領導效能與地方政府績效：一個對印尼地方政府首長的研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)NATIONAL CHENGCHI UNIVERSITY INTERNATIONAL DOCTORAL PROGRAM IN ASIA PACIFIC STUDIES 國立政治大學亞太研究英語博士學位學程. Doctoral Dissertation. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. THE EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS AND THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT PERFORMANCE:. ‧. A STUDY OF REGIONAL HEADS IN INDONESIA. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 領導效能與地方政府績效:一個對印尼地方政府首長的研究. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Supervisor: Dr. Chen, Don-Yun. DITA S.N.A DILIANI 2015.

(2) ABSTRACT Leadership crisis has been a sizzling issue for the past decade. The existing studies showed that due to the absence of the ideal characteristics of leadership, the implementation of decentralization in some developing countries tended to give negative effects. Unfortunately, not enough evidences can be used as the guidance to overcome the negative effects. We believe that the leadership studies seemed to have been focused too much on “what” are the characteristics rather than “how” well the characteristics would be. Four regions as well as their county/city leader were examined. We found that the four regions have similarities and differences in achieving their objectives. Essentially, we affirmed that leaders have performed, the effective leadership characteristics differently.. 治政 different outcome. We conclude that they are two different大 styles have been identified. These 立 are normative and alternative. They were normative because not only they used the regular Regarding the poverty alleviation, these leaders conducted different strategies and achieved. ‧ 國. 學. approached performed by the central government, but the leader also acted normatively when achieving the objectives. For example, facilitate the poor with free education and health. ‧. services. On the other, they were alternative because they have performed different approach and the leader acted out of the box. For example, by changing people’s mindset in helping the. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. to take part rather than depend merely on the government fund.. sit. poor rather than giving them money. To do this, leader with alternative style invited privates. i Un. v. By adopting the existing leadership theories, the current study has explored the. Ch. engchi. leaders’ behavior that contributed to their effectiveness. We believe that the current study’s findings will be a valuable contribution not only for the leadership studies but also to public administration.. i.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGMENT. First of all, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to Riswan Ubit, my father-in-law who passed away in the beginning of my study in Taiwan. Moreover, I would like to show my sincere gratitude to my committee chair and members Professor Ching-lung Tsay, Professor Dong-Yun Chen, Professor Evan Berman Professor Samuel C.Y. Ku, and Professor David Holm for their guidance and support, your advices for my research proved to be a landmark effort towards the success of my project. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Professor Ping-Yin Kuan, I am grateful for your assistance and valuable suggestions regarding to the statistical problem. To the staff and the faculty member at the Master Program of the Administration of the University of Indonesia, thank you – especially to Professor Eko Prasodjo and Professor Ridwan Maksum.. 治政大Association and also friends at I thank my friends at the NCCU-Indonesian Student 立 the International Doctoral in Asia Pacific Studies (IDAS) program for their support during ‧. ‧ 國. 學. my study in the program, especially to Natalie Pretzer who helped me with the final touch of my dissertation and Angel Li for taking care of my administration matters. I thank Iman K Nawireja, Wageningen University Netherland, for helping me understand the statistical analysis better in Bahasa and to Professor Yohanes Sulaiman, Defense University Indonesia, for giving me ideas to develop my study’s framework. Finally, I wish to present my special thanks to my roommate, Mariana Suryani Gultom, who gave me supports and attention to passing through confusions and doubt.. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. Furthermore, I would also like to show my gratitudes to the some people at the local government administration offices, the local council, the universities and the local nongovernment organization of the observed regions under the West Sumatera province, Yogyakarta province, East-Java province and Aceh province Indonesia for their support during my field study. I would like to pay my regards to the Board of Acehnese Scholarship Commission and Bupati of Aceh Tamiang county for the support and the opportunity given to me to pursue my doctoral degree in National Cheng Chi University Taiwan. Thanks to my colleagues in the Secretariat of Aceh Tamiang county, especially those in public relation division for their support and encouragement.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Finally, I would like to acknowledge with gratitude, the support and love my family – my parents (Ayah, Ibu dan Bunda), my husband, Adli and my sisters and brothers, also to my big family of Sundanese, Minang and Acehnese. They all kept me going, and this dissertation will not have been finished without their supports and prays.. ii.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENT Page ABSTRACT. i. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. ii. TABLE OF CONTENTS. iii. LIST OF TABLES. v. LIST OF FIGURES. viii. ABBREVIATIONS. ix. Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1.. Background of study ................................................................................................... 1. 1.2.. Purpose of Study ......................................................................................................... 3. 1.3. Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 4. 2.1.. Effective Leadership Behaviors of Local government Leaders .................................. 5. 政治大 Chapter 2 Literature Review .................................................................................................. 5 立. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1.1. Traits and performance effectiveness ....................................................................... 8 2.1.2. Skills and performance effectiveness ..................................................................... 11. ‧. 2.1.3. Influence behaviors and the performance effectiveness ......................................... 15. sit. y. Nat. 2.1.4. Theoretical background of leadership behaviors .................................................... 17. 2.3.. Local government performance measurement .......................................................... 25. 2.4.. Patronage, local culture and financial capacity as moderating variables .................. 34. n. al. er. The Local Government Performance ........................................................................ 22. io. 2.2.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 2.4.1. Patronage and effective leadership behaviors ........................................................ 34 2.4.2. Culture and effective leader’s behaviors ................................................................ 36 2.4.3. Financial situation................................................................................................... 39 2.5.. Research main structure ............................................................................................ 41. 2.6.. Hypotheses ................................................................................................................ 42. Chapter 3 The Contextual Background............................................................................... 45 3.1.. Indonesian Leadership............................................................................................... 45. 3.1.1. Indonesian community characteristics as contingency factor of local government performance ...................................................................................................................... 45 3.1.2. Effective leadership in Indonesia ........................................................................... 49 3.2.. Local Government in Indonesia ................................................................................ 52. 3.2.1. Council and Local Executive relationship .............................................................. 55 iii.

(5) 3.2.2. What do local governments do? ............................................................................. 58 3.2.3. Financial Relationship between the central government and local level................ 62 3.3.. The challenges in implementing regional autonomy ................................................ 67. Chapter 4 Research Methods................................................................................................ 77 4.1.. Research Design ........................................................................................................ 77. 4.1.1 Mixed-methods ........................................................................................................ 77 4.2.. Qualitative Interviews ............................................................................................... 79. 4.2.1. Scenarios for qualitative interview ......................................................................... 80 4.2.2. Interview guide ....................................................................................................... 84 4.3.. Survey methods ......................................................................................................... 84. 4.3.1. Population and sample ............................................................................................ 85. 政治大. 4.3.2. Operationalization of measures .............................................................................. 88 4.3.3. Questionnaires ........................................................................................................ 92. 立. 4.3.4. Public Satisfaction Index ........................................................................................ 93 Research Stages and Methods ................................................................................... 94. ‧ 國. 學. 4.4.. Chapter 5 The Case Studies, Result Analysis...................................................................... 97 Before and After ........................................................................................................ 97. ‧. 5.1.. 5.1.1. Healthcare services performance ............................................................................ 98. Nat. sit. y. 5.1.2. Educational services performance ........................................................................ 102. io. er. 5.1.3. Economy performance .......................................................................................... 105 5.1.4. Achievements and poverty alleviation ................................................................. 111. al. n. 5.2.. Ch. i Un. v. The analysis on the survey questionnaires .............................................................. 116. engchi. 5.2.1. The analysis on demographic variable and other variables .................................. 117 5.2.2. The analysis of respondent’s having information................................................. 121 5.2.2. Slight overview of demographic variables of the city/county .............................. 123 5.2.4. Perceived Leadership Behaviors .......................................................................... 128 5.2.5. Ideal Leadership for decentralized region in Indonesia ........................................ 144 5.2.6. Perceived Local Government Performance .......................................................... 146 5.3.. Moderating variables and leadership behaviors ...................................................... 162. 5.4.. The Indonesian Effective Leadership Behaviors .................................................... 169. 5.5.. Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................ 177. 5.5.1. Mixed-method Discussion…………………………………………….. ……… 184. iv.

