學生就讀全英語學程之動機對其組織公民行為之影響

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(1)The Relationship between Motivation to Study in Programs using English as a Medium of Instruction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior toward Program. by. Yi-Ling, Tsai. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: C. Rosa Yeh, Ph. D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan January 2017.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This thesis is dedicated to everyone who helped me during the process of completing this research. Without each of you, I might not be able to go through all these. Thank you all for getting me to where I am today. To my dear processor, Dr.Yeh, thank you for always being patient and guiding me when I was lost and did not know what to do. You always try your best to help me during the process of doing my research. Even when I was so stressful, as long as talking to you, I was able to refill energy and kept going on. You were not only my thesis mentor but also my spiritual mentor. I learned a lot from you not only for the knowledge on doing research but also the attitudes toward life. Thank you to all my mates for fighting against our thesis together days and nights. Thank you to Wendy for always be willing to listen to the problem I encountered and helped me solve them. Thank you to Abby and Peter for fighting together for finishing our thesis and always cheering up for each other during the whole process. Thank you to Leanne, Aiko and Zora for always staying in the study room with me to fight for our thesis. Thank you to Fanny for always listening to my worries and cheering up for me. Thank you to Alan and Tim for helping me to do the APA review when I was in Korea.. I.

(3) ABSTRACT This study aims to examine the effect of different types of motivation toward English-as-a-Medium-of-Instruction (EMI) on organizational citizenship behavior in educational context. The sample is composed of students who join(ed) an EMI program in the world and are non-English native speakers. This research adopted a quantitative approach using censoring method and the data was collected through both hard copy questionnaire and online survey. In this study, motivation was assessed by adapting part of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) and the EMI Choice measurement. Organizational citizenship behavior-helping and loyalty measures were used to assess organizational citizenship behavior in this study. The participants in this study were 215 students who enroll(ed) in EMI programs and the data collected was analyzed through the IBM SPSS and AMOS software. The results show that both intrinsic motivation (IM) and extrinsic motivation (EM) positively affect organizational citizenship (OCB). In addition, IM was found to have a stronger effect on OCB than EM. Moreover, among the sub-dimensions of IM, IM toward accomplishment has the strongest influence on OCB and peer pressure has the strongest effect on OCB among the sub-dimensions of EM.. Keywords: English as a Medium of Instruction, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, tripartite intrinsic motivation, organizational citizenship behavior. II.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................ I ABSTRACT ............................................................................... II TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................ III LIST OF TABLES..................................................................... V LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................... VII CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ........................................... 1 Background of the Study........................................................................................................ 1 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................................... 2 Motivation of the Study.......................................................................................................... 4 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................... 5 Research Questions.................................................................................................................. 5 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................................... 6 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................................. 7. CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW.............................. 9. English as a Medium of Instruction .................................................................................... 9 Motivation ............................................................................................................................... 11 Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) ................................................................ 20 Relationship Between Motivation and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) ....................................................................................................................................... 28. CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ..................................... 34. Research Framework ............................................................................................................ 34 Research Hypothesis ............................................................................................................ 35 Research Procedure .............................................................................................................. 36 Research Design .................................................................................................................... 38 Method of Data Analysis..................................................................................................... 42 Measurements......................................................................................................................... 45 Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................................ 49 Pilot Test Study ...................................................................................................................... 50. CHAPTER IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ......... 67. Correlation Analysis ............................................................................................................. 67 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) ............................................................................. 71 III.

(5) Hierarchical Regression Analysis ..................................................................................... 76 Summary of Analyses Results ........................................................................................... 79. CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ..... 81 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 81 Research Implications .......................................................................................................... 83 Practical Implications ........................................................................................................... 85 Research Limitations ............................................................................................................ 87 Future Research Suggestions ............................................................................................. 88. REFERENCES......................................................................... 90 APPENDIX A: MEASUREMENT ...................................... 100 APPENDIX B: EMI Program List in 2014 ......................... 112. IV.

(6) LIST OF TABLES Table 3. 1. Independent Samples T-test Result Summary ................................. 40 Table 3. 2. Descriptive Statistics on Sample Characteristics.......................... 41 Table 3. 3. Indices of Model Fits ............................................................................. 44 Table 3. 4. Reliability of AMS .................................................................................. 46 Table 3. 5. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): IM .......................................... 51 Table 3. 6. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): EM ........................................ 52 Table 3. 7. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): OCB ...................................... 54 Table 3. 8. IM Model Fit Summary ......................................................................... 57 Table 3. 9. Multiple-Group Comparison Result for Intrinsic Motivation (IM) ................................................................................................................................. 57 Table 3. 10. Intrinsic Motivation Variable Items ................................................ 58 Table 3. 11. EM Model Fit Summary ..................................................................... 61 Table 3. 12. Extrinsic Motivation Variable Items ............................................... 61 Table 3. 13. OCB Model Fit Summary .................................................................. 63 Table 3. 14. Multiple-Group Comparison Result for Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) ........................................................................... 64 Table 3. 15. OCB Variable Items ............................................................................ 64 Table 3. 16. Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Values of Variables and Its Dimensions ........................................................................................................... 66 Table 4. 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations, and Reliability ...... 70 Table 4. 2. Model Fit Summary of Structural Model ......................................... 71 Table 4. 3. Standardized Coefficient of Structural Equation Modeling – IM and EM on OCB ................................................................................................. 72 Table 4. 4. Model Fit Summary of Structural Model - IM and EM on Helping .................................................................................................................. 74 Table 4. 5. Standardized Coefficient of Structural Equation Modeling – IM and EM on Helping............................................................................................ 74 Table 4. 6. Model Fit Summary of Structural Model ......................................... 76 Table 4. 7. Standardized Coefficient of Structural Equation Modeling – IM and EM on Loyalty............................................................................................. 76 Table 4. 8. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Intrinsic V.

(7) Motivation Dimensions ..................................................................................... 77 Table 4. 9. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Extrinsic Motivation Dimensions ..................................................................................... 78 Table 4. 10. Hypotheses Testing Results Summary ............................................ 80. VI.

(8) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1. A taxonomy of human motivation ................................................... 14 Figure 3. 1. Research framework ............................................................................ 35 Figure 3. 2. Research procedure.............................................................................. 37 Figure 3. 3. Intrinsic motivation CFA measurement model ............................ 56 Figure 3. 4. Extrinsic motivation CFA measurement model .......................... 60 Figure 3. 5. Organizational citizenship behavior CFA measurement model ................................................................................................................................. 63 Figure 4. 1. Structural equation model - IM and EM on OCB ....................... 71 Figure 4. 2. Structural equation model - IM and EM on helping .................. 73 Figure 4. 3. Structural equation model - IM and EM on loyalty ................... 75. VII.

