Procedure……………………………………………………….36 Figure 5.1 Reasons why coffee pickers move………………………………………..85. V .

(9) . CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The primary purpose of this study is to explore the life experience as migrant workers of coffee-pickers in Nicaragua. The content of this chapter includes the background of the study, statement of the problem, research purpose, significance and delimitations of the study. Definitions of key terms are also provided, which conducts to have a better understanding of the basis of the study, its objectives and it’s contribution to the field of Human Resources Development.. Background of the Study It is known that since the beginning of humanity agriculture has been a subsistence activity and earth products have been the sustenance of world’s habitants. Through the evolution of the world it has also meant a communication source among people, trades related to earth resources has been practiced since our ancestors. During the 1940’s and 1950’s in the absence of either theoretical constructs or empirical information on the determinants of agricultural output, the tendency was to equate the modern sector with productivity in industrial investment. Economists continued to assign to subsistence agriculture an essentially passive role as potential source of “unlimited labor” and “agricultural surplus” for the world economy (Thorbecke, 1970). Now it has become increasingly evident in the lasts decades that the conception of economist and policy-makers regarding the role of agriculture in economic development has undergone an important position. Even thought in the past, agriculture was often viewed as the passive partner in the development process, it is now consider as an active and co-equal partner with the industrial sector (Thokerbecke, 1970). Nowadays, agriculture is not only considered as a subsistence activity but also as an important mainstay of the world’s society. Agriculture plays a vital role for the World Economy, being the most important economic activity for various countries and is expected to continue to be an engine of economic growth for the future years. Agriculture is a big resource for countries’ economic development, employment and million of families’ remains a subsistence activity. As McRae (2003, p.4) said: “Today, about half the world’s population lives in abject poverty. Roughly three-fourths of these poor people live in rural areas dependent upon agriculture”.. 1.

(10) An important agricultural product for many countries’ economy labeled by many as the “golden bean” as a representation of money for centuries is coffee. This product is part of peoples’ daily life, its also the subject matter of many experts in the area, the economic livelihood of over 25 million people in the world coffee, source of employment of others and most important a mainstay of some countries’ economic balance. This agricultural product also creates a phenomenon of workforce mobilization; when the coffee harvesting comes laborers migrate to coffee production areas, which will be the main focus on this research study. Coffee is an important commodity and a popular beverage around the world. Over 2.25 billion cups of coffee are consumed in the world every day. Over 90% of coffee production takes place in developing countries, while consumption happens mainly in the industrialized economies. Worldwide, 25 million small commodity producers rely on coffee for a living (Economics of coffee, 2012). World coffee exports amounted to 7.94 million bags in September 2012, compared with 7.71 million in September 2011. Coffee exportations in the coffee harvest 2011/12 (Oct/11 to Sept/12) have increased by 2.95% to 107.8 million bags compared to 104.7 million bags in 2010/11 (International Coffee Organization [ICO] 2012). In 2009 Brazil was the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by Vietnam, Indonesia and Colombia. For instance, in Brazil alone, where almost a third of all the world's coffee is produced, over 5 million people are employed in the cultivation and harvesting of over 3 billion coffee plants (Economics of coffee, 2012). Coffee is also bought and sold as a commodity on the New York Board of Trade. This is where coffee futures contracts are traded, which are a financial asset involving a standardized contract for the future sale or purchase of a unit of coffee at an agreed price. According to Goldschein (2011) coffee shops is the fastest growing niche in the restaurant business; it has a seven percent annual growth rate, therefore we can analyze the importance of the coffee production around the world and its vital role of the coffee industry in the agricultural growth of many countries. One of the world’s main coffee producer countries is Nicaragua. The quality of Nicaraguan coffee has attracted attention around the world. This is considered a "classic" cup: great body, clean flavor, and balance. It is unique among Central American coffees because of its. 2.

(11) highest grown (SHG grade: Strictly High Grown) which avoids the acidity sometimes found in the coffee produced by other countries (Coffee production in Nicaragua, 2012). Since coffee came to Nicaragua in the mid 1800s, it has played a significant role in Nicaragua’s economy and environment. Coffee has been an engine for Nicaragua’s national economic development process (Equal Exchange, n.d). The coffee production in Nicaragua is one of the most important sectors for it’s economic development, as well as source of job generation. Coffee is the number one product for foreign exchange and it provides the economic backbone for thousands of rural communities. More than 40,000 coffee farmer families cultivate this golden bean often in a way that preserves Nicaragua’s precious forests and threatened biodiversity. In the late 1990s, coffee annually contributed US$140 million to the national economy and provided the equivalent of 280,000 permanent agricultural jobs (Equal Exchange, n.d). The coffee production involves a process of cultivation of eight months (February to September), and the harvest season has a duration of three to four months (from October to February), this varies depending upon altitude of the land. There are some farms still producing in March, mostly at very high elevations (Haworth, 2012). In the economic sphere, globalization is not only characterized by liberalization of trade, services, investment, and capital, but also by transnational movements of people in search of better lives and employment opportunities elsewhere (Cholewinski, 2005). The harvest or coffee picking season is the most important in terms generation of jobs, because is when the coffee farms start employing farmworkers in order pick all the coffee that was cultivated during the year. This season involves a phenomenon of workforce mobilization. Especially when the coffee harvest starts, Nicaragua is not exempt of the labor migration phenomenon. In Nicaragua, during the coffee-picking season the internal migration predominates. As, transnational migration, national (internal) migration plays an important role in poverty reduction and economic development. For some countries, internal migrants outnumber those who migrate internationally. For example according to the International Labour organization, 120 million people were estimated to migrate internally in China compared to 458,000 people who migrated internationally for work. Rural-rural migration is another phenomenon that occurs in many countries which is related to the agricultural industry; for example, in Senegal, rural-rural migration occurs when. 3.