(6) Chapter 6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 187 6.1.. Summary ................................................................................................................. 187. 6.2.. Theoretical discussion ............................................................................................. 193. 6.3.. Limitation ................................................................................................................ 196. 6.4.. Recommendation .................................................................................................... 197. REFERENCES. 199. APPENDIX. xi. Appendix 1. Interview guide for senior leaders. Appendix 2. Interview guide for the observed region's head. Appendix 3. Questionnaires. Appendix 4. Questionnaires in Bahasa. Appendix 5. The Committees' Suggestions and Responses. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. LIST OF TABLES. 立. 政治大. Table 2-1 Hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behaviors ...................................................... 18. y. Nat. Table 2-2 Taxonomy of local government leadership behaviors ............................................. 21. sit. Table 2-3 Rank and status of local government performance 2010 ........................................ 29. al. er. io. Table 3-1 The main functions of public administration in Indonesia ...................................... 59. n. iv n C Table 3-3 Discretionary governmental function 62 h e n ...................................................................... gchi U Table 3-2 Mandatory governmental function .......................................................................... 59. Table 3-4 Regional income sources ......................................................................................... 64 Table 3-5 Fund balance revenue distribution........................................................................... 66 Table 4-1 Testing proportion of collected samples.................................................................. 86 Table 4-2 The proportion of population and fixed sample ...................................................... 88 Table 4-3 Operationalization of explanatory variables ............................................................ 90 Table 4-4 Perception index score ............................................................................................. 93 Table 5-1 Population and fixed sample size .......................................................................... 117 Table 5-2 Testing proportion ................................................................................................. 117 Table 5-3 The total amount of male and female respondents ................................................ 118 Table 5-4 Gender sample proportion ..................................................................................... 119 Table 5-5 Age group of respondent ....................................................................................... 119 v.

(7) Table 5-6 Education level of respondents .............................................................................. 120 Table 5-7 Respondents' occupation ....................................................................................... 121 Table 5-8 Respondents' length of time accessing media ....................................................... 122 Table 5-9 The respondents' media preference ....................................................................... 123 Table 5-10 Sample size of City A .......................................................................................... 123 Table 5-11 Sample size of City B .......................................................................................... 125 Table 5-12 Sample size of county D ...................................................................................... 127 Table 5-13 Sample size of city C ........................................................................................... 128 Table 5-14 Perceived leadership behaviors of City A mayor ................................................ 134 Table 5-15 Perceived leadership behaviors of city B mayor ................................................. 139 Table 5-16 Perceived leadership behaviors of county D Bupati............................................ 141. 政治大. Table 5-17 Perceived leadership behavior city C mayor ....................................................... 142 Table 5-18 Perceived city A performance ............................................................................. 147. 立. Table 5-19 Correlation Analysis Mayor A perceived leadership behaviors and City A. ‧ 國. 學. perceived government performance ....................................................................................... 148 Table 5-20 Factor analysis result of perceived leadership behaviors of city A mayor .......... 149. ‧. Table 5-21 Regression analysis result of mayor’s A leadership behaviors and the city A performance……………………………………………………………………….……….. 150. Nat. sit. y. Table 5-22 Perceived city B performance ............................................................................. 151. io. er. Table 5-23 Correlation Analysis Mayor B perceived leadership behaviors and the city B performance ........................................................................................................................... 152. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. Table 5-24 Factor analysis city B mayor perceived leadership behaviors............................. 152. engchi. Table 5-25 Regression Analysis result of mayor B perceived leadership behaviors and City B perceived government performance ....................................................................................... 154 Table 5-26 Perceived county D performance ........................................................................ 155 Table 5-27 Correlation Analyis result of Bupati D perceived leadership behaviors and the county D perceived government performance ....................................................................... 155 Table 5-28 Factor analysis county D Bupati perceived leadership behaviors ....................... 156 Table 5-29 Regression Analysis Result of Bupati D leadership behaviors and the county D government performance ....................................................................................................... 157 Table 5-30 Perceived city C performance ............................................................................. 159 Table 5-31 Correlation analysis of city C mayor leadership behaviors and the city performance ........................................................................................................................... 160 Table 5-32 Factor analysis city C mayor perceived leadership behaviors............................. 160 vi.

(8) Table 5-33 Regression Analysis result of Mayor C perceived leadership behaviors and the city C government performance............................................................................................. 162 Table 5-34 Perception index of patronage practice ............................................................... 166 Table 5-35 Perception index of local culture influence ......................................................... 167 Table 5-36 Correlation analysis of moderating variables and and the city/county’ performance ........................................................................................................................... 168 Table 5-37 Correlation analysis of leaders' personal integrity behaviors and the regions' performance ………………………………………………………………………….…... 170. Table 5-38 Correlation analysis of leaders' administrative skills and the regions’ performance ................................................................................................................................................ 170 Table 5-39 Correlation analysis of leaders' communication skill behaviors and the. 政治大. government performance ....................................................................................................... 171 Table 5-40 Correlation analysis of leaders' influence behaviors and the government. 立. performance ........................................................................................................................... 172. ‧ 國. 學. Table 5-41 Factor analysis of perceived leadership behaviors of all regions ........................ 173 Table 5-42 Regression Analysis of the combined leaders' leadership behaviors and the four. ‧. regions performance …………… ……………………………………………….…………174 Table 5-43 Perception index of patronage practice and local culture influence of the. Nat. sit. y. combined regions ................................................................................................................... 175. io. er. Table 5-44 Correlation analysis of moderating variables of the four regions and the regions' performance …………………………………… …………………………………….……175. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. Table 5-45 Result analysis of qualitative interview ............................................................... 177. engchi. Table 5-46 Result analysis of qualitative interview for moderating variables ...................... 181 Table 5-47 Result analysis of correlation test between the leader perceived leadership behavior and the city/county performance ............................................................................. 183. vii.

