台灣國際交換學生接待家庭之跨文化學習歷程

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(1)The Learning Process for Intercultural Competence of Host Families for International Exchange Programs in Taiwan. by Jui-Hsin Chang. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2016.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. My warmest thanks go to Dr. Vera, Wei-Wen Chang, my thesis advisor, for her teaching and encouragement throughout my research for this work. Without her guidance, I could not finish my thesis and get my master degree within two years. For helpful suggestions and other support, I want to thank Dr. Charlie Trappey and Dr. Jane Lin, my dear committee members. And I also need to thank IHRD family’s faculty members and staffs, including Dr. Rosa Yeh, Dr. Tony Shih, Dr. Steven Lai, Jessie, Jessica and Tracy. You are all helpful and kind to me in my days in IHRD. To my dear partners, Gracia, Nancy, and Ruby, thank you for all your help and assistance to me. I will always remember those moments we spend together in the classroom, personal gathering, and online talk. We cooperated to complete our case analysis; we teamed up to do our group assignments. Although we fought sometimes, we still established close friendship. It has been tough for the past 700 days, but we made it! Congratulations to us, we all graduated and got our diploma within two years. Finally, I would like to extend my heart-felt thanks to my family. My parents’ support and blessing and especially, my husband’s endless love have made this work possible.. I.

(3) ABSTRACT High quality education and providing a Chinese learning environment are two niches for attracting international students to study in Taiwan. While more international students chose to live with host families, especially teenagers and senior high school students, the number of host families in Taiwan was increasing rapidly. Hosting experiences has the potential to create more culturally aware and sensitive host families. However, previous studies on host families focused more on “how to increase international students’ language and cultural learning” than on understanding host families’ growth in intercultural competence. Among reviewing 15 studies about host families, we found no study that exclusively examined the host families’ learning process of attaining intercultural competence. By way of qualitative approaches of in-depth interview, observation and document review, the findings for the learning process of host families showed that the host family’s intercultural competence development came from two sources: 1). Learning provided by organization; 2). Individual Informal Learning. The researcher found that host families could develop their intercultural competence through formal learning, which refers to learning opportunities from the cross-cultural training provided by the relevant organizations. On the other hand, host families also enhanced their intercultural competence through individual informal learning, which refers to unplanned learning behaviors that host families undertake through face-to-face interactions with international students. This learning process put emphasis on intercultural experiences as well as formal training. In the end, the recommendations to the future research were presented.. Keywords: host family, intercultural competence, international exchange program. II.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENTS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................... I ABSTRACT............................................................................................ II TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................ III LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................. V LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................ VI CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION........................................................ 1. Background of the Study ...................................................................................1 Problem Statement .............................................................................................2 Purposes of the Study.........................................................................................2 Research Questions ............................................................................................2 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................3 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................3. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................. 5 Host Families .....................................................................................................5 Intercultural Competence ...................................................................................8 Learning Process of Intercultural Competence ..................................................15 Intercultural Adaptation .....................................................................................26. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ............................................ 29 Research Approach ............................................................................................29 Research Framework .........................................................................................31 Research Participants and Criteria .....................................................................33 Data Collection ..................................................................................................34 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................37 Research Quality ................................................................................................39 Research Procedure ............................................................................................40. III.