(9) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the basic information of this study. The first chapter includes background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, scope of the study as well as the definition of terms.. Background of the Study Due to globalization, English proficiency and the ability of cross-cultural communication has been more and more important. As a result, in order to prepare home country students to the global labor market with higher employability, there are more and more universities making internationalized strategies to attract not only the local students but also talented students all over the world. (Lueg & Lueg, 2015). Thus, there are more and more programs in non-English-speaking countries have introduced English as a medium of instruction (EMI) into their curriculum in the past decades (Coleman, 2006). Through studying in EMI programs, it enables students to not only use English to learn professional knowledge but also interact with other classmates from different cultural backgrounds to improve English proficiency and cultivate their intercultural communication ability (Wang, 2014). Furthermore, students are able to have better understanding of international workplace and talent requirement trends (Li, 2014). Therefore, many universities adopt EMI into their curriculums in order to provide students a more international campus and to cultivate students’ global perspective.. 1.

(10) In Asian countries, to compete in global higher education, lots of universities and colleges started to make strategies to attract talented students from all over the world. For example, the number of international students enrolled in China is more than 260,000 and China is aiming to double that number in the future. In addition, the number of international students in Japan has reached more than 138,000, and in South Korea, there are more than 78,000 international students (Hou, Morse, Chiang, & Chen, 2013). As for Taiwan, under the policy of President Ma Ying Jiu in 2011, “to promote the international capacity of Taiwanese higher education, as well as to share its resources with neighboring countries” (Hou, Morse, Chiang, & Chen, 2013, p.359), more and more universities and colleges adopt EMI into their curriculum. Statistic evidence shows that the number of EMI courses offered in Taiwanese universities and colleges reached 4,099 in 2009 and the increase rate from 2005 to 2009 reached 103.63% (Lin, 2010).. Statement of the Problem With the number of international students growing, the Taiwanese government encourages universities and colleges to adopt EMI to programs and courses. Thus, the issue of how to ensure the success of EMI programs and courses has been raised.. Since there are researchers claim that organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) would affect organizational performance and success (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000; Organ, 1988), organizations would prefer employees with OCB than without. Applying this concept of OCB to the educational field, institutes would like to recruit students who 2.

(11) perform OCB. Because the purposes of EMI programs is to develop the perspectives, English proficiency, profrssional and advanced knowledge of students (Lei & Hu, 2014), particularly in EMI programs, whether students perform OCB plays a crucial role on the success of EMI programs. Moreover, since creating international environment for students to have more interaction with other classmates from different cultural backgrounds is one of the purposes of EMI programs, students with OCB would have higher possibilities to actively interact with classmates from different parts of the world. Except for self-regulated behaviors, OCB’s dimension also includes altruism, which means the behaviors performed to benefit others rather than the performers themselves. Thus, when performing OCB, students are able to build a good relationship with classmates. Based on Organ (1988), OCB has positive effects on the relationship between coworkers and the performance of employees. Students’ interacting situation in class would determine whether they would be able to develop their international perspectives and would spend extra time on interacting with international students except the time in class. Spending extra time interacting with international students not only would improve developing students’ international perspectives but also English proficiency since they have to use English as a common language to communicate and would have more chance to talk about cultures and status of each other’s countries. Consequently, OCB helps to achieve EMI programs’ objectives of developing students’ international perspective, improving students’ English proficiency, etc. However, in most EMI programs, the criteria to select qualified students are mostly through examinations which test students’ professional knowledge and English proficiency only. 3.

(12) Motivation to enroll in an EMI program would determine students’ level of involvement in the program and hence, affect whether they perform OCB. Since the level of students’ involvement would affect the level of students’ belongingness toward the program and that may induce OCB performing.. Motivation of the Study Motivation has been studied as a general and overall concept and discovered to predict OCB by researchers. In recent years, researchers have revealed motivation as a multi-dimensional concept and begin to examine more in-depth relationship between different types of motivation on OCB. For instance, Finkelstein (2011) examined the relationship between intrinsic, extrinsic motivation and OCB and suggested that OCB would be affected by intrinsic motivation. Carbonneau, Vallerand, and Lafrenière (2012) distinguished three types of intrinsic motivation (IM), IM to know, IM toward accomplishment and IM to experience stimulation, but mainly discussed on their general instead of their unique consequences. Thus, although past research had indicated a relationship between intrinsic motivation and OCB, few had discussed the relationship between the three types of IM and OCB. Furtheremore, even though some researchers claimed that there is a relstionship between extrinsic motivation (EM) and OCB, few of them discussed the relstionship between different types of EM and OCB. Even though abundant OCB researches have been done in the industries and organizations, few studies on OCB were discussed in the educational context (Chen & Carey, 2009). Likewise, some studies had examined the relationship between motivation and 4.

(13) organizational citizenship behaviors (e.g. Finkelstein & Penner, 2004; Barbuto, Brown, Wheeler, & Wilhite, 2003; Tang & Ibrahim, 1998), but few of them discussed the relationship between motivation and OCB in educational contexts (Lueg & Lueg, 2015).. Purpose of the Study Since there are more and more EMI programs and courses, not only students choose institutes but also institutes need to choose students who would best fit the programs and courses. Since motivation is said to have an effect on predicting OCB, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between extrinsic, intrinsic motivation and OCB, especially, the relationship between the three types of intrinsic motivation (IM to know, IM toward accomplishment and IM to experience stimulation) and OCB in educational context. If the proposed relationship between the variables is confirmed, this study may provide higher education institutes a way to identify what kind of students would be OCB performers by examining their motivations to enroll in EMI programs.. Research Questions The following research questions were developed from the previous sections to explore the relationship between motivation and OCB in educational context. . Why do students want to enroll in an EMI program and does that affect how they interact with each other?. . Does both extrinsic and intrinsic types of motivation predict OCB in educational context? 5.

(14) . Does intrinsic motivation affect OCB more significantly than extrinsic motivation in educational context?. . Are there significant differences among the effect of the three types of intrinsic motivation on OCB in educational context?. . Are there significant differences among the effect of the five types of extrinsic motivation on OCB in educational context?. Scope of the Study This study mainly focuses on the effect of motivation to enroll in an EMI program on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The motivation studied includes intrinsic and extrinsic types. However, other crucial variables such as outer factors may also affect OCB but were not included in this study. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of motivation on OCB in the educational context among non-native-English-speakers. As a result, the sample only includes non-native-speakers who have or had participated in EMI programs. Students whose native language is English were not included in this study. Besides, this study narrowed its scope to EMI program students in Taiwan. Thus, the participants were all students who study in Taiwan. Moreover, although there is a list of EMI programs in 2014 from the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China, a few of the programs on the list were not entirely taught in English-. Furthermore, even though the researcher contacted the programs on the list continuously through sending e-mails to the programs once a week for five weeks, some of the programs never responded. Consequently, the sample in this study was limited to students 6.