(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2-1 The sources of theoretical building ........................................................................ 20 Figure 2-2Local government performance indicator ............................................................... 23 Figure 2-3 The government level in Indonesia ........................................................................ 32 Figure 2-4 Research main structure ......................................................................................... 41 Figure 3-1 The county/city government structure ................................................................... 58 Figure 4-1 Operationalization of dependent variable .............................................................. 92 Figure 5-1 Healthcare worker performance of City A ............................................................. 99 Figure 5-2 Healthcare facilities of City B .............................................................................. 100 Figure 5-3 Healthcare facilities of County D ......................................................................... 101 Figure 5-4 Healthcare facilities of City C .............................................................................. 102. 政治大 Figure 5-6 Educational institutions in City B ........................................................................ 104 立 Figure 5-7 Educational institutions of County D ................................................................... 104 Figure 5-5 Educational facilities of City A ............................................................................ 103. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 5-8 Educational institutions of City C ........................................................................ 105 Figure 5-9 Local financial capacity of City A ....................................................................... 106. ‧. Figure 5-10 Gross Regional Domestic Product of City A ..................................................... 106. y. Nat. Figure 5-11 Local Financial Capacity of City B .................................................................... 107. sit. Figure 5-12 Gross Regional Domestic Product of City B ..................................................... 108. al. er. io. Figure 5-13 Local financial capacity of County D ................................................................ 109. n. iv n C Figure 5-15 Local Financial capacity of h city 110 e Cn..................................................................... gchi U Figure 5-14 Gross Regional Product of County D…… ………………………………… 109. Figure 5-16 Gross Regional Domestic Product of city C ...................................................... 111 Figure 5-17 Poverty Rate of the regions ................................................................................ 114 Figure 5-18 Income per capita of the region .......................................................................... 114 Figure 5-19 Normal P-P Plot Regression of City A ……………………………………… 150 Figure 5-20 Normal P-P Plot Regression of City B ………………… ……………………154 Figure 5-21 Normal P-P Plot Regression of County D ……………………………… ….. 158 Figure 5-22 Normal P-P Plot Regression of City C …………………………………… .. 162. viii.

(10) ABBREVIATIONS. AMDAL. Analisis Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan/ Environmental Impact Assessment. APBD. Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Daerah/ Local Budget Revenue and Expenditure. APBN. Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Negara/ National Budget Revenue and Expenditure. ASPA. American Society for Public Administration. BR2K. Bantuan Rehabilitasi Rumah Kumuh/ Slums Rehabilitation Assistance. BAPPENAS. Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional/ the National Development and Planning Board. 立. 政治大. Close Patronage. DPRD. Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah/ Local Council. DAU. Dana Alokasi Umum/ General Allocation Fund. DAK. Dana Alokasi Khusus/ Special Allocation Fund. DKI. Daerah Khusus Ibukota/ Special Region of the Capital City. EKPPD. Evaluasi Kinerja Penyelenggaraan Pemerintah Daerah/ the Evaluation of. Nat. al. er. Evaluasi Kemampuan Penyelenggaraan Otonomi Daerah/ the Evaluation. io. EKPOD. sit. Local Government Administration Performance. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. CP. n. iv n C U of the new autonomous Evaluasi Daerah Otonom h e nBaru/ h ievaluation g cthe of Local Autonomy Administration Capability. EDOB. region GAIN. Greater Avenues for Independence. GRDP. Growth Regional Domestic Product. GPMK. Gerakan Perang Melawan Kemiskinan/Fighting Against Poverty Movement. HDI. Human Development Index. HRM. Human Resources Management. KDH. Kepala Daerah/ the regional head. KKN. Korupsi Kolusi Nepotisme/ Corruption Collusion Nepotism. KAN. Kerapatan Adat Nagari/ the Minang Traditional Organization. LG. Local Government ix.

(11) MP. Member of Parliament. MoHA. Ministry of Home Affairs. OSR. Own Source Revenue. OP. Open Patronage. PWD. People With Disabilities. PAD. Pendapatan Asli Daerah/the local revenue. RKPD. Radio Khusus Pemerintah Daerah/ Local Government Radio. SKPD. Satuan Kerja Perangkat Daerah/ the regional agencies/ work units. TP-PKK. Tim Penggerak – Pembinaan Kesejahteraan Keluarga/ the activator team of family welfare development. UN-DPEPA. United Nations Division for Public Economics and Public Administration. UPIK. Unit Pelayanan Informasi dan Keluhan/ the complaint and information services unit. 立. United Nation for Development Program. 學 ‧. ‧ 國 io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. UNDP. 政治大. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. x.

(12) Chapter 1 Introduction. 1.1.. Background of study Regional autonomy is in crisis. Some studies available show that decentralization‟s. promise to bring more accountability and transparency in the political process is hard to fulfill and one of the factors challenged is developing honest and effective leadership in local government (Manyak and Katono 2010). Indeed, leadership behaviors do affect the effectiveness of organizational performance (Fu and Yukl 2000, Wayne and Ferris 1990,. 政治大. Westwood and Chan 1992, Yukl and Tracey 1992, Zanzi and O'Neill 2001). Prasojo (2011). 立. argued that the weaknesses and negative effects of decentralization in some countries often. ‧ 國. 學. caused by weak design since in the beginning, immaturity politics at central and local level,. ‧. lack of capable human resource capacity at local level, as well as the rushing desire to achieve decentralization purpose in short time. Accordingly, can we argue that the strength. sit. y. Nat. io. er. and positive effects of decentralization were caused by the reverse conditions of Prasojo had mentioned? Although some factors were assumed might contribute to good performance of. n. al. decentralization (Abraha 2010,. iv n C Abdullah, dan Pembangunan h e nBirokrasi gchi U. Nasional 1985,. Manyak and Katono 2010) but none of these factors have proven statistically. A study by Fleishman and Harris (1962) in a truck manufacturing plant of the International Harvester Company found that there was a positive relationship between manager‟s consideration and subordinate satisfaction. The behavior of 57 production supervisors were described by subordinates who filled out the Supervisory Behavior Description (SBDQ). The criteria of leadership effectiveness included the number of written grievances and the amount of voluntary turnover during an 11-month period. The statistical analysis confirmed the existence of a significant curvilinear relationship. However, hundreds 1.

(13) of survey studies of many different researchers have been weak and inconsistent for most criteria of leadership effectiveness (G. Yukl 2002). The only most consistent finding was a positive relationship between consideration and subordinate satisfaction. As suggested by the Fleishman and Harris study, subordinates are usually more satisfied with a leader who is at least moderately considerate. The inconsistency finding of the studies mentioned previously might be caused by the contingency factors. The contingency theory postulates that leadership effectiveness depends on two factors. One is the degree to which the leadership situation gives the leader control and influence over the group process and group performance and second, the factor reflects an attribute of the person, an aspect of the. 政治大. leader‟s goal or focus or concern, specifically, whether the leader‟s primary goal, and the. 立. consequent primary concern, is with task performance or with interpersonal relations.. ‧ 國. 學. In the context of public organization, study which evaluating the leader‟s behavior. ‧. and its relationship with the organization performance still limited. While the result of having. sit. y. Nat. the relationship between the leader‟s behavior and the organization performance could be a. n. al. er. io. positive contribution for public organization effectiveness. Most of the studies were. v. conducted separately either focused on the identification of the leader‟s behavior (Irawanto. Ch. engchi. i Un. 2009, O'leary, Choi and Gerard 2012, Sulaiman 2008, Thacker and Wayne 1995) or on the analysis of the organization performance. In this limited scope of leadership studies, could we solve the problem caused by the leadership crisis effect? Hence, we propose the current study issue and expect that it could provide the answer needed.. 2.

