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34.3 (Fall 2010)
INTRODUCTION
Many studies have investigated prosodic disambiguation in first
language (L1) production (Allbritton, McKoon, & Ratcliff, 1996;
Kraljic & Brennan, 2005; Lehiste, 1973; Lehiste, Olive, & Streeter,
1976; Schafer,Speer,Wa訂en ， & White, 2000; Snedeker & Trueswell,
2003); however, few studies have addressed the issue of prosodic
disambiguation in second language (L2) (Hwang & Schafer, 2006;
Zhang, Li, Lo, & Meng, 2010). In addition, L2 studies have focused
exclusively on L2 learners' perception of prosodic disambiguation.
Therefore,to further understand L2 prosodic disambiguation,it is also
important to explore how L2 learners produce prosodic cues to
express appropriate meanings. Secondly, given the role of L2
proficiency level in L2 prosodic production (cf. Riazantseva, 2001),
L2 proficiency levels may a旺ect L2 learners' production of prosodic
disambiguation. Thus,these two concerns motivated the present study,
which examined whether limited and advanced English learners in Taiwan can produce prosodic cues to disambiguate syntactically ambiguous English sentences while reading them aloud. With the
findings indicated from the study, it is hoped that the relationship
between syntax and prosody of English education in Taiwan can be paid more attention to and then be more effective and efficient through explicit instruction.
Prosodic boundaries born by pauses, rhythm changes, or pitch
movements within an utterance are crucial to signaling its syntactic
break (Cooper & Paccia-Cooper, 1980; Klatt, 1975; Meng, Tseng,
Kondo, Harrison, & Viscelg間， 2009). Lehiste (1996) proposed the
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Yang: A Preliminary Study of Prosodic Disambiguation in L2 Production to use other infonnation available to clarify ambiguous utterances.
Furthermore,some methodologies require speakers to pay much more
computational attention when uttering ambiguous sentences whereas other methodologies did not require such effort from the speaker's part. Since methodologies profoundly affect the research on the
relationship between prosody and syntax, it is more feasible to
examine use of prosodic disambiguation in conditions where
production of prosodic cues is needed, such as reading aloud task at
sentence level.
PROSODYINSECONDLANGUAGE
Relatively, few studies have tackled the prosody in second
language (L2). One such study using a narrative topic and a cartoon
description, Riazantseva (2001) examined the relationship between
second language proficiency and pausing patterns in the speech of Russian-speaking learners of English. She found that L2 English proficiency affected the pause duration of intermediate and advanced
learners. Specifically, the advanced learners were more capable of
adjusting the duration of pauses in English to produce a nativelike
pause nonn. However, in this study, the author did not indicate
whether the pauses made by the L2 learners accorded with prosodic boundaries which signaled the syntactic structures of utterances in
their speech elicited. Moreover, Riazantseva did not deal with the
issue of prosodic disambiguation occurring in L2 learners' speech.
To realize effects of prosodic disambiguation on L2 learners,
the existing literature has focused specifically on how L2 learners
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Yang: A Preliminary Study of Prosodic Disambiguation in L2 Production
the subjects, such as indicated in (5).
(5) Context 1: Fred and John are arguing. They both want Mary
to be on their team. The fight is over Mary.
Context2: Mary doesn't know why everyone else has already
left theboxing 缸ena. The fight is over,Mary.
Upon hearing the speech recording, in which the prosodic cues
could serve to disambiguate between the possible semantic meanings,
each subject was asked to select the appropriate interpretation for the
sentence or select the option “I don't know." The accuracies ranged
from 4% to 83%. The authors argued that their subjects may generally be unaware of how pausing and intonational phrasing were used for
semantic disambiguation, or they were unable to perceive the relevant
prosodic realizations. Given that this study did not specify that all
Chinese subjects were at the same English proficiency level, the
distinctly different accuracies found may be a result of various
English proficiency levels. In other words, English proficiency level
is likely to correlate with perception accuracies on choosing the appropriate meaning for each sentence.
In spite of the inconsistent findings from the studies discussed
above, an individual's L2 English proficiency may be a factor that
affects his/her prosody use in L2 production and perception. The
present study would address the variable proficiency when
investigating prosodic disambiguation in L2 learners' speech
production.
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3毛語教學望了句“反正TeachingetLearning
34.3 (FaIl2010)
Table 1
Two Possible Interpretations for Each Sentence
Sentence 2 3 4 5 6 7 Interpretation Context 1. Only the dogs were little.
The little dogs and cats chased a ball. 2. Both the dogs and cats were little.
The little dogs and cats chased a ball. 1. Only the forks were silver.
The silver forks and spoons dropped from the table. 2. Both the forks and spoons were silver.
The silver forks and spoonsdropped 仕omthe table.
1. Only the boys were fat.
The fat boys and girls ran on the playground. 2. Both the boys and girls were fat
The fat boys and girls ran on the playground.