(12) laborers from poorer regions travel to agriculturally rich and irrigated areas, where job opportunities are better. In Nicaragua, coffee pickers travel around coffee producing areas in order to look for farms, where they can be employed during the season. This could be classified as national rural-rural migration, as these workers only move around rural areas because of the nature of the work to be performed. During this season, all the coffee production farms works towards attracting as much workforce as possible, because if there is lack of employees the coffee will fall down and this represents a big economic loss for these coffee producers. In Nicaragua the coffee harvesting requires around 200, 000 laborers, quantity that becomes very difficult to reach, in comparison to other countries such as Costa Rica where the payment per lata is around 1.42 US and Honduras 50 lempiras, which means 50 cordobas (Ibarra, 2012) .In their efforts to attract and retain employees the farms offer different benefits such as housing, transportation, meals and gatherings. The hiring of this workforce is very particular, because is usually very informal and there isn’t any kind of contract. The salary also depends on the quantity of the coffee that has been picked by the employee and its family, including children that attend to the farm in order to assist them to pick more quantity of coffee and increase their income. As stated by the International Labour Organization the turnover rate in many of these migrant jobs is very high due to harsh working conditions. This enhances the phenomenon of labor migration due to the lack of benefits given by the employees to these farmworkers and it’s rights stated by the Nicaraguan laws that are not fulfilled by the employers (International Labour Organization [ ILO ] , n.d).. Statement of the Problem Nicaragua has three primary geographic regions: the Pacific plains, central northern mountains and the Atlantic coastal lowlands. Rains are relatively infrequent in Nicaragua’s drier Pacific Northwest region and almost continuous in the coastal lowlands. For most of the rest of the country, the rainy season begins in May and ends sometime in December. Coffee cherries are generally harvested from October through February (Equal Exchange, n.d). This is a very important period for the country, as it is the biggest agricultural production during the year. More than 200, 000 labors were needed at the coffee producer farms, for the highest pick on the 2011-2012 season (Navas, 2011).. 4.

(13) The existent data in this field merely emphasizes the importance of the agricultural industry and the coffee production worldwide, leaving behind the workers that work in this kind of industries. There is only limited research conducted on the employees of the farms in Nicaragua. As previously mentioned these laborers usually migrate. Many come away from the Comarca or reservation for the season to earn money. Understanding the reasons why they migrate leads us to explore undercurrent issues. Most of these laborers migrate with all their families to different areas of the country looking for better salaries and benefits offered by the employers (owners of the coffee farms). Their earning potential is their main concern (Haworth, 2012). Children are involved in this process and are taken to the farms in order to help their parents to pick up coffee cherries. There is not enough literature regarding the lifestyle and difficulties that these laborers face, especially in Nicaragua were the research interest is reduced. The importance of the welfare of coffee-pickers and their children has not been a focus for academics in the field. These laborers don’t receive the adequate treatment as temporary labor, there is no contract of employment, health protection, unregulated alimentation provided by the farms as a benefit and the living conditions at the farms are very extreme; The overcrowding at the encampment can lead to many consequences. Efforts to enforce sanitary conditions, prevent child labor, and protect the workers from exploitation were met with slight success only until the 1960s (Cornelius, 1989). The coffee picking season’s migrant laborers should be seen as an important workforce that brings many benefits to the agricultural sector and the economic development of the Republic of Nicaragua. Hence, there is a need for more studies about the lifestyle of migrant workers in Nicaragua and the different difficulties faced by those. In addition, there is also a need of carrying out more exploration in the child labor issue that Nicaragua rural sector is facing, despite of the constants efforts of many organizations to eradicate child labor, this is a common practice carried out by the parents of the Nicaraguan Children as well as it is permitted by the employers. Therefore based on everything mentioned above it is necessary to conduct more research in order to analyze: the farm workers’ labor migration, the fulfillment of the laws that protect these laborers and difficulties faced by coffee-pickers as migrant labor.. 5.

(14) Purpose of the Study This study intends to mainly understand the experiences of coffee picking season labors as migrant labor focusing specially on the difficulties faced by these laborers. Addressing different issues such as the process of their frequent labor migration, their life at farms, and as employees of the big coffee production farms. The main reasons why these employees migrate have been investigated, as well as their satisfaction with the treatment of the employers, salary, and life conditions at farms. Another issue explored is the migration of the whole family, including children, from their homes to other areas and from one farm to another, within the same area, as part of the law compliance issues that are currently presented in the industry. Based on all the mentioned before, the primary purpose of this study is to examine: The reasons why coffee pickers migrate, the difficulties faced by the employees in this process of labor migration, along with the issues carried out by this kind of labor such as the protection of these workers and the law compliance from the employers’ side.. Research Questions The research study will be based on the following research questions, generated from the research purpose: 1. What are the reasons why coffee farmworkers migrate? 2. What are the difficulties that coffee farmworkers experience during the migration process? 3. Are the laws of the Nicaragua employment practices code o fulfilled by the owners of coffee farms? The coffee producer areas in Nicaragua are three but the study was conducted only in farms in the department of Matagalpa, which is located in the Northern Region of the country. Besides, the data collected trough observation method by the researcher. The sample was interviewed by two experts on the field, (one coffee farm owner / agricultural engineer and a lawyer of the Republic of Nicaragua). The study is delimited only to laborers in the coffeepicking season in North region of Nicaragua, because of the migration phenomenon given in this season.. 6.