(14) 1.2.. Purpose of Study The local government leader who is elected in decentralized Indonesia is not. necessarily from a political party. A nonparty or independent candidate can participate in the election. During the new order regime, leaders were appointed by central government and mostly with a military background. It was a centralized system, thus leaders must follow directions from the central. The Governor, Bupati or Mayor had limited authority in developing their region. In the era of decentralized system today, regions have autonomies. They are allowed to make their own decision or policy as long as it is not against the. 政治大 decentralized tasks effectively and independently from the central government, the numbers 立. constitution and the law applied. Whether the new elected leaders are able to run the. ‧ 國. 學. of local leaders who involved in corruptions in Indonesia may illustrate their leadership quality1. In Indonesia, during the period 2004 - 2012, for about 277 local authorities were. ‧. involved in legal issues such as corruption, bribery, forgery, persecution, and abuse of. sit. y. Nat. authority for permits. Interestingly, most of the doers are from Java region, where most of. n. al. er. io. leaders awarded as the Best Regional Head by the Tempo Magazine in 2008. Certainly this is. i Un. v. a big question why at the same time, the region has poor performance due to corrupt officials,. Ch. engchi. but also there are some local officials are able to improve the performance of the region. Is it simply because they are different leaders or is there some other dynamic factor that has influenced the leadership? As previously discussed, there was a positive relationship between leader‟s consideration behavior and subordinate satisfaction in a harvester company. In this study, we then assume that there is a positive correlation between the leader‟s behaviors and the government performance. By identifying the leadership behaviors of the city and county. 1. In 2010, the Ministry of Home Affairs released information that 155 official leaders including the Governor, mayor and Bupati were involved in legal issues such as bribery, corruptions and permit distortion.. 3.

(15) leaders in Indonesia, it is expected that this study will come up with a leadership model that suitable for decentralization in Indonesia. Moreover, the contingency factors which are assumed to affect the leader‟s behaviors during their leadership will also be examined. We believe that the findings of study can fill the gaps between the reform strategies which have been brought by the decentralization and the competencies needed to execute them. 1.3. Research Questions. There are some traits, skills and behaviors which considered affecting the leaders‟ effectiveness. This study focuses on personal integrity; the administrative and communication. 政治大. skills; and the influence behaviors of coalitions and exchange tactics. People‟s satisfaction. 立. towards the healthcare services, educational services and the economic growth performance. ‧ 國. 學. will be identified. We use the people‟s satisfaction to evaluate the local government performance subjectively. The theoretical framework of this study will be discussed in. ‧. chapter II as well as its hypotheses. This study tries to answer the following questions: the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. first question is aimed to identify the perceived leader‟s behaviors. The second question is to find out how leaders deal with the situational factors in order to realize the objectives.. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. Finally, the last question is to find out to what extent that leaders‟ behaviors could affect the. engchi. effectiveness of government performance particularly in the poverty alleviation issue. 1. To carry on the poverty alleviation policy, do leaders perform the effective behaviors proposed? How these behaviors realized/manifested in the leadership process? 2. Did or did not situational factors affect leaders to behave towards their objectives? How situation factors did affect leader‟s behaviors? 3. Is there correlation between the effective leader‟s behaviors and the local government performance? How the effective leader‟s behaviors affect local government performance?. 4.

(16) Chapter 2 Literature Review. In regard to the research questions proposed in the previous chapter, there are three main concepts will be discussed in order to build the framework; (1) the effective leadership behaviors, (2) the local government performance and (3) the situational factors or moderating variables. The discussion is necessary in order to define study concepts and their relationships that will leads to clear understanding about its analytical framework. The effective leader‟s behaviors in this study are considered as the explanatory variables in which manifested. 政治大. through the personal traits, skills and influence behaviors. It consists of personal integrity,. 立. administrative and communication skills, coalition and exchange tactics behaviors. Whereas,. ‧ 國. 學. the response variable in this study is the local government performance, which is focused on. ‧. the satisfaction towards healthcare services, educational facility's performance and the. sit. y. Nat. economy. Finally, the situational factor variables are threefolds: patronage practice, local. io. al. er. financial capacity and local culture. To do the analytical discussion, the explanatory variable. iv n C variable. Construction of hypotheses will hbee then n gprovided c h i Uat the end of this chapter. n. will be conceptualized at first; followed by the response variable and then moderating. 2.1.. Effective Leadership Behaviors of Local government Leaders In the leadership literatures, more than 100 different definitions of leadership have been. identified (Rost 1991). Despite these many definitions, a number of concepts are recognized by most people as accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader. Some of the most common ways of looking at leadership are as a trait, ability, skills, behavior, relationship and an occupation of an administrative position (P. G. Northouse 2001, Stogdill 1974, Chemers 1997). Leadership in the context of public organization is not necessarily only between leader 5.

(17) and follower. In fact, leadership in public organization involves more than a single leader, more than one organization or even a few groups of people or community. It involves different actors which include the region‟s head, the parliament, the agencies, interest groups, common citizens and also other groups in example the other vertical and multilevel government organization. They share information as well as influence in order to achieve their common goals certainly based on trustworthiness. Although leadership definition has not mentioned trustworthy, particularly within the process of influencing, the leadership definition from Yukl (2002) may represent the current study definition of leadership:. 政治大. The process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how it can be done effectively, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish the shared objectives (G. Yukl 2002).. 立. ‧ 國. 學. As the definitions of leadership, the conceptions of leader effectiveness differ from one. ‧. scholar to another depends on how they perceive the leadership definition. Scholars who. y. Nat. sit. perceive leadership as traits may measure the effectiveness of leadership using the trait. n. al. er. io. approach. Alternatively, scholars who perceive leadership as skills may measure the. i Un. v. effectiveness using the skills approach. In addition, the contingency model of leadership. Ch. engchi. effectiveness postulates that leadership effectiveness depends on two factors. The first factor is the degree in which the leadership situation gives the leader control and influence over the group process and group performance. Second, it reflects an attribute of the person, an aspect of the leader‟s goal or focus of concern, specifically whether the leader‟s primary goal, and the consequent primary concerns, are related to task performance or with interpersonal relationships. (Fiedler 1993). It was mentioned previously that none of the factors (leader‟s characteristics) which are considered to contribute good performance of decentralization have been tested. Whereas, it. 6.