(5) CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ................................ 42 History and Program Implementation of RYE...................................................42 Dimension One: Cultural Differences Perceived by Host Families ................47 Dimension Two: Learning Process of Host Families.........................................50 Dimension Three: The Prior Condition for Intercultural Learning....................61 Discussion ..........................................................................................................64. CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS .................. 67. Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 67 Implications ...................................................................................................... 68 Limitations ......................................................................................................... 69 Suggestions for Future Research ....................................................................... 69. REFERENCES ....................................................................................... 71 APPENDIX A: RESEARCH QUESTIONS (ENGLISH) ...................... 82 APPENDIX B: RESEARCH QUESTIONS (CHINESE) ...................... 83 APPENDIX C: EXAMPLE OF CODING PROCESS ........................... 84 APPENDIX D: MAP OF FOUR DISTRICTS IN TAIWAN ................. 85 APPENDIX E: FLOW OF EMERGENCY ACCIDENTS .................... 86 APPENDIX F: QUESTIONS FOR “FIRST NIGHT” ........................... 87 APPENDIX G: FLOW OF RESIDENT IN TAIWAN ........................... 89 APPENDIX H: INSURANCE APPLICATION ..................................... 90 APPENDIX I: SOCIAL EVENTS AND HOST FAMILY ORIENTATION MEETINGS RECORD ........................................................................... 91. IV.

(6) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1.. Summary of Components of Intercultural Competence in Extant. Literatures ..................................................................................................................12 Table 3.1.. Summary of Interviewees ......................................................................33. Table 3.2.. Data Sources and Use ............................................................................36. Table 3.3.. Example of Categorizing .......................................................................39. Table 3.4.. Example of Theme .................................................................................39. Table 3.5.. Example of Dimension...........................................................................39. Table 4.1.. Types of Exchanges................................................................................42. Table 4.2.. Cultural Differences Perceived by Host Families ..................................49. Table 4.3.. Learning Process of Host Families ........................................................53. Table 4.4.. The Prior Condition for Intercultural Learning......................................63. V.

(7) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1.. Three levels of the cultural competence process .................................. 17. Figure 3.1.. Research methods of the study ............................................................ 30. Figure 3.2.. Research framework of the study ........................................................ 31. Figure 3.3.. Analysis process .................................................................................. 38. Figure 3.4.. Research procedure of the study.......................................................... 41. Figure 4.1.. RYE relation chart ............................................................................... 43. Figure 4.2.. Organization chart ............................................................................... 44. Figure 4.3.. Findings for the learning process of host families............................... 63. Figure 4.4.. Learning process of host families ........................................................ 66. VI.

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(9) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. This chapter introduced the background, the problem statement, research purpose, research questions, the significance of the study, and definition of terms.. Background of the Study As citizens of a global world, there is an increasing unification and acceptance of the terms and expressions used to express globalization. The environment of business is increasingly complex and more competitive than ever before. Not only for businesses and their managers, but for individuals in the general population that are affected by globalization. Inevitably, globalization brings about interactions and relationships among people who represent different needs, wants, opinions, and desires as expressed by their cultures. Catastrophic global events, such as the September 11 attacks in the US and the global financial crisis in 2008, have raised the need for sharing and understanding different cultures. As global interaction and cultural differences become important, intercultural competency has received more attention (Chang, 2007). One possible solution to enhancing intercultural competence is promoting international education. International education offers students the opportunity to explore different countries, cultures, views and ideas (Sheppard, 2004). As Kitsantas (2004) found, studying abroad. enhances. students’ world. view,. global. perspectives,. cross-cultural. effectiveness, and increases reflective thought, self-reliance, self-confidence and personal well-being. Obviously, schools are welcoming internationalization because educational exchange programs build their brand reputation with world renowned institutions better able to recruit international students. High quality education and providing a Chinese learning environment are two niches for attracting international students to study in Taiwan. Trends in higher education system focus on internationalization in order to increase market share and open new markets of opportunity to equip students with the necessary skills that will enable them to compete effectively in the global society. As global interaction and cultural diversity become important, intercultural competence has received more attention (Chang, 2007). The understanding of the different ways to treat people from different cultural backgrounds has become a very 1.