(15) Significance of the Study The last coffee harvesting 2010-2011 contributed four hundred and thirty million $U.S to the Nicaraguan economy, being this first exportation product of the country, generating more than 280,000 jobs for Nicaraguan laborers (Canales, 2012). Regardless of the influence and importance that this industry has on the economy of Nicaragua, still the research using coffeepicking laborers, as an object of study is limited. The objective of the study is to understand why these farmworkers migrate, the process of migration and the difficulties that are carried out by this lifestyle along with the treatment of these laborers by the coffee production farm owners, in terms of law compliance. This labor migration has implications for the employers and employees. This will help the employers to find the real causes why the employees leave their jobs and move to another farms. The employees were able to show their life styles and express themselves regarding their satisfaction as coffee picking farmworkers. The study intends to defend these population human and laboral rights. The study also contributes to the different governmental and non- governmental organizations in the labor industry sector to have more knowledge of this typical population and a better understanding of its characteristics. This will benefit the Government in creation of new policies in order to manage the private sector fulfillment of the laws stated by the national codes as well as regulate the protection of farmworkers and their families as migrant labor as this population is a valuable resource of workforce for the agricultural sector growth in Nicaragua. Understanding the process that these employees go trough when they migrate, their high turnover rate is vital for the Nicaraguan Economic Development. Based on the data collected from the sample, this research also provides suggestions regarding the situation of this employees looking forward to the possibility of improvement in the treatment of this workforce.. Definition of Terms Coffee Harvest Coffee ripe cherries are either harvested by hand, stripped from the tree with both unripe and overripe beans, or all the coffee beans are collected using a harvesting machine. These processes are called selective picking, stripping, and mechanical harvesting, respectively. To. 7.

(16) maximize the amount of ripe coffee harvested, it is necessary to selectively pick the ripe coffee beans from the tree by hand and leave behind unripe, green beans to be harvested at a later time. (Griffin, n.d) Coffee grows in around eighty countries in South and Central America, the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. Arabica coffee accounts for about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide. It is grown throughout Latin America, Central and East Africa, India and, to some extent, Indonesia. (The Institute for Scientific information on Coffee [ ISIC ] n.d ). Migrant Labor According to The "United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families" defines migrant worker as follows: The term “migrant worker” refers to a person who is engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a State of which he or she is not a national. (United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights) Migrant labor has been also defined as a person who moves from place to place to get work, especially a farm laborer who harvests crops seasonally. An itinerant agricultural worker who travels from one district to another. (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2012). 8.

(17) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Having introduced the research, defined its significance for the Republic of Nicaragua and it’s economy, and stated its purpose in the previous chapter, which is understanding the difficulties that coffee-pickers face as migrants and how does the law protect them as migrant workers. The following chapter provides an in –depth review of the most significant literature that supports this study.. Push-Pull Migration Theory The Push-Pull migration theory was firstly analyzed by Everett S. Lee. In the Push- Pull theory geographers summarize the motivations for migration by considering how the relationship between the origin and destination are affected by push and pull factors. The Push factors exist at the point of origin and pull factor exist in the destination. This migration can only occur if the reason to migrate, which means the push is relieved by the corresponding pull at the next destination. In the context of labor migration, push factors are often characterized by the lack of job opportunities in sending areas or countries, and pull factors are the economic opportunities presented in receiving areas or countries. (Muñiz & Lei & Schleicher, 2011) Table 2.1. Push and Pull Factors Push Factors 1. Not enough jobs 2. Few opportunities 3. Primitive conditions 4. Desertification 5. Famine or drought 6. Political fear 7. Slavery or forced labor 8. Poor medical care 9. Loss of wealth 10. Natural disasters 11. War Note. Adapted from “Human migration”, 2012.. 9. Pull Factors 1. Job opportunities 2. Better living conditions 3. Political and/or religious freedom 4. Enjoyment 5. Education 6. Better medical care 7. Attractive climates 8. Security 9. Family links 10. Industry.

(18) The following figure explains the process of migration, according to the push and pulls theory:. Figure 2.1. Push and pull migration process. Adapt from “Migration Conceptual Framework: Why do people move to work in another place or country?” by Muñiz Osvaldo, Li Wei, Schleicher Yvonne (March, 2011) AAG Center for Global Geography Education.. This theory is closely related to the labor migration process of coffee-pickers in Nicaragua, the pull factors are definitively the reasons why workers decide to migrate to different areas of the coffee producing regions, or even just for one farm to another, these laborers make their decisions to migrate based on the benefits that migration will bring to their incomes and life quality.. Neoclassical Economic Theory The Neoclassical Economic Theory is the newest theory of migration and states that the main reason for labor migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked to geographic labor demand and supply. Labor tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas. Neoclassical economic theory is best used to describe transnational migration, because it is not confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations. (Human Migration, 2012). 10.