(18) is necessary to have a certain pattern of effective leadership in order to guide the implementation of decentralization runs effectively and efficiently. The reason of this is when the leader of decentralized region does not have the ability to perform the behaviors of effective leadership in the context of autonomous region, the implementation of decentralization could possibly fail (Abdullah 1985). To examine the leader‟s performance, many empirical studies have focused mainly on the subordinates‟ perspective and two main facets of leadership transactional and transformational (Gadot 2007). Researchers also tend to have charisma as the concept that. 政治大 affairs, leader‟s charisma was found to have some flawed consequence (Wart 2005, G. Yukl 立 covers the positive attributes of an effective leadership. Whereas in the public organization. ‧ 國. 學. 2002) and has been considered less important when compared to leader‟s personal integrity (Abraha 2010, Olowu 2007, Lewis 2010). Certainly, personal integrity is not the only. ‧. attribute that contributes leader‟s effectiveness. In fact, leaders need to equip themselves. sit. y. Nat. more than just positive traits. As the two case studies presented by Moore (1995) it shows. n. al. er. io. that while some combination of public office skills and personal expertise might seem to. i Un. v. qualify leaders to make the decision for society, actually the leader needs more effective. Ch. engchi. influence than their current position. A leader needs to supplement their authority and effective influence if they hope to succeed in accomplishing the purposes they judge to be publicly valuable. Building support and legitimacy for a policy or of enhancing the effective claim that an official may make to the society at large, is where the political management is played. Hence, for the purpose of this study, adopting Yukl‟s definition of leadership we define the effective leadership as a successful process of influencing and facilitating others in order to accomplish the shared objective in which the leader‟s integrity, communication and administrative skills, as well as the coalition and exchange tactics had contributed its effectiveness. Accordingly, how the effective leadership defined here is actually performed? 7.

(19) To correspond with the ideal leader characteristics for decentralized government expressed in the prior‟s study (Abraha 2010, Abdullah 1985, Manyak and Katono 2010, Prasojo 2011), the leader‟s personal integrity behaviors, the communication and administrative skills behaviors and the coalition and exchange tactics behaviors will be the focus. In order to link these attributes to local government performance, the conceptualization of the attributes is presented in the following discussion. 2.1.1. Traits and performance effectiveness It appears that the traits of a successful leader indeed vary depending on time. 政治大. and context, across sectors and generational labels and the question of whether any. 立. leadership elements are truly timeless arises (Ahn, Ettner and Loupin 2012). For. ‧ 國. 學. example, extraversion, openness and conscientiousness are found to be related to perceived leader‟s effectiveness (Nana and Jackson 2010) and transformational. ‧. leadership (Zopiatis and Constanti 2012). Moreover, visionary was found to be the. y. Nat. io. sit. primary quality (trait) desired for the public library leader (Mullins and Linehan 2006). n. al. er. than other traits proposed. Further, Wood & Vilkinas (2005) found two dominant. Ch. i Un. v. characteristics of the success of chief executive officers were achievement orientation. engchi. and humanistic approach, while very little or no emphasis was placed on being inclusive, having integrity, having a balanced approach, learning and self-awareness or having an external focus. Finally, Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991) argued that honesty (and integrity) together with other traits (drive, desire to lead, self-confidence, cognitive ability and industry knowledge) will give a considerable advantage for those who displayed any of these traits. Based on the preceding discussion, we assume that in regard to public organization performance, leader‟s personality integrity does matter.. 8.

(20) Abraha (2010) assumed that positive attributes such as honesty, integrity, just, trustworthy and visionary could success the nation building of decentralized region. Whether these traits are truly influencing the local government performance, it never been validated. Less, Blunt, et.al (2012) study illustrated the importance of integrity and honesty for a leader in order to achieve the effectiveness of local government performance in health and education sectors. By using a qualitative approach involving a combination of semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and written accounts of patronage and corruption in action relating to human resource management (HRM), Blunt, et.al found that political and bureaucratic patrons use. 政治大. control over recruitment, placement, transfer, and promotion as they mean to gain. 立. private benefit from public resources. For example, in one province the sum of Rp. ‧ 國. 學. 100 million has been mentioned several times as the fee to ensure success in the civil. ‧. service entrance exam. In some instances, family connections with the authority may suffice, or at least lower the price to pass/entrance examination of becoming state. sit. y. Nat. io. er. apparatus. Even some respondents mentioned that the Bupati (Regent) and walikota (Mayor) take the role to determine success and failure in the exam while another cited. al. n. iv n C the local elected councilors as asking a cut in the recruitment process, that is, a h e nfor gchi U certain number of position reserved.. Regarding the placement of individuals in posts in particular organizations, they found that there is also a package deal whereby payment for passing the exam also incorporated the bonus of posting to a favorable job and an organization or, not to be placed in difficult areas. As consequences, the placement has led to staff were not technically competent to carry out their tasks. Even when recruits did have the basic competencies for effective job performance, their placement in favored locations led to distortions in the distribution of staff. 9.

(21) Personal integrity is defined as a person‟s behavior that consistent with the espoused values (G. Yukl 2002). The behaviors are shown by the person honest, ethical and trustworthy. In addition, the integrity is a primary determinant of interpersonal trust. In the context of public organization, Wart (2005) defined personal integrity as the state of being whole and/or connected with oneself, one‟s profession and the society of which one is a member, as well as being incorruptible. Moreover, integrity is categorized as ethical values of public-service values (Kernaghan 2003). Values are defined as enduring beliefs that influence the choices we make among available means or ends (Rokeach 1973). The values then by some. 政治大. countries are manifested in code of conduct which provides the principles of how. 立. public servants should perform their official duties. According to Cox, La Case and. ‧ 國. 學. Levine (2003), integrity is doing the right thing if no one is looking, or even if others. ‧. are not doing the right thing.. sit. y. Nat. In our assumption, by being honest and impersonal, leaders will make decision. n. al. er. io. based on rules (merit) not by favoritism or patron-client relation. Related to the. i Un. v. employee recruitment, when there is integrity practiced in the recruitment process, the. Ch. engchi. government will hire the civil officials‟ regarding to the needs. Accordingly, when the elements of the government organized correctly based on its purpose, the system will operate effectively. It also applied to personnel of government as part of the local government element that when they are placed based on their merit, the effectiveness of local government performance is plausible to achieve. Therefore, we believe that the leaders selected in this study do possess personal integrity. The personal integrity is manifested into their behaviors such as honesty, keep promise/ consistent and impersonal in order to achieve the effectiveness of poverty alleviation policy.. 10.