(10) important issue. Globalization and international education are affected by many levels of culture, the research intended to explore a sample of host families’ learning process of intercultural competence in Taiwan.. Problem Statement According to the statistical data from Ministry of Education (MOE), in 2015 there are more than 90,000 international students studying in Taiwan.. Some students. chose to live with host families, especially teenagers and senior high school students. As a result, the number of host families was increasing rapidly in Taiwan. While the exchange students naturally undergo changes in different stages of adaptation, it is not a one-way process. To ascertain the true impact of the exchange experience, it is necessary to understand the learning process of intercultural competence of members in the host society. Previous studies on host families focused more on “how to increase international students’ language and cultural learning” than on understanding host families’ growth in intercultural competence (Brecht & Ingold, 2000; Chen, 2007). Among reviewing 15 studies about host families, the researcher found no study that exclusively examined how intercultural competence host families attain to deal with cultural differences. To help fill this void, 19 host families and one counselor were interviewed in this study.. Purposes of the Study The purposes of this study are as follows. First, this study aims to investigate the cultural differences that host families perceive during the intercultural adaptation process. Secondly, the researcher intends to examine the host families’ learning process of attaining intercultural competence.. Research Questions The three questions generated of this study are. 1. What cultural differences do host families perceive during intercultural adaptation process? 2. What is host families’ learning process to attain intercultural competence?. 2.

(11) Significance of the Study Living and working in this global village, individuals need to interact regularly with those who have different cultural or ethnic backgrounds. While the exchange students naturally undergo changes in different stages of adaptation, it is not a one-way process. Sharing one’s home with someone from another culture and religion is an intensely personal experience. “Mutual“ understanding necessitates looking at both sides of the student-host family relationship (Furnham & Bochner, 1989). To ascertain better the true impact of the exchange experience, it is necessary to understand the learning process of intercultural competence of host families. With a receptive perspective, members of host society can learn about the new cultures in their community. Trying to understand cultural differences will be the first step to accept and appreciate different cultures. The researcher assumed that this perception of cultural differences is the starting point for the learning process of intercultural competence. By conducting an in-depth qualitative research of host families, this study seeks to provide a better understanding of cultural differences and host families’ learning process of intercultural competence. In short, this study will contribute to the understanding of the international exchange program, enhancement of the host family quality, and the international education issue in Taiwan.. Definition of Terms Rotary Club The Rotary club was born on February 23, 1905 in Chicago, Illinois, the world's first and most international service club. The founder of the Rotary club was attorney Paul P. Harris, who gathered with three others to discuss his idea of a group of professionals with a diverse backgrounds getting together to form meaningful, lifelong friendships.. Rotary’s Youth Exchange (RYE) Program Rotary’s Youth Exchange is a study-abroad opportunity for young people who spend anywhere from a few weeks to a full year as an international student hosted by local Rotary clubs.. Host Family As Gutel (2008) summarized, host family refers to an environment in which a 3.

(12) student lives with a local family from the host culture while engaging in a specified activity, such as studying, or volunteering. The host families provide meals and accommodation for the student in their home.. International Students Scholars defined international students as individuals who temporarily reside with members of the host society (usually a family) in a foreign country in order to participate in international exchange as students (Paige,1990; Brislin, 1981).. Culture Culture consists of shared mental programs that condition individuals’ responses to their environment (Hofstede, 1980). This definition highlights the idea that individuals see culture in everyday behavior, which is controlled by deeply embedded mental programs.. Intercultural Competence Deardorff (2004) generated a top-rated definition of intercultural competence as “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p. 184). Similarly, Gertsen (1990) defined intercultural competence as “the ability to function effectively in another culture” (p.341).. 4.