(19) This is the process that occurs during the coffee harvesting in Nicaragua, the mobilization of labor workforce to the coffee production regions. During the coffee-picking season these laborers also migrate to different areas or farms within the same region in order to look for higher wages, therefore we can state that the main motivations for migration are related to economic aspiration.. Seasonal Migrant Labor In recent years international migration has emerged as a major issue of research in the economic and sociological area (Borjas 2012), however at the same time internal migration has been overlooked, as the trend nowadays is international labor migration. Internal migration is a phenomenon that exists in every country of the world, but when seasonal harvesting comes the percentage of labor migration rises, hence seasonal migrant labor are in majority rural workers. There are massive migration waves, which are usually seasonal and internal due to the production of different seasonal jobs (mainly in agriculture). These type of migration usually moves according to the Push and Pull Factors migration theory, because these laborers move to different areas according to its situation, in this specific case, the pull factors are better job opportunities as well as higher wages, which these laborers can’t find at the previous area, they were staying. Most workers migrating are seasonal migrants (From October to Summer season) the average duration of an immigrant away from home is 5.6 months. 91% of Seasonal migrants are men and their education levels are higher. (Haberfeld, Menaria, Sahoo, & Vyas, 1999) The findings of many researches about the impact of seasonal migration indicate that seasonal migration among rural laborers has widespread for many reasons. Migrant labor is a compensating mechanism used by workers to reduce their disadvantageous position. A common characteristic of these laborers is the needs of improving their life quality. As Parrado & Cerruti (2003, p.104) said: “Economic motivations are of central importance for understanding migration decisions”. De Lima & Wright (2009), in their study done with migrant labors in Rural Scotland recognize that migrant workers may have various reasons for migrating, but most of the time labor migration has tended to emphasize economic drivers above all else. As mentioned above seasonal migrants are rural workers, these laborers are usually characterized by lower education levels and lower levels of income from agriculture therefore most of them migrate motivated for increasing their salaries. For example rural households in. 11.

(20) India use migrant labor offer by their members to improve their well being by reducing the impacts of inferior conditions and raising their income levels (Haberfeld et. al 1999). Seasonal migrant labors are a special type of migrant and special type of labors, these are characterized for facing many difficulties during their migration and as employees because are not considered valuable workforce however they are perceived as a necessary short-term measure as De Lima & Wright (2009) found in their research; in addittion most of them are not receiving the right treatment by employers as an important workforce. This fact is confirmed by many studies mostly conducted in the United States with Latin-Origin families as Parra-Cardona, Bulock, Imig, Villaruel & Gold (2006) found that the experiences of migrant labors and their families are extremely difficult and that these families continue to be part of the most economically disadvantaged groups. A number of studies have identified that migrant and seasonal farmworkers as a special population of agricultural workers that due to barriers produced by poverty, face specially unique work-related challenges and challenges in perceiving and protecting themselves from risks (Halfacre-Hitchcock, McCarthy, Burkett, & Carvajal, 2006). As Luetchford (2008 p. 166) said: “ In the face of this sense of shared destiny, landlessness and reliance on migrant labor remains an under-examined anomaly.” Their work related challenges are not the only concern when comes to migrant labor but the risks they face every day is also one of the most researched areas as Rust (1990, p. 1213) said: “ Migrant farmworker families are believe to experience poor health compared to the general population.” Overall, Internal migrant labor is as important as international labor migration. Rural to Urban or Rural to Rural labor migrants are a vital workforce that should be considered such as, they are a vital labor sector for the economic development of the countries, therefore them and their families’ rights should be respected.. Migrant Labor in Nicaragua Migrant labor in Nicaragua is not an unknown type of labor, international migration as internal migration is a common phenomenon in the country. Although, international migration is the most noticeable, internal migration which according to Rodriguez (2004) and Villa (1991) is the change of residency that a person carries out inside a country and crosses an official administrative border, occurs in Nicaragua for many reasons, but the most crucial one is for jobseeking opportunities.. 12.

(21) Entire families move from one administrative region to another, which in the case of Nicaragua are called departments, as well as from one municipality to another, these family can move permanently or temporary, the research is focused on the seasonal migrant labors, specially coffee harvest labor, that usually moves from one municipality to another depending on the farms location for job-seeking purposes. The Push and Pull migration theory is fully applied by these Nicaraguan as the push factors at their home place or their previous work place are the reasons why they decide to leave, and the pull factors are the ones that usually lack at their previous location, therefore the new location provides the missing part of the previous one. When the coffee picking season arrives, usually among the months of October or November, the labor workforce starts to locate the different farms where they want to work on, it doesn’t matter if it is far away from their hometowns but what really matters is the quantity of coffee available to pick in the farm, the benefits that the farm offers, or especially the payment per lata (If the wedge is higher) which means their earning potential is their main concern (Harworth 2012). The lata is the official and obligatory measurement in Nicaragua; The official price per lata is 27 Córdobas an equivalent of 1.1 US dollars . The lata is a box with the following dimensions: Length: 10 inches/ 25.40 cm. Wide:. 10 inches/ 25.40 cm.. Depth: 12.5 inches/ 31.75 cm. Farm owners also start looking for coffee pickers, and keep doing it even during the entire coffee harvest, as usually they face problems of workforce shortage since coffee pickers migrate from one farm to another without advice. 65% of those employed in the coffee sector in Nicaragua are seasonal workers (Vakis, Kruger, & Mason, 2004). It is s vital to attract harvesters and retaining them; the better the picking, the more workers earn. A farmer who sets a team to work on a poor patch will soon see the labor force dwindle, as they move away to richer fields. In the early part of the harvest little or no help is required, but as the season gathers pace the farmer must be able to attract and retain a workforce (Luetchford, 2008). Coffee pickers are constantly moving from one farm to another, process that involves moving with their whole family to new different places, this is commonly seen when the quantity of ripen coffee in the farm is less than in others. When the season has ended in one area it is peaking in another part of the highlands, and harvesters can take the opportunity to migrate.. 13.