(22) 2.1.2. Skills and performance effectiveness Three broad categories of managerial skills –human, technical, conceptual- are related to everyday performance especially at the levels of organization. While often devalued because they are not glamorous or exciting, Northouse (2009) argued that administrative skills also play a primary role in effective leadership. Van Wart (2005) includes six skills that contribute to leader effectiveness: communication skills, social skills, influence skills, analytical skills, technical skills, continual skills and continual learning skills. Among the existing leadership skills, the communication skills have. 政治大 studied as the political management of the organization (Ammeter, et al. 2002). 立 been studied more often than other skills, meanwhile the influence skills are mostly. ‧ 國. 學. Effective communication has been linked with satisfaction, employee performance and organizational productivity (Downs, Clampitt and Pfeiffer 1988, Shekary and. ‧. Rajabian 2012). Technical skills are more important at the lower level of organization. Nat. sit. y. (Gugliemino & Carroll, 1979) and least important for the executives (Kotter 1982).. n. al. er. io. Less, executives in narrow functional areas such as accounting or safety compliance. i Un. v. need significantly more technical competence than their generalist brethren such as. Ch. engchi. city managers, agency directors, or executive corps members who are considered troubleshooters (Van Wart 2005, 145). Moreover, administrative skills are found to be one of the competencies which enable leaders to adapt to management turbulence and uncertain change (Ford 2010). Although it does not mention directly that the analytical skills are important for leadership effectiveness, predictive accuracy does important for the leader in the defense-related organization in order to be effective (Lucal, et al. 1992). Finally, interpersonal skills are likely considered by the member of the US Senior Executive Services as essential for successful collaboration rather than strategic thinking and strategic management (O'Leary, Choi and Gerard 2012). 11.

(23) According to the preceding discussion, since the administrative skills enable leaders to adapt to management turbulence and uncertain change, have administrative skills behaviors also enabled public leaders to adapt as Ford found? Moreover, the existing studies have mentioned that the effective communication have been linked with. satisfaction,. employee. performance. and. organizational. productivity.. Accordingly, could effective communication of the public organization leader has a link to the organizational productivity and public satisfaction as well? There are four sets of factors of local government performance developed by. 政治大 maintain relationship with the member of the internal and external organization, to 立 Cheema and Rondinelli (1983). The factor sets include the ability to build and. ‧ 國. 學. manage the financial allocation and how to spend and able to deal with the environmental situation that might influence the policy making process. Accordingly,. ‧. being able to build and maintain relationships, we assume that the leaders must have. sit. y. Nat. good communication skills to support. Moreover, being able to do planning,. n. al. er. io. controlling, and managing –resource expenditure- we assume that the leader must. i Un. v. have technical skill, analytical skill as well as administrative skills to support.. Ch. engchi. The administrative skills of a leader, play a primary role in the effective leadership process. It helps leader to accomplish the mundane, but critically important aspects of showing a leadership behavior practiced. Administrative skills can be defined as those competencies a leader needs to run an organization in order to carry out the organization‟s purposes and goals. These involve planning, organizing work, assigning the right tasks to the right people and coordinating work activities (P. G. Northouse 2009). For example, in the context of local government, to achieve the effectiveness of healthcare services, leaders should have plans to improve the quality of the healthcare services. To implement the services appropriately, the leaders 12.

(24) organize works of the units or agencies and coordinate the activities. The most important thing for leaders in these administrative skills is that they are able to assign the right tasks to the right people. By doing these behaviors, leaders have shown their knowledge of administrative skills and once they are successful to perform this, indirectly the effectiveness of healthcare service provision performance could achieved too. Few studies can be found to illustrate the impact of how leader‟s administrative skills are practiced to achieve the effectiveness of local government performance on public organization affairs.. 政治大 communication competency. This competency is useful for leader in order to gain 立. In the context of public organization, it is necessary for leaders to have. ‧ 國. 學. support. Coordinating, cooperating, and networking will not be effective if competency of leader to communicate the relationship is absent. Leaders who. ‧. exchange information effectively through active and passive means are considered to. sit. y. Nat. possess the communication skills (Wart 2005). There are four aspects of. n. al. er. io. communication skills: oral skills, writing skills, listening skills and non-verbal skills.. i Un. v. In oral skills, leaders should be able to talk with others to give and exchange. Ch. engchi. information and ideas. Oral skills it takes different forms, such as speaking with individuals, small groups and large groups, and communicating via electronic media. In addition, oral communication skills also include the ability to relay technical versus emotive messages orally. It is not the same between sending a message to do something and to inspire others. For example, leaders will be successful in organizing work and coordinate the health service units or agencies if they can maintain the clarity of messages delivered. Failure in delivering objective of messages might cause misunderstanding between the leaders and those who involved in the healthcare service achievement. 13.

(25) Furthermore, writing skills are the ability to write using emails, memoranda (both information/discussion pieces and directives), reports and special-purpose documents such as performance appraisals, letters, public relation materials and written public statements. In the context of public leader, it is common for leaders, do their writings by assigning this to subordinate. For example, writing letters, documents or other materials. Hence, examining the preceding documents is not appropriate to identify the leader‟s writing skill. Nevertheless, some leaders were actively writing columns in the newspaper or magazine as their strategy to connect with the public. Nowadays, it is common for the governmental leaders to use the social networks.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. A leader‟s response to people‟s comment, opinion, or grievances are part of the listening skills competency. To respond the exchanging message leader should be. ‧. able to perform the non-verbal communication skill appropriately. The way leaders. sit. y. Nat. respond to comments will affect the perception of the people who see this. Hence,. n. al. er. io. leaders should choose language or signs carefully in responding the people‟s. i Un. v. comment. To what extent social network is effective for leaders in order to achieve. Ch. engchi. the effectiveness of government performance, we found limited evidence. The point here is that when people enjoy reading or listening to leaders‟ “talk”, it may indicate that leaders have knowledge of writing, listening and non-verbal skills. The four aspects of communication are connected to each other. However, a leader who capable to perform all communication aspects is rarely be found. In this current study, we believe that the leaders observed have good communication skills in order to carry on the poverty alleviation issue.. 14.

(26) 2.1.3. Influence behaviors and the performance effectiveness Public organization is considered as a political arena where political skills are practiced in order to success the organization objectives (Mintzberg 1985). Accordingly, there are tactics that have been commonly used to influence others and associated with the organization‟s effectiveness (Ammeter, et al. 2002, G. Yukl 2002, Zanzi and O'Neill 2001). The influence tactics such as rational persuasion, inspirational appeal and consultation are found to be the most effective tactic for manager related to target task commitments while the least tactics are pressure,. 政治大 with subordinates, peers and the boss 1992). Moreover, ingratiation and assertiveness 立. coalition and legitimating (Yukl and Tracey, Consequences of influence tactics used. ‧ 國. 學. have found to affect the assessment of profitability that only those capable of subtle manipulation should employ ingratiation, the soft tactic, when trying to manage the. ‧. impression of competence (Thacker and Wayne 1995). Additionally, as a hard tactic,. Nat. sit. y. assertiveness is a risky tactic at best, and use of reasoning, relying as it does upon. n. al. er. io. rational persuasion is likely to have significant and positive benefits upon the. i Un. v. subordinates‟ chance for promotion. Ingratiation also found to affect worker. Ch. engchi. satisfaction and motivation (Zellars and Kacmar 1999) when the effect of perceptions of favoritism is stronger when the ingratiating co-worker is present. Do public leaders use the preceding influence behaviors in order to be successful? We assume some leaders in Indonesian government have performed the influence behaviors in order to be successful. When the agent offers an incentive, suggests an exchange of favors, or indicated willingness to reciprocate if the target will do the agent request, the actions indicate an exchange behavior. Meanwhile, when the agent seeks the aid of others to persuade the target to do something or uses the support of others as a reason for the 15.