(15) in those programs which the researcher was able to reach.. Definition of Terms English-as-a-Medium-of-Instruction EMI, English-as-a-Medium-of-Instruction, includes a set of subject courses that are lectured in English into curriculum (Chen & Kraklow, 2015). EMI in this study is defined as using English to lecture on the subjects that do not focus on learning language (English).. Extrinsic Motivation External motivation exists when behavior is performed not because of inner interest but other forces such as instrumental reasons (Deci & Ryan, 2000a). In this study, extrinsic motivation was measured with five constructs including job advantage, job need, family pressure, peer pressure and social perception by (Lueg & Lueg, 2015).. Intrinsic Motivation When a person is intrinsically motivated, the individual would participate in an activity out of enjoyment or the sensation brought by the activity itself rather than desire for the rewards or external factors. In other words, people who are intrinsically motivated would perform the behavior for their own sake. They would engage in an activity because they are interested in it and would gain pleasure and satisfaction from it (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) which is composed of three constructs including IM to know, IM toward accomplishment and IM to experience stimulation (Vallerand, Pelletier, Blais, Brière, Senécal, & Vallières, 1992, 1993) was adapted in this study. 7.

(16) Intrinsic Motivation to Know. IM to know refers to an individual engages in an activity because one can gain pleasure and satisfaction of learning from the activity itself. Thus, IM to know can be defined as gaining pleasure and feeling satisfied by engaging in activities to learn, explore or know new knowledge (Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993). Intrinsic Motivation toward Accomplishments. IM toward accomplishment implies a person engages in an activity for gaining pleasure and satisfaction from the process of trying to win, gain skills or even transcending oneself (Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993). Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation. As for IM to experience stimulation, it indicates that an individual engages in an activity because of the stimulating sensation or aesthetic pleasure. (Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993).. Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organ (1988, p.4) defined organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization." In addition, OCB-Helping (OCBH) (Podsakoff, Ahearne, & MacKenzie, 1997; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990) and OCB-Loyalty (OCBL) (Moorman & Blakely, 1995) were adapted to measure OCB on this study.. 8.

(17) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW. This chapter provides an overview of literature of the following variables (motivation and organizational citizenship behavior) and their relationships between each other in this study. First, each section reviews literature on each variable individually and followed by the relationship between and among variables. Finally, the developed hypotheses are stated in the relationship section.. English as a Medium of Instruction From last decade, there are more and more higher education institutes paying attention on English as a medium of instruction (EMI) (Lueg & Leung, 2015). To enhance internationalization of education, EMI is broadly adopted into the curriculum of institutes (Doh, 2010). EMI includes a set of English-lectured subject courses into curriculum. The trigger for the development of EMI is not just for the ambition to attract international students to enroll in the programs but also for helping home country students to cultivate international perspectives and become competitive in the global job market (Chen & Kraklow, 2015). There are seven reasons why introducing EMI is needed proposed by Coleman (2006). First, Content and Language Integrating Learning (CLIL) refers to the approach called “immersion training” which means use second language to teach the subjects and by using second language to study the content, participants would gradually acquire the second language. Second, desiring to reach internationalization is also one of the reasons. Third, creating a global environment, especially set English as a lingua franca, would attract students from different countries (both foreign and domestic) to join the program since 9.

(18) English is an international language now. Fourth, attracting international students and staff would help institutions to gain reputation since academic staff’s international careers are based on their abilities on teaching and publishing in English and students’ future careers depend on their English proficiency. Thus, in this way, it can also attract investors to invest money on the research and development of institutes. Fifth, staff mobility states that it would not only recruit international students but also staff from all over the world. Sixth and seventh, since it would increase the reputation of the institutes and also train students to be more internationalized, the graduate employability would also be improved. Being part of the global village, Taiwan has also followed the world trend towards internationalized education and has changed and grown within last decade. Different policies including using English as a medium of instruction have been promoted and implemented to change the higher education in Taiwan. Moreover, there is a common belief that adopting EMI to the curriculum would stimulate students’ motivation to study English and thus, improve their English proficiency. Besides, some new English education policies have been developed and implemented by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in 2011. The policies include teaching and learning English in elementary schhools, English language requirement for graduation in universities and adopting English as a medium of instruction into curriculum (Chang, 2010). Consequently, due to the promoting policies, there are more and more EMI programs in Taiwan. According to the EMI programs list (Ministry of Education of Taiwan, 2014), there are a total of 181 EMI programs in 42 universities from northern to southern Taiwan as shown in appendix B. EMI has been popular in Taiwan since it is considered to effectively improve students’ English proficiency, internationalized local 10.

(19) education system for recruiting international students and increase the competitiveness of Taiwan education. However, there are not so many evidences that shows the policies do fulfill the purpose of EMI. Thus, the effectiveness of EMI is still waited to be explored (Chang, 2010). That is to say, questions remain on how to effectively implement EMI.. Some factors that may affect the effectiveness of EMI programs have been discussed. First of all, students’ English ability may be insufficient to comprehend the lecture contents. Second, teachers may not have adequate training on lecturing in English such that language proficiency and lecture skills may be low. Third, EMI programs may lack adequate administrative support. Fourth, the design also affects the effectiveness of EMI programs (Yeh C. C., 2012; Chen & Kraklow, 2015). In addition to the above factors, students’ behaviors may also affect the functioning of EMI programs. Thus, recruiting students with good behaviors such as OCB that would benefit the organizations may help an EMI program function more effectively and accomplish some purposes of EMI as expected.. Motivation The research in motivation has a long history and can be traced back to 1950s. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs stands out and is well-known. Maslow (1954) stated that human beings have five hierarchical needs which include physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self-actualization. McGregor (1960) proposed two different types of viewpoints, theory X and theory Y, of human beings. People who belong to the description of Theory X are believed to be lazy and dislike work. Thus, there must be someone or something pushing and 11.

(20) forcing them to work. On the contrary, people who can be categorized by theory Y are said to have sense of responsibility toward their job. They can work well without being supervised. In addition, Herzberg (1964) indicated that the two-factor theory can explain whether an employee would have good outcomes. The two factors, motivational and hygiene, would decide whether an individual is satisfied with one’s job or the outcomes. A lack of satisfactory hygiene factors, which includes salary, supervision, relationship with colleagues or supervisors, etc., would bring about job dissatisfaction. On the other hand, motivational factors such as sense of achievement and growth would lead to more satisfied outcomes for employees. In addition to the above theories of motivation, Deci & Ryan (1985) proposed the self-determination theory to classify motivation into different types, which advanced the discussion on motivation.. Self-determination Theory (SDT) “To be motivated means to be moved to do something,” declared by Deci and Ryan (2000b, p.54). There must be a reason behind every behavior and it is called “motivation.” One of the most well-known theories related to motivation is self-determination theory (SDT), which is proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985). They defined motivation as three main concepts that include amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic (IM). Amotivation explains the situation when an individual does not perceive any advantages between one’s action and the results. That is, a person is neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated. External motivation exists when behavior is performed not because of inner interest but other forces such as instrumental reasons (Deci & Ryan, 2000b). Thus, in the situation of being 12.