(22) After that, they follow the peak harvest up the mountain where the fastest, easiest money is to be made and abandon farms at lower elevations early. As soon as a farmer's peak harvest is over the pickers start looking for greener pastures and start moving further up the mountain (Haworth, 2012). Specially the young, have a more transitory life style and may best be described as semiresident; they move frequently, often only short distances, from farm to farm within the locality, as they attach themselves to different employers. Eventually, especially if they have family elsewhere, they may move on to another part of the country in search of work or land. At the same time others move in to take their place as part of a pattern of shifting migration (Luetchford, 2008). The process of migration of coffee pickers usually lasts, the period that the whole coffee harvesting lasts in Nicaragua, this is a difficult period that conveys a lot of challenges caused by this peripatetic situation. As Luetchford (2008) mentioned as result of his research done in Costa Rica with coffee pickers: “Farmers talk about pulling their children out of school, migration, and increased heath problems” (p.158) and “manual agricultural laborers ‘‘work the hardest, but earn the least,’’ and Nicaraguans are not exempted from this judgment. Migrant and seasonal farmworkers face greater risks at their workplace such as exposure of chemicals applied during the harvesting, transporting and processing of food (Halfacre-Hitchcock et al., 2006).. Coffee Harvest Season Coffee is a complex agricultural product that changes from year to year and requires the utmost care in growing, harvesting, processing, roasting and brewing. This “golden bean¨ as it is called by coffee producers can’t be cultivated at any country. The location for coffee production needs to meet necessary characteristics to favor the coffee cultivation and it needs to be high enough in order to meet quality standards. Coffee is grown in tropical locations between the Tropic of Cancer in the north and the Tropic of Capricorn in the south. This is known as the “bean belt.” Harvesting times vary considerably within the "bean belt" depending on the climatic conditions (Baskerville, 2012). Coffee cherries are ripen at different times depending on the farm, the three and the climate. It may require from three to seven picking rounds to complete the harvest (Equal. 14.

(23) Exchange, n.d). This is co-related with the migration of coffee pickers, because some of them move from farm to farm depending on how much is the quantity of ripens coffee cherries. The harvest is a crucial time. It is when farmers learn how much coffee they have, which gives an indication of potential income, and allows them to compare with previous years and assess their attempts to negotiate the intricacies of production. It is also critical for social relations of production. Since even farmers, with only a hectare or two, struggle to manage the entire harvest using family labor, hired workers must be brought in. This means that the landowners need to start attracting coffee pickers to come to work in their coffee farms. In some countries the employers need to design strategies in order to attract as much as workforce possible. High quality coffee comes from the middle of the harvest or what we call peak harvest. A coffee harvest produces volumes of cherries on a typical bell curve. Slow at first, gradually picking up volume until you reach the peak, then dropping off again (Haworth, 2012). After the pruning stage is carried out, by one or two paid assistants, which usually stay in the farm as permanent workers the whole year. In the dry summer months from March to July the bushes flower and begin to bud, less work is required, and many farmers do without wage labor. This is a time for maintenance work, socializing, and recuperation in preparation for the intense activity of the next harvest (Luetchford, 2008).. Coffee Harvesting Process During the coffee-harvesting season, every day is as similar as the other day for the coffee pickers and their families as well as the farm personnel, from the foreman (mandador) to the ladies in charge of preparing the food for workers. The day starts early morning, usually around four or five in the morning, when the breakfast is served for the workers that stay in the campamentos at the farms, the meal served is very simple, after that, they move to the coffee plantation (cafetales) that the mandador chooses, he is the one that supervises which are does the coffee is ready to be picked. Pickers do not want to bother with older trees, or immature ones, or any parts of the farm that are not heavily producing. They are apt to skip rows or lots to get into the richer pickings. This is why is very important to have a foreman supervising the pickers, preferably someone not related to the pickers to ensure fair play (Haworth, 2012). They usually wear clothes that helps them to protect themselves, such as caps or hats, long pants and long sleeves shirts to protect. 15.

(24) from sun rays, and rubber boots that could prevent snake´s bite or accidental slip, it is common to see children their school uniforms to pick coffee. These workers and their families harvest the coffee by hand into large baskets or sacks when the cherries are red and ripe. In some coffee farming communities, the coffee harvest is a rotating project where the entire community shares in the activity and moves from farm to farm as the crop ripens (Luetchford, 2008). The coffee cherry is collected in a large basket (canasta), which is secured to the waist of the picker by means of a rope padded with an agricultural sack. The harvester removes all the red fruit as well as that which is ‘‘colored’’ yellow or orange, and therefore ripening. In theory all green coffee needs to be left for future rounds, that is how they spend the morning grind. They usually have lunch around eleven A.M or midday. Some of them bring their lunch and eat it at the plantations to avoid loosing time to go to wait for their meal to be served, as they want to collect as much coffee as they can. The daily grind ends around four in the afternoon, and everyone is called to measure the quantity of coffee that each labor picked. From each worker’s basket the coffee is transferred to a sack, and finally measured in a box (lata) this is the unit of measurement used to calculate the quantity of coffee picked, each laborer is paid by lata collected. Usually only one the family members, is included in the payroll, but the coffee picked by the whole family (including children) is summed up. This is recorded everyday, so that on payday, the salary received by these labors is according to what they have collected. In the case of Nicaragua, each year before the coffee harvesting starts the government sets a specific price that has to be paid from the employer to the coffee pickers per lata, although this is not always followed. A poor day’s picking would yield only 4 or 5 latas, but on a good day a fast picker can gather 12 or 15, and legends abound of individuals picking up to 20 latas in one day. Income during the harvest therefore depends on the dexterity and experience of the picker, not least in judging where to pick next, and managing the social relationships such movement requires (Luetchford, 2008). As a conclusion coffee picking can be described as semi-skilled; the work itself is repetitive and monotonous, but at the same time it requires dexterity, and speed improves with practice, that’s why almost all the family members are considered capable to carry out this task. The performance of coffee pickers is very important for the coffee harvesting season, therefore. 16.