(27) target to agree, the actions considered as coalition tactic. Some region‟s head in Indonesia used exchange tactics to accomplish the urban development policy. Most exchange tactics were effective when leaders were able to persuade the opposite side to follow their need by fulfilling the conditions requested. The successful of Herry Zudianto to relocate the street vendors to a new location without any turmoil became the evidence of exchange tactics exercise (Nurmandi 2011). The reason traders agreed to be relocated was the belief that what would be undertaken by the city mayor was a win-win solution where one of the agreements was traders would not be charged a large amount for buying a stall but only a nominal fee levy that was very small. 政治大. (2011:12). The case becomes one of successful example of government in managing. 立. conflict.. ‧ 國. 學. Coalition tactics involve getting help from other people to influence the target. ‧. person. There are types of coalition tactics: 1) when assistance is provided by the. sit. y. Nat. superior of the target person, the tactic is usually called an upward appeal; 2) to use a. n. al. er. io. prior endorsement by other people to help influence the target person to support the. i Un. v. proposal in which the endorsement comes from people whom the person likes or. Ch. engchi. respects; and 3) coalition tactics are usually used in combination with one or more of the other influence tactics. For example bring along a supporter when meeting with the target person, and both agents may use rational persuasion to influence the target person. For the purpose of this study, we use the exchange and coalition tactics to identify the influence behaviors practiced. Although these tactics have similar purpose that is to influence others, the practice is different however. In coalition tactics, by inferring the definition given by Yukl, leaders involve another person to influence the target. For example, it is common for mayors or Bupati in Indonesia coalition with 16.

(28) traditional leaders to settle land disputes. Whereas for exchange tactics, it is the leaders who influence the target directly. The relocation of street vendors is the example of the exchange tactic. Therefore, we argue that these two tactics are different in practice although they have similar objective. How these tactics performed by leaders in order to implement the poverty alleviation policy? 2.1.4. Theoretical background of leadership behaviors Lack of evidences to provide an answer for question to what extent local government‟ leaders' behaviors are effective has confirmed Yukl (2012) argument that. 政治大. most leader behavior studies tend to emphasize how much the behavior is used rather. 立. than how well it is used. Similarly, Ferris et.al, (2002) argued that although. ‧ 國. 學. considerable research has examined organizational politics, a serious omission has been the failure to evaluate the political skill of the influencer. Thus, not enough. ‧. information why influence efforts are (or are not) successful in other words, it is not. y. Nat. io. sit. enough to study particular influence tactics of political behaviors that reflect the. n. al. er. “what” of influence. We also need to critically examine the political skill of the. Ch. i Un. v. influencer to understand the “how” influence, which address the selection of the most. engchi. situational appropriate influence tactics and their successful execution. It is likely that specific behaviors interact in complex ways, and that the leadership effectiveness cannot be understood unless these interactions are studied. There are four meta-categories were discussed by Yukl (2012) to describe the leadership‟s influence (Table 2.1). Each meta-category has a different primary objective. To accomplish work in an efficient and reliable way is the primary objective of task-oriented behavior. Moreover, to increase the quality of human resources and relations (human capital) is the primary object of the relation-oriented 17.

(29) behavior. Meanwhile, to increase innovation, collective learning, and adaptation to the external environment is the primary objectives of the change-oriented behavior. Finally, to acquire necessary information and resources, and to promote and defend the interest of the team or organization is the primary objective of the external leadership behavior. Table 2-1 Hierarchical taxonomies of leadership behaviors Task-oriented. Relation-oriented. 立. Change-oriented. Clarifying Planning Monitoring Operations Problem Solving Supporting Developing Recognizing Empowering Advocating change Envisioning change Encouraging innovation Facilitating collective learning Networking External monitoring Representing. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. External. er. io. al. sit. y. Nat. Source: adapted from Yukl (2012). Concerning the public organization performance, leaders may incline to one or. n. iv n C behaviors to be effective. h e inn gorder chi U. more meta-category of. The goal of public. organization is to make sure that all people have equal access to public services regardless their personal background. Therefore, it is difficult for leaders to fall into a particular meta - category of behaviors to do their activities. Adjusting to the local condition of each region, leader may incline to one or more meta-category of behaviors in order to be effective in achieving their objectives. Some scholars wrote about the failure of decentralization and the need for the right leadership had proposed characteristics that suitable for leader of decentralized region. For example, Manyak & Katono (2010) discussed the importance of 18.

(30) accountability and transparency due to the absence of honest and effective leadership in Africa. In the context of local government in Indonesia, Abdullah (1985) discussed the importance of the respected and trusted leader. Moreover, Abraha (2010) found that the absence of appropriate leadership has led the nation building into a complete failure, hence he suggests for a directive, visionary, participative and interactive leader who possess a quality, legitimacy, justice, care, competence and character (honesty, integrity, trustworthiness and principle centeredness) as the ideal characteristics of leader in Eritrea. Essentially, the main point of these proposed ideal characteristics for leader in decentralized system is that trustworthy matters.. 政治大 To examine the effectiveness of the organization based on other‟s perception 立. ‧ 國. 學. using leader‟s behaviors as the indicators may require additional or new category of. behaviors taxonomy. We propose trust behavior building into this taxonomy. Stephen. ‧. Covey noted that trust is the emotional bank account between two people, which. sit. y. Nat. enables two parties to have a win-win performance agreement. If two people trust. n. al. er. io. each other, based on the trustworthiness of each other, they can enjoy clear. i Un. v. communication, empathy, synergy and productive interdependency. On the other. Ch. engchi. hand, if one has a character flaw, he or she must make and keep promise to increase internal security, improve skills and rebuild a relationship of trust. Trust or the lack of it is at the root of the success or failure in relationships and in the bottom line results of business, industry, education and government (Potter and Hasting 2004). In addition, people may prefer to trust or follow leaders whose actions are signaling the personal integrity behaviors rather than those whose action are corrupt. Further, a leader who are not trusted by his people will have less influence than those leaders who are trusted. Hence, we propose trust-oriented category as an additional behaviors for leaders of local government to be effective. 19.

(31) Figure 2-1 The sources of theoretical building. Van Wart (2005). Yukl (2002), Northouse (2009). TRAITS. SKILLS. Yukl (2002). INFLUENCE BEHAVIORS. IDEAL LEADER(SHIP) CHARACTERISTICS. 立. 政治大 PROPOSED LEADERSHIP POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS FOR DECENTRALIZED REGION. ‧ 國. 學. Source: author. ‧. The sources of theoretical building of this study come from different scholars. sit. y. Nat. (Figure 2-1). This study uses the concept of administrative skills developed by. n. al. er. io. Northouse (2009). It includes managing people, managing resources and technical. i Un. v. competence. We categorize these skills as similar to the task-oriented behavior of. Ch. engchi. Yukl. Communication skills here referred as the ability to effectively exchange information through active and passive means (Wart 2005). The behaviors used to examine the communication skills in this study are developed based on Van Wart‟ stereotyping of four main elements of communication skills. The skills represent the task-oriented, change-oriented or relation-oriented behaviors of Yukl. Furthermore, in this study, we develop the behaviors of coalition and exchange tactics based on Yukl‟s guidelines for political or organizational action of implementing change (G. Yukl 2002) in which their behaviors can be groupeaaa change-oriented and externabehaviorrs categories. Finally, we develop the personal integrity behaviors 20.