(21) extrinsically motivated, individual may want to join an activity because of the desire for rewards, gaining approval from others or the fear to be punished. To be more detailed, extrinsic motivation can be divided into four types which are external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation and integrated regulation. External regulation explains an individual performing the behavior because of external requirement or wanting to get rewards in contingency. Another type of extrinsic motivation is introjected regulation which states that actions are performed in order to prevent feeling guilty or agitated or to take pride in oneself. Another form of extrinsic motivation is identified regulation that refers to the behavior performed to achieve certain goals or regulations that one identifies to be valuable. The other kind of extrinsic motivation is integrated regulation. This type of motivation exists when identified regulation is internalized. That is, examine oneself and have new regulations be consistent with one’s value and needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000a). In comparison with extrinsic motivation, IM is defined as a person would engage in activities out of the enjoyment or the sensation from the activity when intrinsically motivated rather than for the instrumental reason such as desire for the rewards or other external desires. Specifically, an intrinsically motivated person would perform behavior out of their inner motives. That is to say, they would participate in activities since they not only are interested in but are also able to gain pleasure and satisfaction from the activities (Deci & Ryan, 1985).. Second Subtheory of SDT Deci & Ryan (1985) also proposed a second subtheory within SDT, which refers to Organismic Integration Theory (OIT). In Figure 2.1, OIT taxonomy (Deci &Ryan, 2000b,. 13.

(22) p.72) explains different forms of motivation according to the degree of autonomy or self-determination arranged from the left side of lower-level autonomy (amotivation), middle-level autonomy (extrinsic motivation) to the highest-level autonomy (intrinsic motivation). This figure shows the extent of one’s motivation coming from the inner drive.. Figure 2. 1. A taxonomy of human motivation. Adopted from “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being,” by Deci & Ryan, 2000b, Journal of American Psychologist, 55(1), p.72. Copyright 2006 by The American Psychologist.. On the leftmost side is amotivation, which is defined as in the situation of lacking of intention to do an action. When an individual is amotivated, one would not have any intention to do or finish a task and doesn’t perceive any possible advantages from it. Amotivation is. 14.

(23) caused by not perceiving an activity as valuable (Ryan, 1995), not feeling competent do it (Deci, 1975; Bandura, 1986), or not believing that it will lead to the consequesce one desires (Deci & Ryan, 2000a, 2000b). Moving to the right of amotivation would be the least autonomous type of extrinsic motivation: external regulation. This type of extrinsic motivation occurs when an individual performs behaviors out of external demand or the possibility of getting rewards. Under the situation of external regulation, a behavior would be performed and perceived as being controlled. Besides, there would be an externally perceived locus of causality (EPLOC) in the behaviors performed by an externally regulated individual (De Charms, 1968). The second form of extrinsic motivation is introjected regulation. When introjected regulated, one would feel pressure to act. However, under this kind of situation, an individual is controlled by the sense of guilt or self-esteem. Therefore, introjected regulation is regulated more by contingent self-esteem (Deci & Ryan, 2000a). “Although the regulation is internal to the person, introjected behaviors are not experienced as fully part of the self and thus still have an EPLOC ” (Deci & Ryan, 2000a, p.62).. Compared to the previous two sorts of external motivation, a more autonomous type would be identified regulation. When identified regulated, an individual would perceive the regulation as one’s own. Hence, the behavior is performed because an individual considers the activity as a worth-doing one (Deci & Ryan, 2000a).. The last type of extrinsic motivation, which is the most autonomous one, would be integrated regulation. “Integration occurs when identified regulations have been fully 15.

(24) assimilated to the self.” (Deci & Ryan, 2000a, p.62). When integrated regulated, an individual would do self-evaluation and turn new regulation to correspond with one’s needs and values. Actually, integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation have some common characteristics such as both of them are autonomous. Nevertheless, this kind of motivation still belongs to extrinsic motivation since it still anticipates instrumental value with separate outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000a).. On the rightmost side of the figure is intrinsic motivation, which is the most autonomous and self-determined one in the SDT subtheory (Deci & Ryan, 2000b). Autonomous behavior is performed under the situation that an individual perceives one has the sense of volition and the reason for doing the action is one’s own choice (Gagneé & Deci, 2005). Therefore, intrinsic motivation would cause the behaviors performed out of one’s “own free will.”. Tripartite Intrinsic Motivation (IM) The concept of intrinsic motivation was first recognized in the studies of animal behavior. In the studies, the author proposed that a lot of organisms would involve in behaviors out of curiosity, fun, or inquiring mind without reinforcement or desiring for getting rewards. Also, it is argued that when humans are babies, they explore the environment around them and are curious about everything new to them. In this stage, IM is undifferentiated. Nevertheless, when human grow up and gain experiences, they would start to have their own choices according to their preferences. Thus, IM then becomes differentiated and can be separated into different types of intrinsic motivation (White, 1959; 16.

(25) Deci, 1975). Actually, intrinsic motivation can be linked to some constructs in educational studies. For instance, intrinsic motivation to know relates to learning goals (Hayman & Dweck, 1992), intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment has the relationship with mastery motivation (Harter, 1981 ) and there are relationships between intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation and experiencing pleasure and excited feelings (Chen & Carey, 2009). In 1992, Vallerand and his colleagues proposed the idea of the tripartite taxonomy of IM. They suggested that IM can be categorized into three types which are IM to know, IM toward accomplishment and IM to experience stimulation.. Intrinsic Motivation to Know (IM to Know). IM to know refers to when a person engages in an activity resulting from the pleasure and satisfaction of learning that they would gain from the activity itself. Consequently, IM to know is defined as when engaging in an activity to learn, explore or get new knowledge, a person is able to gain pleasure and satisfaction (Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993). Bruner (1966, p.127) also depicted a concept akin to IM to know: “The will to learn is an intrinsic motive, one that finds both its source and its reward in its own exercise.” Researches on IM to know were done mainly in education field (Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Lafrenière, 2012) and it is usually connected to constructs like exploration (Berlyne, 1971 ), goal-orientated learning (Dweck, 1986), intrinsic motivation to learn (Brophy, 1986), intrinsic intellectual motivation (Lloyd & Barenblatt, 1984), and also intrinsically motivated by curiosity (Harter, 1981).. 17.