(13) CHAPTER II. Literature Review. In this chapter, literature regarding host families, intercultural competence and host families’ the learning process of intercultural competence was introduced.. Host Families There is very little research that documents the study abroad experience from the host family’s perspective; the homestay component is one of the least studied parts of the study abroad experience (Engel, 2011; Schmidt‐Rinehart, 2004). However, the researcher believed that the host families are affected by the international exchange experience as well as the international students. In Stephenson (1999) study validated the same result that the host families started to reaffirm their own cultural identity and to gain “a deeper appreciation of their own culture” (p.35).. Host Families and Students’ Language and Cultural Learning Study abroad has been described as the best experiential opportunity for linguistic and cultural immersion (Brecht & Ingold, 2000), and the homestay component has been considered a key factor in the study abroad experience (Schmidt-Rinehart & Knight, 2004). Homestays provide constant opportunities for students to engage in the target language with native speakers. For examples, Brecht, Frank, Keesling, O’Mara, and Walton (1997) cited the rich, firsthand experience of experiencing the culture and negotiating language with native speakers. Similarly, Paige, Cohen, Kappler, Chi, and Lassegard (2002) stated, “A homestay can provide you with a learning experience that is like no other: the opportunity to gain first-hand knowledge of what family life is like in the target culture and to use the language in an informal setting” (p. 77). Homestays also immerse students in the local culture, providing them an immediate entrance into the intercultural context. Knight and Schmidt-Rinehart (2002) found that the host family participants they interviewed believed that they helped students psychologically as well. In their 2004 study, the researchers noted that “from the families’ perspective, it seemed that living in a home gave students easy access to the daily culture as well as personal support” (p.259). Although the homestay component had often been cited as the positive aspect 5.

(14) of the study abroad experience by many students (Ingram, 2005; Paige, Cohen, Kappler, Chi, & Lassegard, 2006), past research has shown the negative aspect. In two studies of the homestay component of study abroad (Knight & Schmidt-Rinehart, 2002; Schmidt-Rinehart & Knight, 2004), the researchers found some students were disappointed that their home did not offer enough linguistic and social interaction. Interviews with the students showed that they wanted to be more involved in family activities: “They could have integrated me more into the real family life and activities; They could have invited me out more with the family when they went out; I feel more like a guest in a hotel than part of the family” (Schmidt-Rinehart & Knight, 2004, p.259). In addition, the result from the personal interviews with the host family showed that students were not home much and did not take advantage of the opportunity to interact with the family members more (Schmidt-Rinehart & Knight, 2004). A recommendation proposed by the researchers was to investigate ways of increasing family-student interaction, communication, and understanding.. Taiwanese Families Hosting International Students According to the statistical data (MOE, 2015), there are more than 90,000 international students studying in Taiwan. Some students chose to live with host families, especially teenagers and senior high school students, in order to improve fluency in second language and to experience another culture. Homestay has been considered an important factor with regard to linguistic and cultural immersion in Taiwan (Chen, 2007). In the Chen’s (2007) study, participants were teenagers ranging in ages from 15 to 19 from the Rotary’s Youth Exchange (RYE) Program. The result from that study demonstrated that the Chinese teachers, host families, and host schools are all vital to students’ Chinese learning, but the host families and the host schools have greater effects on exchange students than Chinese teachers do. Another related study was conducted by Yang (2010) who investigated the host family accommodation in elementary school context. The author collected data through document analysis and interviews in a Taipei elementary school. This qualitative research also shed light on the host family issue in Taiwan. Based on the findings of this study, related suggestions brought to host families were adjusting the attitude during the reception period and being open-minded to accept the cultural differences.. 6.

(15) Summary In Laubscher’s (1994) study, some participants stated that “by developing intimate relationships with family members and by integrating themselves into the family environments”, they were able to recognize the host culture in all aspects of life and get benefit from the homestay experience (p.28). Similarly, Wilkinson (1998) pointed out that “host family” plays a significant role in the international exchange programs. Consequently, host families have great influence on international students. Host families’ contribution in the international exchange programs will no doubt be very valuable. However, most studies placed emphasis on the international students’ themselves, and how the homestay component influenced the students’ language and cultural learning. Few studies stressed the true impact of the exchange experience on the host receiving groups (for example: the host families). Nevertheless, this research focuses on the host families themselves, and how they attain cultural competence through their hosting experiences.. 7.