(25) the recruitment and management of this workforce should be considered as an important phase of the coffee harvesting process.. Coffee Harvesting in Nicaragua The coffee picking season is the busiest time of the year for a coffee farmer. In Nicaragua there is a single harvest per year and it usually runs from October to February varying upon altitude, as previously mentioned. The whole country is involved in this season, as many of business owners are benefited by this, from the ones that supply the products necessary to pick coffee, transportation line owners and so on. The variety of coffee produced in Nicaragua is called Arabica and it started to be cultivated in the fifties, and the first coffee cherries were planted on the Pacific’s plain mesa, by 1870 coffee was the most important product of foreign exchange in Nicaragua and in 1992 more land extension was dedicated to the coffee cultivation, more than any other product in the country (Equal Exchange, n.d). In the late 1990s coffee annually contributed US$140 million to the national economy and provided an equivalent of 280,000 permanent agricultural jobs (Bacon, 2005). Most of the coffee production of Nicaragua comes from three regions within Nicaragua’s Central Northern Mountains. These regions include the Segovias (Estelí, Madriz and Nueva Segovia). The Matagalpa and Jinotega regions are also favorable for coffee cultivation; the farms of this area are the ones that were considered in this study. The outer regions of Matagalpa County border the BOSAWAS Natural Reserve, the largest land preservation initiative in Central America. Matagalpa is generally mountainous, with altitudes ranging from 600 to 1500 meters, which meets the characteristics for quality coffee production (Equal Exchange, n.d). The last coffee harvesting 2010-2011 contributed four hundred and thirty million $U.S to the Nicaraguan economy, being this first exportation product of the country (Canales, 2012). In this cycle the production was 2,200,000 quintals. The coffee harvesting season is an important period of the year for the nation’s economy, farm owners and thousands of laborers’ families. For some pickers the money they make during the coffee picking season is what they live on for the rest of the year the harvest is a key time for landless locals; they must earn as much as possible to tide them over the remaining 5 months of the year, when less work is available (Luetchford, 2008).. 17.

(26) Nicaragua is continually growing as a coffee producer country, and everyday is becoming better known by the quality of its coffee. As Bacon (2005) said: “Nicaragua has the potential to emerge as a world leader in the production and trade of specialty, organic, and Fair Trade coffee” (p.507). The future of the coffee production in Nicaragua seems to be promising, although there are many issues to consider regarding the protagonists of this production, who are the labor or coffee pickers. Issues such as labor migration, child labor and inefficient management of this workforce are affecting the coffee production as well as this in-need population.. Nicaragua Employment Practices Code: Relevant Articles for CoffeePickers As mentioned above one of the primary purposes of this qualitative research is to explore the fulfillment of the Nicaragua laws according to the employment practices code. The Nicaragua employment practices code is divided in 7 titles, highlighting the different relevant sections, in total the code contains 407 articles, from the total of this articles, the ones that are being affected in the coffee picking season has been chosen for analysis through an expert evaluation; the researcher as well as current lawyer practitioner in Nicaragua which is also a coffee farm owner had analyzed the articles contained in the code. According to the Article 19 of the Chapter “Work relationship and employment contract” of the Nicaraguan employment practices code the employment contract could be in two formats written or verbal contract (Article19). In the case of coffee pickers the employment contract is verbal as stated in the Article 24 “ The employment contract could be hold verbally when is referring to: 11.. a) Agricultural work;. 12.. b) Domestic service; AND. 13.. c) Temporary workers that don’t exceed more than ten days.. In these cases, among the first three working days, the employer should provide written evidence stating the starting date of the work relationship, work to perform and stipulated salary” (Article 23). Farm owners never give this written evidence to the employers, one of the main reasons is because they don’t want to have a fix price for the lata of coffee picked by these employees, so they usually tend to vary the price of the lata depending on how the farm production is, if the 18.

(27) production of the farm is big, the lata is paid at a lower price. The lack of formal employment contracts with this type of employees facilitates the turnover rate in the farms as well and enhance the migration phenomenon of these laborers. According to the observation of the researcher team as well as the reality of Nicaragua is that many of these laws are not fulfilled. The workers’ statute stated in the employment practices code that will be explored areas follows: 1-The salary for the work executed should be paid on the time previously agreed by the employee and employer (Article 17). This is the first clause stated on the Chapter IV. “Obligations of Employers”, Chapter 17 on the Nicaragua Employment Practices Code. This means that is an obligation of the employer to pay to the employee the salary that was previously agreed by both of the parts or stated in the employment contract in terms of quantity as well as in terms of time. Farm workers usually receive their payment biweekly; but is not always like that, this is an issue that the coffee pickers in Nicaragua face, usually the employer delays their salary for many reasons, but the most common is because the employer waits until they are able to sell the coffee that has been picked by the employees in order to pay them. The other reason is most likely an strategy, employers delay the worker’s salary up to six or more paydays, because that is a way to retain employees in their farms, avoiding the risk that they leave to other farms, where they pay better or the coffee production is bigger. Some of the employees wait until there are paid, mean time they are working, once they are paid they leave for other farms, other employees leave some of their family members waiting to receive the payment and they move to other farms, once they receive the payment, the reunite with the other family members that are working in a different farm already. In this cases, the clause stated on the Article 86 should be applied, it mentions: “the incompliance of the payment of the salary on the time agreed or as the law stated, the employer is obligated to pay in the following two weeks one tenth more for every week of delay (Article 86). Unfortunately farm workers don’t fulfill this duty and the employers need to wait until they are paid in order to leave to another farm expecting a different situation. 2- Respect the workday, grant the established free days and display the laboral calendar in a visible place at their workplace.. 19.