(26) Intrinsic Motivation toward Accomplishments (IM toward Accomplishment). IM toward accomplishment refers to a person gaining pleasure and feeling satisfied in the process of learning skills, trying to win or even surpassing oneself (Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993). This type of IM was studied on developmental psychology and mostly in education fields (Pelletier et al., 1995). IM toward accomplishment is usually linked to constructs such as effectance motivation (White, 1959), motive for mastery (Kagan, 1972), and intrinsic sense of challenge toward a task or an activity (Harter, 1981). When an individual is intrinsically motivated toward accomplishment, one would gain pleasure by trying to learn new skills, improve competence or complete a difficult task that one thinks is challenging (Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Lafrenière, 2012).. Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation (IM to Experience Stimulation). IM to experience stimulation indicates a person would engage in an activity on account of the sensation of stimulation or aesthetic pleasure one would get in the process (Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993). Even though this kind of IM has not been studied until recently, IM to experience stimulation is stated to have connection with constructs like experiences of aesthetic stimulations (Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Lafrenière, 2012; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briere, & Blais, 1995), seeking of sensations, which means the willingness of risk-taking (either physical or social) for getting the experience (Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Lafrenière, 2012; Zuckerman, 1979), sensory pleasure motive like enjoying beautiful music, paintings, views and so forth (Eisenberger et al., 2010; Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Lafrenière, 2012), peak experiences, which refers to experience something that is subjectively considered 18.

(27) as the high peak or the most exciting in one’s life (McInman & Grove, 1991; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briere, & Blais, 1995), and sentience (Carbonneau, Vallerand, & Lafrenière, 2012).. Extrinsic Motivation to Join EMI More and more higher education institutions try to improve internationalization by adopting EMI into programs or courses (Doh, 2010). Governments also support EMI policy since they perceived that it is necessary for students to possess English proficiency to improve employability when they graduate (Costa, Coleman, & Bialystok, 2012). In addition, students from business schools believe EMI can increase their career opportunities (Byun et al., 2011). Lueg & Lueg (2015) postulated that there might be several factors why students emroll in EMI. First, students join EMI because of job advantage which means they think joining EMI will benefit individual career. Second, students join EMI for future job need because they think English will be the common language of their future job. Third, students join EMI for improving English proficiency. Fourth, students join EMI for their own interest in foreign language. Fifth, Students join EMI because the attitudes toward English in their motherland. Sixth, students join EMI out of their ambition. Seventh, students join EMI because of the pressure from their family. Eighth, students join EMI out of peer pressure. Last, students join EMI because of social perception. The results show that the factors of job need, job advantage, English proficiency, interest, personal ambition, pressure from family, peer pressure and social perception are related to why students join EMI.. 19.

(28) Among the above factors, some of them including job advatage, job need, family pressure, peer pressure and social perception can be regarded as extrinsic motivation. Moreover, some researches state that job advantage plays a crucial role on whether students choose to enroll in EMI programs (Diab, 2006; Tung, Lam, & Tsang, 1997) and students who consider possessing English proficiency as an advantage for future employment have higher possibility to join EMI programs (Lueg & Leung, 2015). Furthermore, Lueg & Leung (2015) also indicated that peer pressure would decide whether students choose EMI programs. In orther words, whether peers enroll(ed) in or hold positive attitude toward EMI programs affects students’ decision to join EMI programs. In addition, family pressure is one of the decisive factors that has impact on students’ choice of joining EMI programs. Likewise, whether students join EMI programs would also be affected by social attitude toward EMI programs. Since the mentioned factors above belong to instrumental reasons, they are categorized as extrinsic motivation to enroll in EMI programs... Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). Types of Citizenship Behavior Bateman & Organ (1983) stated that a series of behaviors have the function to lubricate the social aspect issues of the organization. However, it does not exist in the concept of task performance. This kind of behavior includes helping colleagues to solve problems on their works, accepting what is assigned without anxiety, enduring and finishing the works that are assigned provisionally without complaint, helping to keep the environment in the company in. 20.

(29) a good situation, giving constructive suggestions instantly, promoting climate of work by reducing the conflicts in the organization, and cherishing the resource in the organization (Bateman & Dennis, 1983). All of these actions could be defined as “citizenship behaviors.” When applied within an organization, Organ (1988, p.4) gave OCB the definition of "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes effective functioning of the organization." Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach (2000) reviewed literatures and identified 30 potentially different types of citizenship behavior. Later, they categorized all of them into seven dimensions. First is the helping behavior or altruism which refers to assisting colleagues to solve problems on work or prevent problems from happening voluntarily. Second is the sportsmanship which means when being inconvenienced by others, a person would not complain; when things do not go to the direction as expected, a person would still hold optimistic attitude; when other people refuse to take one’s advices, a person would not feel offensive; a person would not insist on one’s interest when others’ opinions are good for the team or group; and, a person would not see others’ rejection on one as other people holding against one personally. The third one is organizational loyalty which points out a person would possess high commitment toward the organization, voluntarily promote the organization and even stand out for the organization when external threats appear. Another is organizational compliance which indicates that a person would follow the rules and regulations of an organization because of one’s own will rather than being forced. That is to say, a person would complied to the rules and regulations without monitoring. Next one is individual initiative that refers to one would do extra work over one’s duty for improving 21.

(30) organizational performance. Another one is civic virtue which indicates that one would see oneself as one of the organization’s members and be willing to engage in managerial activities such as participating in meetings, involving in policy debates and expressing opinions on organizational strategies. In addition, a person would see observing the external environment that might have impact on the organization as one’s responsibility and try one’s best to benefit the organization. The last dimension is self-development, which means a person would engage in activities to get knowledge, skill and ability for making more contribution to the organization.. Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB) There are four main types of antecedents in the empirical research of OCB including individual characteristics, features of tasks, characteristics of organizations and leadership styles. Early researches of individual characteristics mostly put emphasis on “moral factors” and “dispositional factors.” For moral factors, they come from employee satisfaction, organizational commitment, employees’ cognition of equity, and whether employees can perceive the support from leaders (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Apart from moral factors, Organ and Ryan (1995) proposed different forms of dispositional factors including agreeableness, conscientiousness, altruism, positive and negative affectivity. All of the above variables are significantly related to citizenship behaviors and thus, moral factors as composed by the above variables are crucial determinants of citizenship behaviors (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Among the variables, the relationship. 22.

(31) between conscientiousness, agreeableness and altruism, generalized compliance is important. In addition, positive affectivity has positive relationship with altruism. Second antecedent of OCB would be task characteristics. All three types of task features including feedback on the tasks, routinized tasks and intrinsically satisfying tasks have important relationship with altruism. For instance, there is a positive relationship between feedbacks on tasks, intrinsically satisfying tasks and OCB but the relationship between routinized tasks and OCB is negative (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). As for the third antecedent of OCB, organizational characteristics, even though formalized organizations, inflexible organizations, supportiveness and the distance of space did not have accordant relationship with OCB, there is a crucial and positive relationship between group cohesiveness and altruism. Likewise, support from organizations would also affect altruism (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). The last form antecedent of OCB is leadership styles, which includes transformational and transactional leadership styles. Both of the two leadership styles have important relationship with OCB. Transformational style, which refers to using contingent reward behavior, has a positive relationship with altruism while transactional style, which means using punishment behavior, has a negative relationship with altruism (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000).. Consequences of Organizational Citizenship Behavior For the consequences of OCB, there are two significant issues on research efforts. One is that OCB is always linked to issues such as performance evaluation (MacKenzie, Podsakoff,. 23.