1. Only the hats were pink
The pink hats and shoes attracted lots of attention. 2. Both the hats and shoes were pink
The pink hats and shoes attracted lots of attention. 1. Only the fans were excited.
The excited fans and reporters approached the movie star.
2. Both the fans and reporters were excited.
Theexcit廷dfans and reporters approached the movie star.
1. Only the cups were round.
The round cups and vases broke in the earthquake. 2. Both the cups and vases were round
The round cups and vases broke in the earthquake. 1. Only the butterflies were beautiful.
The beautiful butterflies and bees flied around the flowers. 2. Both the butterflies and bees were beautiful.
The beautiful butterflies and bees flied around the flowers.
Procedure and Data Analyses
All subjects in the study were recorded individually. Before
fonnal recordings, they were provided with the materials as shown in
Table 1 and were given enough time (i.e., depending on individual
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H,
(a)
“
The little dogs and cats chased a ball" for Interpretation Context I9 他
(b) “The little dogs and cats chased a ball" for Interpretation Context 2
Figure 1
Spectrograms of Sentence 1
for Interpretation Context 1 and Context 2
喜事言喜歡學 'Eng反而 rJeacfiingrt{,Learning
34.3 (Fa1l2010)
RESULTS
Table 2 provides an overview of the three subject groups' percentages of the pause duration of Boundaries 1 and 2 within each utterance for the two interpretation contexts. To determine whether there were any differences in uttering the intended meaning for each
ambiguous sentence between different groups, a series of two-way
(2 x 3) ANOVAs with repeated measures were computed for the two
interpretation contexts. In addition,the factor boundary (Boundary 1
and 2) was the within-subjects factor and group (NES, LEPL, and
AEL) was the between-subjects factor.
Table 3 shows ANOVA results of the between-groups analyses
for the two interpretation contexts. For Interpretation Context 1, the
results showed that there was a significant effect of boundary,F
(1,1
8)=
76.95,p < .001 ， η2=
.810,a significant effect of group,F (2,1
8)=
27.67,p < .001 ， η2
=
.755,as well as a significant effect of interactionbetween boundary and group,F (2,18)
=
37.67,p < .001 ， η2=
.807.The analysis of Interpretation Context 2 revealed a significant effect
of boundary,F (1,18)
=
82.28,p < .001 ， η2=
.820,a significant effectof group, F (2,18) = 143.61,p < .001 ， η2 = .941, and a significant
interaction of boundary and group, F (2,18)
=
56.74,p < .001 ， η2=
.863. Since our results indicated a significant effect of group factorand also a significant interaction with the factor group for both
Contexts 1 and 2, we continued to analyze the data from the three
Yang: A Preliminary Study of Prosodic Disambiguation in L2 Production
Table 2
Percentages of the Pause Duration of Boundaries 1 and 2
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ANOVA Results of the Between-Groups Analyses
Context 1 Context 2 Effect df F p 1]2 F p 1)2 Boundary (1,18) 76.95 .000*** .810 82.28 .000*** .820 Group (2,18) 27.67 .000*** .755 143.61 .000*** .941 Boundary X (2,18) 37.67 .000*** .807 56.74 .000*** .863 Group Note. ***p<.001 69
英語教學乞句俗丘 'TeacliingrtLLearning
34.3 (Fall 2010)
Native English Speakers. For the NBS data, we conducted
ANOVAs with repeated measures for Contexts 1 祖d 2 with the factor
boundary as the within-subjects factor. The analysis of the pause duration for Context 1 showed that Boundary 1 was shorter than Boundary 2 by
3.50% of the utterance,resulting in a significante旺ectof boundary,F (1,
6)
=
12.62, p < .05 ， η2=
.678. For Context 2, Boundary 1 was longerthan Boundary 2 by 1.61% of the utterance, resulting in a significant
e旺'ectofboundary,F (1,6)=21.07, p <.01 ， η2 =.778.
The results from our native English speakers replicate Lehiste's
(1973) findings. Like Lehiste, we found that the native speakers in
our study made an effort to use alterations of the prosodic grouping to convey the appropriate meaning for each ambiguous sentence when
no other means were available. That is,they produced a longer pause
of Boundary 2,as compared to that of Boundary 1,expressing that the
adjective modifies only the noun immediately following after it. On
the other hand,the pause of Boundary 1 was longer relative to that of
Boundary 2, reflecting the fact that the adjective modifies both the
two nouns after it. The results support the Informative Boundary
Hypothesis that
“
interpretation of a prosodic boundary is determinednot by its absolute size but by its size relative to relevant certain other
boundaries" (Clifton et a1. 2002,p. 87).
L2 English Learners. First, from the LEPL data, results of an
ANOVA with repeated measures proved no significant effects of
boundary for Contexts 1 and 2 respectively. More specifically,
Boundary 1 was longer than Boundary 2 only by 0.56% of the
utterance for Context 1, F (1, 6) = .50,p = .51, and Boundary 1 was
shorter than Boundary 2 only by 0.17% of the utterance for Context 2,
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