(32) based on Van Wart conceptions. In summary, the following table shows the behaviors which will be observed. Table 2-2 Taxonomy of local government leadership behaviors Category Behaviors. Trustoriented. Changeoriented. Taskoriented. Relationoriented. External. Characteristics Traits. Personal Integrity. Influence Behaviors. Proactive influence behaviors. Administrative Skills. Advocatingchange Advocatingchange. Networking Networking Clarifying Delegating Planning. 政治大. Oral communication Written communication Nonverbal communication. Encouraging innovation Envisioning, advocatingchange. Supporting. Monitoring Monitoring. Supporting. Clarifying. Recognizing. Recognizing. Clarifying. Representing. Supporting, recognizing. ‧. Source: author. 立. Displaying consistency. ‧ 國. Communication skills. Coalition tactics Exchange tactics Managing people Managing resources Technical competence Listening communication. Lead by example. 學. Skills. Maintaining trustworthy. sit. y. Nat. To identify the effect of public leader‟s performance on the local government. io. al. er. performance, we will examine personal integrity, communication and administrative. iv n C h ehow leadership attributes might explain leader i U which behaviors were relevant. ng c hchoose n. skills, and coalition and exchange tactics. It is expected that the combination of these. 2.2.. The Local Government Performance. The instruments of decentralization were built to achieve some values that include nationbuilding, democratization, local-autonomy, efficiency and social-economic development. This autonomy principle is aimed to solve the problem within society. There are four sets of factors of local government performance (Cheema & Rondinelli, 1983). The four sets of factors included are the environmental conditions, the inter-organizational relations, the resources for program and policy execution, and the characteristics of the implementing 21.

(33) agencies (Figure 2.2). To understand the constraint and opportunities for implementing organizations to translate policies into action, an understanding of the social, economic, and political from which policies emerge is crucial. Moreover, to success the policy implementation, the interaction and coordination of a large number of organizations at different levels of government are required. Leaders have a responsibility to ensure the government policies are implemented successfully. In the leadership process, essentially it is the leader who often initiates the relationships, creates the communication linkages, and carries the burden for maintaining the. 政治大 maintain the consistency of policy objectives by giving the implementing agencies clear 立. relationship (P. G. Northouse 2001). Accordingly, 1) Leaders should be able to clarify and. ‧ 國. 學. direction to pursue activities that will lead to their achievement; 2) Leaders should be able to allocate the functions of agencies and financial capacity appropriately based on their. ‧. capacities and resources; 3) Leaders should able to coordinate the programs and policies by. sit. y. Nat. minimizing conflicting interpretations into the standardized planning, budgeting, and. n. al. er. io. implementation procedure; 4) Leaders should make sure the accuracy, consistency and. i Un. v. quality of inter-organizational communications enables organizations involved in policy. Ch. engchi. implementation understand their roles and tasks and complement the activities of others; and 5) Leaders should make sure the linkages among decentralized administrative units are effective that it ensures interaction among organizations and allow coordination of activities.. 22.

(34) Figure 2-1 Local government performance indicator INTERORGANIZATIONAL RELATIONSHIP: 1. Clarity and Consistency of Program Objectives 2. Appropriate Allocations of Functions 3. Effectiveness of Planning, Budgeting and Implementation Procedures 4. Quality of Interorganizational Communications 5. Effectiveness of Linkage among Organizations. Environmental Condition: 1. Political Structure 2. Policy Making Process 3. Local Power Structure 4. Socio-cultural factors 5. Organization of program beneficiaries 6. Adequacy of Physical Infrastructure. CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES: 1. Technical Managerial and Political Skill of Staff 2. Capacity to coordinate, control and integrate subunit decision 3. Agency’s political resources and support 4. Agency’s rapport with program beneficiaries 5. Linkage with constituency organizations 6. Quality of agency leadership 7. Commitment of staff to agency within administrative system. Resources for Program Implementation: 1. Control over funds 2. Adequacy of Budget 3. Availability of Budgetary Resources 4. Support of national Political Leaders 5. Support of National Bureaucracy. PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT: 1. Achievement of Policy Goals 2. Effects on Local Administrative Capacity and Performance 3. Effects on Productivity, Income, Participation, and Access to Government Services. 政治大. 立. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. Source: Cheema & Rondinelli (1983:28). Nat. sit. y. Conducive environment and effective organization relationships are necessary but not. n. al. er. io. sufficient conditions for successfully implementing decentralization policies (1983:29). The. i Un. v. extent to which agencies receive sufficient financial, administrative and technical support. Ch. engchi. also determines the outcome and effects of decentralization programs. In Indonesia, to ensure the sub-national governments have sufficient funding, the central government emphasizes the principle of finance follow function. In such way, the set of functions is assigned to local governments. with. an. adequately. designated. Own-Source. Revenue. (OSR). and. intergovernmental transfer. The wide range of economic activities among localities makes the revenue-raising. capacity. varied. among. municipalities/counties.. For. example,. municipalities/counties in Bali province, Riau and East Kalimantan raised OSR better than any other local governments due to the existence of taxes on tourism and mining capacities. However, other local governments which do not have such potential taxing capacities, i.e. in 23.

(35) Nusa Tenggara Timur, they might rely heavily on the grants from central government (Murniasih 2006). In this matter, to make sure that the resources are adequate to support the achievement of local government performance effectiveness, leaders should: 1) have the knowledge of controlling and allocating funds of the implementing agencies as well as its timely availability to perform decentralized functions; 2) have the knowledge of whether revenueraising and expenditure are adequately authorized by the central government; and 3) have the knowledge of getting support from the central government and the local governance. 政治大 communication skills behaviors to support these tasks. Without the skills, the resources 立 elements. In other words, effective leader must have the administrative skills and. ‧ 國. 學. owned by the implementing agencies might not be used effectively and efficiently for the purpose of public and thus affect the local government performance effectiveness as well. As. ‧. the example of decentralization in Eritrea, Africa, the lack of knowledge of the local. io. sit. y. Nat. government leaders had caused the nation building of the country into failure (Abraha 2010).. n. al. er. The internal organizational characteristics of implementing agencies develop another. Ch. i Un. v. significant set of factors that determine the success of policy execution. These factors are the. engchi. technical, managerial, and political skills of the agency‟s staff; its capacity to coordinate, control and integrate the decisions of its subunits; and the strength of its political support from national political leaders, administrators in other organizations, and clientele groups. Moreover, the nature and quality of internal communications, the agency relationships with its clients and supporters, and the effectiveness of its linkages with private or voluntary organizations are also important as well as the quality of leadership within the agency, the acceptance of and commitment to policy objectives among its staff, and often the location of the agency within the bureaucratic hierarchy. The existing studies showed that leadership matters and influences the effectiveness of implementing agencies to do their tasks (Rowold 24.