(32) & Fetter, 1993), pay raise and job promotions in management fields. The other is performance within organizations which is also associated with OCB (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). There are several reasons why OCB would affect performance rating in management fields. First, people would seek for opportunity to pay back people who helped them. Thus, managers would reciprocate employees who have OCB and benefit the organization (Gouldner, 1960). Second, when an evaluator does rating, one may be affected by implicit theories and takes OCB into consideration. In this way, evaluator may give higher than actually performance score to an employee who has OCB (Berman & Kenny, 1976). Third, “Schema-Trigger Affect” states that an individual would see an objective according to one’s own definition and links the characteristics or behaviors together when sees part of them (Fiske, 1982 ). For example, if a supervisor thinks that a good emplyee should posess OCB and high performance, when an employee has OCB, the supervisor may think this employee also has high performance and thus, is a good employee (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Fourth, when managers have to rate employees, they may want to get the information that is distinctive. In this case, OCB may be taken into considration when managers are rating since OCB is not a necessary requirement for organizations and thus, belongs to distinctive behavior (DeNisi, Cafferty, & Meglino, 1984 ). Fifth, “incidents of performance that are attributed to stable, internal causes are most likely to be retained in memory, recalled, and considered in the [manager’s] final evaluation” (DeNisi, Cafferty, & Meglino, 1984, p.376). Since OCB is not a requirement for one’s job, when evaluating performance, managers may ascribe OCB to employees’ characteristics. Consequently, it 24.

(33) would affect the rating on the performance of employees (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). All of the above reasons may probably cause raters to give higher scores than deserved to employees who possess OCB (Cooper, 1981; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Organ (1988) states that OCB would strengthen organizational effectiveness. There are many potential reasons why OCB affects organization performance. First, OCB positively affect the relationship between coworker and their productivity. Second, OCB may release resource and thus, increase the productivity. Third, OCB may decrease the chance to waste rare resources on maintenance function. Fourth, OCB helps to harmonize the activities in groups and across groups. Fifth, OCB helps organizations have the ability to attract and retain talented employees. Sixth, OCB may help organizational performance to stay in a stable status. Last, OCB helps organization to have the ability to face the fast-changing environment (Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, Ahearne, & MacKenzie, 1997; Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1994; Podsakoff M. P., MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000).. OCB in Educational Context Even though there are lots of researches on OCB, few studies of OCB were done in the education field (Chen & Carey, 2009). There are a few researches which discuss the effects of OCB on university professors and staff and also the achievement of students (DiPaola & Hoy, 2005). Moreover, there is scarce literature that discusses students’ organizational citizenship behavior, its antecedents, and its consequences (DiPaola & Hoy, 2005). However, Mehlinger (1997) gave educational citizenship behavior definition such as being polite, following the. 25.

(34) rules of the school, handing in assignments on time and not cheating on the exams. Okunrotifa (1979; 1981) summarized OCB of students into the following points. First, students are able to work well in a group with other students. Second, students would bring materials to schools by themselves. Third, students would finish their work without complaining. Fourth, students would submit their assignments on time. Fifth, students would keep the environment (such as classroom) clean. Sixth, students would not waste the resource of school. Seventh, students would do what they should do even under the condition that there is no one watching them. Next, after finishing one task, students would find another task to do. Lastly, students would cherish and protect the property of the school. However, the above described points only include generalized compliance and conscientiousness of OCB. Compared to OCB, the above descriptions about ECB lack the aspect reflecting altruism (Chen & Carey, 2009). A study from Chen & Carey (2009) indicates that CB constructs can be generalized to the educational field. They proposed a two-factor structure that is similar to two dimensions in OCB. The two-factor structure, self-regulation (self-perspective) and other-orientation (other-perspective), correspond to conscientiousness and altruism of OCB. To be more specific, self-regulation is seen as conscientious behaviors (e.g., be responsible and take initiative) and other-orientation (e.g., helping behaviors) is considered to be altruistic behavior.. Antecedent and Consequences of OCB in Educational Context Chen and Carey (2009) examined dispositional constructs which previous researches. 26.

(35) found to be related to OCB in educational context. They found that in the industrial and organizational field, job self-efficacy and OCB are positively related. In the educational field, Dussault (2006) found that there is a relationship between teacher’s self-efficacy and OCB. Personality factors such as conscientiousness and agreeableness are said to have relationships with OCB (Chen & Carey, 2009). Moreover, Chen and Carey (2009) tested the effects of educational OCB on a generic outcome variable, life satisfaction. Life satisfaction is a main “indicator of subjective well-being” (Chen & Carey, 2009, p.127) and considered as a process of cognition and judgment that can generally evaluate one’s life (Chen & Carey, 2009; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Chen and Carey (2009) found out that the variance in educational OCB can not be explained by self-efficacy. Moreover, GPA of students is also not related to educational OCB. It may be explained by the reason that students who have high GPA or self-efficacy may possess high self-enhancement but they may not care about other people. Consequently, educational OCB is not related to if one performed well in the past but one’s willingness to have contributions to an organization or institute. As a result, educational OCB relates to the attitudes and motivations of one’s commitment toward social identity and possesses corresponding behaviors to it (Chen & Carey, 2009). In addition, a research from Gelfand, Erez and Aycan (2007) reviewed cross-cultural organizational behavior. They indicated that commitment and psychological contracts would have effects on OCB in collectivism cultures. Moreover, educational OCB could be significantly predicted by conscientiousness (Chen & Carey, 2009).. 27.

(36) Relationship Between Motivation and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) Some existing studies indicate significant relationship between motivation and OCB (Finkelstein & Penner, 2004). Similarly, Barbuto, Wheeler and Wilhite (2003) examined different types of motivation of employees and found that they are releveant to OCB. For instances, Tang and Ibrahim (1998) investigated the antecedents of intrinsic and extrinsic OCB and discovered that there are relationships between organizational self-esteem, achievement needs, intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction and altruism which is one of the domensions of OCB.. Extrinsic Motivation and Citizenship Behavior When an individual has high instrumental motivation (extrinsic motivation), one would more likely to be attracted to attend the activities that provide formal rewards. This type of people perform behaviors in order to get benefits from it (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998 ). Because organization citizenship behavior is performed out of voluntariness and does not provide formal rewards, it can be assumed that the relationship between extrinsic motivation and OCB is negative. Torlak and Koc (2007) suggested that the relationship between OCB and materialistic attitude is negative. In addition, Barbuto, Wheeler and Wilhite (2003) discovered that there is a small degree negative relationship between OCB and extrinsic motivation. Nevertheless, Organ (1997) claimed that external rewards motive OCB and some researches indicate that employees may believe that they would get future rewards and thus would still perform certain OCB (Barbuto & Story, 2011).. 28.