(16) Intercultural Competence The idea of intercultural competence arose from research done on westerners working abroad around the 1950s who encountered difficulties that hampered their interactions with individuals of different cultural backgrounds (Bibby, 2008). As Taylor (1994) defined, “intercultural competence is a transformative process whereby the stranger develops an adaptive capacity, altering his or her perspective to effectively understand and accommodate the demands of the host culture” (p.156). By developing cognitive, affective and behavioral skills, the individual has a greater chance of adapting to the new environment (Adler, 1975; Hammer et al., 1978; Martin, 1987; Bibby, 2008). Many researchers have introduced the concept of intercultural competence in order to understand why and how some people work and live successfully in intercultural situations. There is convergence that intercultural competence refers to an individual’s ability to function effectively across cultures (Whaley & Davis, 2007). In 2006, Johnson et al. also provided a definition of intercultural competence as “an individual’s effectiveness in drawing upon a set of knowledge, skills, and personal attributes in order to work successfully with people from different national cultural backgrounds at home or abroad” (p.530). While there are some common notions about this concept, there is no consensus among intercultural scholars. As a result, Deardorff (2004) held a 3-round Delphi technique study among intercultural experts and generated a top-rated definition of intercultural competence as “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p. 184). The study adopted the definition of Deardorff because it integrated the definitions in extant literature and got high agreement among experts in Deardorff’s Delphi study.. Components of Intercultural Competence The study further explored the components of intercultural competence. There is a wide range of components proposed by intercultural competence scholars in recent reviews (e.g. Holt & Seki, 2012; Johnson et al., 2006; Paige, 2004; Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009), but Leung, Ang and Tan (2014) argued that these components can be grouped into three dimensions: intercultural traits, intercultural attitudes and. 8.

(17) worldviews, and intercultural capabilities, these being: 1. Intercultural Traits: They refer to enduring personal characteristics that determine an individual’s normal behaviors in the intercultural context, including open-mindedness (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000), tolerance of ambiguity (Bird et al., 2010; Deardorff, 2006), and quest for adventure (Javidan & Teagarden, 2011). 2. Intercultural Attitudes and Worldviews: They focus on how individuals perceive other cultures or information from outside their own cultural perspectives (Leuang, Ang & Tan, 2014). Examples include ethnocentric-ethnorelative cultural worldviews (Bennett, 1986, 1993; Hammer, 2011) and cosmopolitan outlook (Bird et al., 2010; Javidan & Teagarden, 2011). 3. Intercultural Capabilities: They emphasize what a person can do to be effective in intercultural interactions (Earley & Ang, 2003). Examples of intercultural capabilities include showing knowledge of other cultures/ countries (e.g. Earley & Ang, 2003; Javidan & Teagarden, 2011; Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984); linguistic skills (Imahori & Lanigan, 1989); social flexibility (Bird et al., 2010); and cultural tuning in terms or holistic concern, collaboration, and learning (Leung & Cheng, 2014). Martin (1987) identified three components of intercultural competence, which are cognitive skills( knowledge that the individual has regard to the new culture, the existing cultural differences between his culture and the consequence caused by these differences in multicultural settings), affective or personal qualities (the individual’s ability to be flexible, not to be judgmental, and their tolerance for ambiguity), and behavioral competencies (an individual’s ability to solve problems that arise from the cultural differences in multicultural settings and the ability to establish interpersonal relationships with people from different cultures). Gertsen (1990) concluded intercultural competence as “made up by three interdependent dimensions: an affective dimension, a cognitive dimension, and a communicative, behavioral dimension” (p.346). He also mentioned the importance of cognition (how human beings acquire and use information) and knowledge about other cultures in his study. Byram (1997) proposed three components of intercultural competence which are knowledge (knowledge of others and of social processes of social group and 9.