(28) This clause is also stated in the on the Chapter IV. “Obligations of Employers”, Chapter 17 on the Nicaragua Employment Practices Code. It is an obligation of any employer to respect the holidays, free days and work shifts of their employees. If the employee works more time that his work shift this should receive extra-time payment, and if the employee has to work or decides to work on a holiday by request of the employer, it needs to be double-paid as stated on the Article 62 of the Nicaragua Employment Practices Code (Article 49). Working on holidays is a very common situation in the coffee farms in Nicaragua. As mentioned before, the coffee harvesting season goes from September to January depending on the altitude and the climate and during this season there are many national holidays. Coffee pickers attend to the farms even on national holidays by request of the foreman, even though they are not double paid. Some of the farm workers decide not to attend to on these days to the worksite but most of them do because they just need increase their salary. 3- Safeguard their employees’ moral rights, protecting them of being sexual harassment victims (Article 17). This clause is also part of the employers duties, stated in the on the Chapter IV. “Obligations of Employers”, Chapter 17 on the Nicaragua Employment Practices Code. The employers duty if to protect their employees in every sense as long as they are going or coming from their workplace and much more if they are on the worksite. Cases of sexual harassment at the farms are very common, woman that are working as coffee pickers at the farms are sexual harassment victims of other farm workers. As mentioned before most of coffee pickers stay at the farm’s campamentos during the coffee picking season with their family, including children that also help their parents on the labor of the day. The living conditions of these campamentos are very precarious, many families stay all-together, the space is reduced and the environment is very insalubrious. As mentioned before, most of these families travel with their children and these are the perfect targets for sexual harassment. Cases of children been abused at farms are very common as well as girls at their early aged being persuade by most commonly elder males to have sexual intercourse. Sometimes this practice can evolve in to a relationship or even in a new family, as these girls usually get pregnant during the coffee-picking season. 4- The employer should offer free of charge accommodations for the employees depending on the nature of the job or as requirement of the employer, as well as transportation. 20.

(29) facilities. They should be accommodated in houses or safe sites, appropriate to the local conditions and human needs (Article 17). This clause has an important impact in the research purposes of the present research. This is also stated in the on the Chapter IV. “Obligations of Employers”, Chapter 17 on the Nicaragua Employment Practices Code. As previously mentioned, the most of the coffee pickers move with their family to the farms’ campamentos. These are very big living places were many families are allocated, it has no divisions or different rooms, it’s a whole big room with many barracks were the families only go to sleep after the workday. There is no electricity, water or bathrooms on these campamentos. As Bacon (2005) in his study conducted about small-scale farmer vulnerability in Northern Nicaragua said: “These farms usually provide living quarters and food to farm worker families. Rural landless workers continue to live in extreme poverty. During the coffee harvest, the large plantations employ and house hundreds, sometimes thousands of coffee pickers” (Article 502). Coffee pickers stay at the farms because they are usually from other cities of the country, and they decide to work the whole coffee-picking season, most of the employees usually go back to their home places once a month for one day. In the case of Nicaragua this is a very common practice carried out by the employers because of the labor demand. In the specific case of the Matagalpa, which is the area included on the research, farm owners recruit workforce from different states of the country such as Masaya, Carazo, Estelí, Chinandega and Madriz because the local workforce is not enough. The workforce from these cities where there is no coffee production, decide to travel to coffee production areas because they have three or four months of employment guaranteed. Usually farm owners rather to hire non-local workforce because is somehow more vulnerable and usually don’t leave the farms as frequent as the local workforce that know the place very well and are informed about which farms are paying higher salary. In the case of the local workforce, if the transportation is not offered by the farm, some of them rather to stay at farms because they don’t want to spend money on transportation, or because for them is more comfortable to stay at the farm, as they don’t have to wake up early or reach home late. The living conditions are also one of the most probable reasons of turnover rate, as the employees rather to move to a farm where the campamentos are better. The precarious living conditions of coffee pickers in Nicaragua are an issue to address on this research, because employers are violating the laws stated on the employment practices code.. 21.

(30) These living conditions are against any human right or needs, the employees are exposed to many harmful situations by staying at farms, such as sexual harassment as previously mentioned, the overcrowding is an insalubrious environment where these employees can be victims of serious diseases. 5- Working hours should be distributed along the week in order to permit the worker one day to rest. This is part of the Article 63 of the Nicaragua employment practices code. According to this article the employer has the right to work eight hours per day, and must not exceed in total forty-eight hours per week as stated in the Article 51 (Article 69). As mentioned above, coffeepickers usually don’t take a rest day and even work during national holidays. The seventh day of the week is not given to these workers as a rest day, and there is no other rotatory method used by employers in order to let coffee-pickers rest one day, unless is requested by the employee as a special case. 6- Every employer has the obligation to adopt the necessary and adequate preventive measures to effectively protect the life and health of their workers, by equipping the facilities and providing the necessary equipment to reduce or eliminate the professional risks at the workplace (Article 100). The employer does not protect coffee pickers’ security and health; their life at farms is constantly harmful for their wellbeing and their families as well. As mentioned above the precarious living conditions are the first harmful condition that these workers are exposed to, this environment exhibits the optimal conditions for disease contraction, the conditions are completely insalubrious which are against the law as the Article 202 about the special obligations of the employer of farm workers states: “ the employer should provide a living place that meets the necessary hygienic conditions, security and ventilation, as well as showers and latrine”. On the coffee plantations, coffee-workers have many risks, because of the nature of the job, as Halfare-Hitchcock et al. (2006) in their study about Latino Migrant Farm workers in United States and the examination of pesticide risk say: “Migrant and seasonal farm workers face greater exposure to chemicals applied during the growing, harvesting, transporting and processing the food” (Article 202). In Nicaragua farm workers are not provided with the necessary equipment to protect them in order to avoid any risk. As the Article 101 mentions: “ The employer should promote the employee training in the use of equipment and chemicals, as. 22.