(37) Since in this study the extrinsic motivations that will be examined relate more to the intention to get future rewards such as to increase the employability, and pressure from family, the researcher assumes that there is a positive relationship between extrinsic motivation and OCB. Hypothesis 1: Extrinsic Motivation will positively affect OCB.. Life satisfaction is one’s perspective and attitude towards life and it may be affected by different factors such as the level of happiness one perceived of one’s life, quality of life and expectation from life (Şahin, 2010). Since life satisfiaction is one of OCB’s antecedents as memtioned and EM toward job advantage, EM toward job need, EM from family pressure, EM from social pressure and EM from peer pressure are all parts of expectation from life, the following sub-dimensional hypotheses (1a, 1b, 1c, 1d) were developed. First, students who have EM toward job advantage to enroll in EMI programs would perform OCB because they want to improve their English ability. Thus, they may be more willing to perform OCB since it would increase the opportunity to communicate with their classmates, the faculty and staff. Second,. those who join EMI programs out of EM toward job need would possess OCB. since they perceive English as future job tool. For this reason, they would try to improve their English ability while helping classmates, the faculty and staff. Third, those who join EMI programs because of their family may also affect their OCB since they care about the opinions of their family and thus, they would want to have good performance, both in-role and extra-role, in the program to fullfill the expectation of their family. Fourth, those who enroll in EMI programs out of social pressure or how the society expects them to do may also 29.

(38) exhibit more OCB since they would like to fulfill the expectation from the society as a good person. Fifth, students who enroll in EMI programs because of their friends would have higher posibility to perfom OCB. It is because they care about how the peers think and consequently, they would tend to perform OCB to gain approval from the peers. In addition, since the participants in this study will be students who are thought to be easily affected by peers, the researcher anticipate that peer pressure will have the most significant effect on OCB among the 5 types of EM as general belief (hypothesis 1e).. Hypothesis 1a: EM toward Job Advantage will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1b: EM toward Job Need will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1c: EM from Family Pressure will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1d: EM from Social Pressure will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1e: EM from Peer Pressure will have the most significant positive effect on OCB than the other four types of EM.. Intrinsic Motivation and Citizenship Behavior Some studies have attempted to explain the relationship between employee’s intrinsic motivation and OCB. For example, Tang & Ibrahim (1998) found that self-esteem, feeling a sense of achievement and intrinsic satisfaction predict altruism in OCB. Later, Barbuto & Story (2011) reviewed five types of employees’ motivation and found out that self-concept intrinsic motivation has a positive relationship with OCB. In addition, Finkelstein (2011) indicated that there is a relationship between intrinsic motivation and organizational-directed. 30.

(39) citizenship behavior which refers to OCBO (Organization). Furthermore, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine and Bachrach (2000) claimed that OCB is a kind of voluntary behavior and it is not out of selfish motive. OCB are behaviors performed not out of reluctance but beyond obligations (Organ, 1997; Roche & Haarb, 2013) and following the above argument, intrinsic motivation may affect OCB (Pohl, Santo, & Battistelli, 2012). It is also said that intrinsically motivated individual would participate in activities one thinks are enjoyable and thus, creates the pleasurable working environment. The possibilities of performing helping behavior would be higher when working in a pleasant environment. Consequently, an individual would consider performing OCB interesting and fun when intrinsically motivated (Barbuto & Story, 2011). The above studies all indicate that intrinsic motivation plays an important role on predicting OCB. When people are intrinsically motivated, they involve in their job out of feeling it is interesting and can gain a sense of satisfaction from the work itself. Therefore, intrinsically motivated people may be willing to help others in order to create the pleasurable and supportive working environment. In this way, they engage in OCB (Lazauskaite-Zabielske, Urbanaviciute, & Bagdziuniene, 2015). Generalizing to ECB, Chen and Carey (2009) stated that motivation would affect ECB. Moreover, there is a positive relationship between self-regulated ECB and intrinsic motivation. In addition, intrinsic motivation and personality factor such as conscientiousness positively predicts ECB (Chen & Carey, 2009; Rioux & Penner, 2001) since intrinsic motivation comes from the inner drive to satisfied people’s inner needs and it is self-determined (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Lazauskaite-Zabielske, Urbanaviciute and Bagdziuniene (2015) found that intrinsic motivation would predict OCB and its dimensions including altruism, civic virtue, courtesy 31.

(40) and conscientiousness. To be more specific, the higher level an individual enjoys doing one’s work, the higher possibility one would involve in OCB such as helping others, be compliant with rules and policies and attend organizational activities under non-forced condition. Furthermore, these points are aligned with Barbuto and Story’s study in 2011. In the study, they indicate that when the intrinsic motivation of an individual reaches to a standard, an individual would have higher possibility to perform OCB (Lazauskaite-Zabielske, Urbanaviciute, & Bagdziuniene, 2015). Likewise, Tang and Ibrahim (1998) stated that there are significant relationships between achievement motivation and OCB. Khalid, Rahman, Madar and Ismail (2013) also pointed out that OCB has a positive relationship with achievement. Hypothesis 2: Intrinsic Motivation will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 2a: Intrinsic Motivation To Know will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 2b: Intrinsic Motivation To Experience Stimulation will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 2c: Intrinsic Motivation Toward Accpomplishment will have the most significant positive effect on OCB than the other two types of IM. Based on self-determination theory (SDT) (Gagneé & Deci, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2000), when highly intrinsically motivated, individual would enjoy doing one’s works, and consider the goal is valuable or enjoy helping others. In contrast, when intrinsic motivation is low, individual is in the external-regulated situation and would not enjoy doing one’s job, and the reason for helping others is because one wants to avoid the guilty or anxious feelings. Thus, when there is no intrinsic motivation and not perceiving happiness in the process of finishing 32.

(41) tasks, individual would feel pressure toward helping behaviors. However, when possessing high intrinsic motivation and enjoy in one’s work, individual would be able to help others with ease. Hypothesis 3: Intrinsic Motivation will have a more significant and positive relationship with OCB than extrinsic motivation.. 33.

(42) CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY. This chapter explains the methods and instruments that will be adopted or adapted in this study. In this chapter, research framework, research procedure, research design, data collection and measurement will also be introduced.. Research Framework Figure 3.1 illustrates the relationships between the variables in this study. Students’ motivation to join an EMI program represents independent variables which include intrinsic (including IM to know, IM toward accomplishment and IM to experience stimulation) and extrinsic motivation (including job advantage, job need, family pressure, peer pressure and social perception). Different types of motivation were proposed to have significant effects on the dependent variable, OCB (including helping behavior and organizational loyalty).. 34.

(43) Intrinsic Motivation IM to know IM toward accomplishment IM to experience stimulation. Organizational Citizen Behavior (OCB) Helping Behavior. Extrinsic Motivation. Organizational Loyalty. Job Advantage Jon Need Family Pressure Peer Pressure Social Pressure. Figure 3. 1. Research framework. Research Hypothesis According to the research framework, two main hypotheses and 8 sub-hypotheses were generated and stated as follows: Hypothesis 1: Extrinsic Motivation will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1a: EM toward Job Advantage will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1b: EM toward Job Need will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1c: EM from Family Pressure will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1d: EM from social Pressure will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 1e: EM from Peer Pressure will have the most significant positive effect on 35.