(18) knowledge of self and of critical cultural awareness), skills (skills to interpret and relate; skills to discover and/or to interact), and attitudes (an individual’s values, beliefs and behaviors, and valuing others’ values, beliefs and behaviors). The scholar viewed attitudes as the fundamental to intercultural competence. Spreitzer, McCall and Mahoney (1997) also proposed fourteen components. They divided them into end-state skills and learning ability. End-state skills include sensitivity to cultural differences, ability to bring out the best in people, broad business knowledge, courage to take stand, acting with integrity, insightfulness, commitment to success, and risk taking. The learning ability includes openness to criticism, using feedback, seeking feedback being cross-cultural adventurous, seeking opportunities to learn, and being flexible. Caligiuri and Santo (2001) categorized global competence into three dimensions, which were ability (to change leadership style lased on the situation, to transact business in another country), knowledge (of the company’s worldwide business structure, of international business issues, of an individual’s network of professional contacts worldwide), and personality characteristic (increase openness, flexibility, and reduce ethnocentrism). They found that personality aspect cannot be developed through global assignments but ability and knowledge can, thus they suggested that the priority of companies is to select the person with certain personality rather than recruit people with ability and knowledge but without needed personality. According to Campinha-Bacote (2002), there are five components in the process of intercultural competence of health care practioners. First, culture awareness refers to the understanding of individual’s own culture and appreciation of cultural differences. The scholar insisted that the influence of individual’s own cultural values could be the cause of cultural imposition, which is the tendency of an individual to impose their beliefs, values, and patterns of behavior on another culture (Leininger, 1978, cited in Campinha-Bacote, 2002). Second, culture skill refers individual’s ability to collect information and conduct accurate cultural assessments (Chang, 2007). Third, culture knowledge refers to a comprehensive knowledge foundation about diverse groups’ values, worldviews, culture-bound illnesses and health-related needs. Fourth, culture encounters refer to a direct engagement in cross-cultural interactions with people from different cultures. This process also encourages people to explore cultural issues after engaging in face-to-face contact with others from culturally diverse background. Fifth, culture desire refers to the individual wants to be more 10.

(19) deeply engaged in the process of obtaining cross-cultural competence. He/she wants to continue this process, rather than has to. Bennett and Bennett (2004) thought intercultural communication is a process of how people adapt to other cultures. Additionally, they proposed two dimensions, mindset (behavior) and skillset. Skillset is the ability to analyze interaction, predict misunderstanding, and fashion adaptive behavior. While mindset is a clear understanding about how to use cultural generalizations without stereotyping the maintenance of attitudes such as curiosity and tolerance of ambiguity that acts as motivators for seeking out cultural differences, and an individual’s self-awareness. Combining Deardorff’s (2004) definition of intercultural competence, and components listed above, the researcher sorted these components into knowledge, ability, skill and other characteristics, which well-known as KSAO. Knowledge consist of knowledge about general culture, knowledge about own cultural, and knowledge of target culture. Ability includes language proficiency, ability to establish relationships, and cross-cultural adaptability. Skill includes interpersonal skills/ networking skills and communication skills. Other characteristics include personality, behavior, and cognition. Personality consists of tolerance of ambiguity, open-mindedness, quest for adventure, flexibility, willing to reduce ethnocentrism, and empathy. Behavior includes appropriate behavior in intercultural situations and intercultural adroitness. Cognition includes cultural sensitivity, cultural self-awareness, global mindset, and respect for other cultures. The table below shows the dimensions and components proposed in the reviewed literature. As Chen and Starosta (1999) defined, intercultural competence is “the ability to effectively and appropriately execute communication behaviors that negotiate each other’s cultural identity or identities in a culturally diverse environment” (p.28). Byram’s (1997, 2009) Intercultural Communicative Competence model focused on fostering empathy and on getting the knowledge and skills needed to mediate between cultural differences. Focusing on the process of communication, Bennett (1998) pointed out that the key issue of intercultural competence is to deal with cultural differences. During the intercultural adaptation process, host families need to deal with cultural differences in order to effectively and appropriately communicate with the international students on a daily basis. Thus, the researcher will place more emphasis on intercultural communication. Below, the researcher listed a table which summarized components proposed in reviewed literature. 11.