(31) well as the adequate usage of protection instruments and equipment” (p.100). Halfare-Hitchcock et al. (2006) found in their study existing evidence that indicates first, that migrant farm workers are not receiving adequate pesticide safety training. This is the same case of farm workers in Nicaragua where coffee-pickers are exposed to chemicals that have been previously used at the coffee plantations, and most of them are not aware of these, as there is no previous training or advice given by the employers to them as the Article 202 about the special obligations of the employer of farm workers highlights: “ Supply the workers with the necessary equipment for their protection, as well as give previous recommendations about hygiene and occupational security. ” Another issue to add is that farmworkers are not the only ones exposed to these risks but their families too, in the case of Nicaragua because all the family (including children) attend to the coffee plantations in order to help the head of the family and the families that stay at farms during the coffee- picking season have more exposure to chemicals as well, as Halfare-Hitchcock et al. (2006) said: “ Growers and their families, farm workers and their families, and residents living near farms are all exposed to chemical byproducts of modern agriculture” (Article 56). 7- It is strictly forbidden to hire under eighteenth years old to perform jobs related to the manipulation of chemicals as well as dangerous practices”(Article 9). The exposure of the families of this farm workers to risks in the workplace in terms of health and security, leads us to another issue that is still happening in Nicaragua that is Child labor, even though this practice is not permitted according to the laws of Nicaragua as mentioned on the Employment Practices code: “ It is an obligation of the State, employers and families to protect the boy, girl and teenager banning the execution of any activity or work that could be detrimental for their education, their health, physical and intellectual development , as well as moral, spiritual and social ” (Article 132).. Child Labor In recent years, there has been a growing interest child labor among academics, professionals and the media. There is almost universal agreement that child labor is an undesirable practice. “ Work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development” (ILO).. 23.

(32) The phenomenon of child labor is associated exclusively with developing countries. While Asia has the largest number of child workers in the world, the highest proportion of child workers in relation to the total child population is to be found in Africa. In Latin America, the problem of child labor is on a smaller scale, but by no means insignificant. Latin America also has the highest incidence of children working in the urban informal sector. Though most working children are still found in the rural areas, it is rapid urbanization that gives rise to growing international concern because of its association with work outside of the family context (Ray, 1999). It is the poor who send their children to work out of economic necessity, then the most vulnerable get stuck in an intergenerational poverty trap: poor parents send their children to work today, who obtain less schooling and find low productivity, low wage jobs in the future (Kruger, 2004). Child labor is a worldwide problem, which many Non Profit Organizations are trying to eradicate. It occurs mostly developing countries, even when these countries are in their economic peak seasons; such is the case of Nicaragua. For example, parents take advantage of improved economic conditions that they deem temporary and pull their children out of school and insert them into the workforce, phenomenon that occurs during the coffee harvesting. Increases in the county-level value of coffee production led to more work among middleincome boys and girls, poorer children were withdrawn from school. Thus, during periods of economic growth, education of the poor may be adversely affected. (Kruger, 2004). For example, evidence includes Beegle et al. who found that agricultural crop shocks increase the number of hours worked by children in Tanzania, while various recent empirical studies using Latin American data find that child labor is pro- cyclical with economic cycles and incomes. In urban Brazil, Duryea & Arends-Kuenning (2003) found that child labor was higher and short-run education outcomes were worse when average wages increased. Also, according to Kruger (2004) in her research done in Brazil, with children from the coffee production sector found that short-term fluctuations in the county-level value of coffee production were positive, low- and middle-income boys living in regions where coffee is economically important were less likely to be in school. These findings suggest that during. 24.

(33) periods of temporary economic fluctuations, children's human capital accumulation may be negatively affected, and that special attention needs to be given to children of poorer households. This in line with Nicaragua situation, where mainly boys who live in rural areas are more likely to work and less likely to attend school than urban counterparts. This result most likely reflects lower accessibility and school supply in remote areas. Girls living in rural areas, and those with greater numbers of infant siblings, are more likely to work and less likely to attend school compared to urban girls and girls with fewer young brothers and sisters. Child labor is definitively a primitive practice that is still occurring around the world, especially in the rural areas, children are engaged in work activities rather than attending school, this a common phenomenon, where governments, parents and employers are being negligent by permitting this practice, which contributes to the undeveloped economic situation among many countries. Children presence in coffee farms. As previously mentioned, there is an important presence of children performing different type of work especially in the agricultural activities. In the case of the coffee farms, the children are brought by their parents to the workplace in order to pick coffee with them, even though the employers don’t contract these children to work in their farms, this kids are performing the same work as an adult. Children coffee pickers are not registered in the payrolls but the head of the family is and the kids are usually counted as heads (popular way to refer to pickers), therefore if a parent has 3 children, the adult will be registered by his name plus 3 heads. “ It is considered as labor, the girl or boy and teenager, that through remuneration executes productive activities or provides a service ” (Article 130). According to the preliminary results of the survey executed by the Ministry of labor in Nicaragua in 2005, considering children the individuals from five years old to seventeenth that total of child workers in the country are 239,220, being this 135,380 working in the agricultural sector, hunting and fishing. As mentioned above children attend to the farms to perform as coffee-pickers. As found by Luetchford (2008 p. 158) in his research study conducted in Costa Rica with coffee workers. “Children are also expected to help in the harvest after school or in the holidays, or are kept out of school if work is pressing. Coffee picking is one agricultural task that is considered particularly suitable for women, and possible for children, as manual dexterity rather than strength is required.”. 25.