(44) OCB than the other four types of EM. Hypothesis 2: Intrinsic Motivation will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 2a: Intrinsic Motivation To Know will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 2b: Intrinsic Motivation To Experience Stimulation will positively affect OCB. Hypothesis 2c: Intrinsic Motivation Toward Accomplishment will have the most significant positive effect on OCB than the other two types of IM. Hypothesis 3: Intrinsic Motivation will have a more significant and positive relationship with OCB than extrinsic motivation.. Research Procedure The researcher first identified a few topics of interest and reviewed literatures on possible topics to narrow down to a more specific topic. Then, the researcher reviewed literatures on the chosen topic to figure out possible variables to investigate the issue. After identifying the variables, researcher developed research topic and defined purpose of the study. Next, researcher moved on to develop research framework and hypotheses by reviewing journal articles and few e-books. In order to measure the variables, part of measurement were adopted and adapted from existing studies.. 36.

(45) Review Literature. Identify Research Questions. Select Topic of Interest. Develop Research Framework and Hypotheses. Develop Research Design. Adapt/Adopt Instruments. Pilot Study. Collect Data. Analyze Data. Present Research Findings. Figure 3. 2. Research procedure. 37.

(46) Research Design In this section, the researcher talks about the overall research design. A quantitative study by using survey questionnaire was adopted and used to collect data for measuring participants’ motivation and organizational citizenship behavior. Participants were asked to fill out the questionnaire to reflect their extrinsic, extrinsic motivation and organizational citizenship behavior. Statistical analysis tools were used to help generate the findings and conclusions of this study.. Sampling and Data Collection For this study, quantitative method was chosen to identify the relationship between students’ motivation to join an EMI program and their organizational citizenship behavior, and survey questionnaire was used to collect the data. The sample of this study included students who join(ed) an English-as-a-Medium-of-Instruction program in Taiwan. Survey questionnaires were distributed to students whose native languages are not English and join(ed) an EMI program. Participants who join an EMI program in Taiwan were chosen and reached from the list of English-as-a-Medium-of-Instruction programs in 2014 from the Ministry of Education (Ministry of Education, Republic of China, 2014) that includes the EMI programs in Taiwan. However, a few of the programs on the list informed the researcher that they were not English-taught programs and some refused to participate in this research. In the end, this study reached local and international participants from 53 different EMI programs in Taiwan. To be more specific, there were a total of 181 programs on the lists and there were 2 which were not on the list but were discovered to be EMI programs through the. 38.

(47) website of the universities. On the list, 53 programs agreed to help sending out the questionnaires to their students; 18 programs replied that they are not entirely English-taught programs; 5 programs were not counted as EMI programs; 4 programs thought it was not appropriate for their students to be participants in this study; 1 program had stopped recruiting new students; 99 programs did not respond (refers to appendix B). Data collection process included two ways to distribute questionnaires. Hard copy survey questionnaires were delivered to target sample and online questionnaires (Google Survey Questionnaire) were also distributed through emails to target institutes. The 53 programs were accessed through sending mails to the secretary or the chairmen of the institutes. Through the mails, the researcher provides either hard copies or e-version of the questionnaire for the programs to choose which form they prefer. Later, the researcher sent the mails for inviting EMI program students to participate in this research for 5 weeks (once a week) according to the list of English-as-a-Medium-of-Instruction programs in 2014 from the Ministry of Education. Except for 1 program which requested hard copies of the questionnaire, 10 programs helped to send the questionnaires to their students and 9 programs either refused or were not whole English-taught programs during the first week. During the second week, 13 programs replied they have helped sending the mails to their students and 4 programs wither refused or were not EMI programs. For the third week, there were just 2 programs replied that they sent the questionnaires to their students. There were 8 programs replied helped sending the questionnaires to their students during the fourth week. As for the fifth week, 10 programs informed that they helped sending the questionnaires and 1 program was not an EMI program. 39.

(48) For this study, there were 53 programs that the research was able to reach. After getting the number of students of the 53 programs on the websites of the universities, response rate was calculated without including those which did not response or were not EMI programs. 261 questionnaires were returned and the response rate was 19.5%. A total of 215 questionnaires were useable for this study. 46 responses were excluded due to missing data, or did not pass all of the screening questions (do not or did not receive English-taught program in Taiwan or mother tongue is English and so on) to fit the sample criteria of this study. Due to the time limitation and limited resource, a t-test was done to test differences in response between early and late respondents in order to examine the representativeness of the 215 samples in this study. T-test result is shown in Table 3.1. The t-test result shows there is no difference between the early and late respondents on the main variables (intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and organizational citizenship behavior) of this study. Thus, the 215 samples are still quite representative even though the sample size is limited in this study. Table 3. 1. Independent Samples T-test Result Summary Respondent Group Early Respondents. Late Respondents. Dependent Variable M. SD. M. SD. P. Social Desirability. 5.79. 2.17. 5.89. 2.07. .744. English Proficiency. 5.03. 1.26. 5.01. 1.47. .915. Intrinsic Motivation. 5.61. 0.9. 5.56. 1.13. .696. Extrinsic Motivation. 5.26. 1.00. 5.23. 1.13. .813. 3.99. 0.58. 4.01. 0.65. .825. Organizational Citizenship Behavior. 40.

(49) Sample profile. After reviewing the 215 questionnaires, the following are the demographics of the samples in this study. A majority of respondents at the rate of 65.1% join EMI program now and the others joined EMI program 1-3 years ago. Responses came mostly from female at the rate of 59.1% and the age of the participants ranged from 18 to 48 years old. Most of the respondents join(ed) EMI program for a master degree at a rate of 61.4%, 32.6% for a bachelor degree and 6% for a doctoral degree. A rate of 53.6 reported to join the program for duration of 1-2 years, 22.8% for 3 months-1 year, 15.8 for 3-4 years, 7% for more than 4 years and 1.9% for less than 3 months. All of the respondents came from 53 different EMI programs. Although participants are from 39 different countries, the majority of them are from Asia (Taiwanese at a rate of 44.7%, while 31.6% from other parts of Asia), 12.6% from Central/South America, 5.6% form Europe, 3.3% from Africa, 1.9% from Oceania and 0.5% from North America (Mexico). Table 3. 2. Descriptive Statistics on Sample Characteristics Item. Frequency Percentage Item. 1. When enroll in the program Now. Frequency Percentage. 4. Region 140. 65.1. Asia. 164. 76.3. South America. 27. 12.6. Europe. 12. 5.6. Africa. 7. 3.3. Oceania. 4. 1.9. Central ＆ 1-3 years ago. 75. 34.9. 2. duration of enrolling in the program less than 3 months. 4. 1.9. (continued). 41.