(20) Table 2.1. Summary of Components of Intercultural Competence in Extant Literatures Dimension Cognition.  . Personality. Behavior.        .  Knowledge       . Skill. Ability.    . Components (proposed scholars) Cultural sensitivity (Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Byram, 1997; Chen & Starosta, 1999; Spreitzer et al., 1997) Cultural awareness (Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Byram, 1997; Campinha-Bacote, 2002; Chen & Starosta, 1999; Spreitzer et al., 1997) Respect for other cultures (Deardorff, 2004) Open-mindedness (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000) Tolerance of ambiguity (Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Bird et al., 2010; Deardorff, 2006) Quest for adventure (Javidan & Teagarden, 2011) Social flexibility (Bird et al., 2010) Willing to reduce ethnocentrism (Caligiuri & Santo, 2001) Empathy (Byram, 1997) Appropriate Behavior in intercultural situations (Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Deardorff,2004) Intercultural effectiveness/adroitness (Chen & Starosta, 1996) Knowledge about culture in general (Deardorff, 2004;) Knowledge about own culture (Campinha-Bacote, 2002; Byram, 1997) Knowledge about target culture (Byram, 1997) Showing knowledge of other cultures/ countries (e.g. Earley & Ang, 2003; Javidan & Teagarden, 2011; Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984) Skills to interpret and relate (Byram, 1997) Linguistic skills (Imahori & Lanigan, 1989) Interpersonal skills/ networking skills (Byram,1997; Deardorff, 2004; Spreitzer et al., 1997) Communication skills (Chen & Starosta, 1996; Deardorff, 2004) Language proficiency (Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Deardorff, 2004) Ability to establish relationships (Chen & Starosta, 1996) Cultural adaptability (Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Byram, 1997; Deardorff, 2004). Intercultural Communication Competence (ICC) Intercultural communication competence (ICC) is the degree to which an individual is able to communicate effectively and appropriate with people from different cultures ( Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, & Wiseman, 1991; Portalla & Chen, 2010). Chen and Starosta (1996) proposed three aspects of cognition, affect, and behavior of ICC . Specifically, the cognitive aspect represents intercultural awareness, the affective aspect stands for intercultural sensitivity, and the behavioral aspect 12.

(21) indicates intercultural effectiveness/adroitness. According to Chen and Starosta (1997), intercultural sensitivity was defined as “an individual’s ability to develop a positive emotion towards understanding and appreciating cultural difference that promotes appropriate and effective behavior in intercultural communication” (p.5). The definition refers to the individual’s willingness to learn, appreciate and even accept the cultural differences of the two parties. Six key elements of intercultural sensitivity include self-esteem, self-monitoring, open-mindedness, empathy, interaction involvement, and suspending judgment. Second, intercultural awareness was defined as “the understanding of the distinct characteristics of our own and others’ cultures” (Chen & Starosta, 1998, p.30). Third, intercultural effectiveness/ adroitness was defined as “the ability to get the job done and attain communication goals in intercultural interaction" through behavioral performance (Chen & Starosta, 1996, p.367). After reviewing the literature on ICC, Chen and Starosta (1996) criticized that intercultural effectiveness and intercultural communication competence are interchangeable terms in previous studies. The scholars suggested that “intercultural adroitness” can be used to replace “intercultural effectiveness” to avoid confusion. In other words, intercultural effectiveness/ adroitness links to communication skills, including both verbal and nonverbal behaviors, which enable individuals to enact appropriate communication skills in intercultural situations (Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, & Wiseman, 1991; Portalla & Chen, 2010). Scholars have proposed many components for intercultural effectiveness behaviors, which can be grouped into five categories: message skills, interaction management, behavioral flexibility, identity management, and relationship cultivation (Chen, 1989, 2005; Martin & Hammer, 1989; Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009). In addition, Chen and Starosta (1996) developed a new instrument, the Intercultural Effectiveness Scale (IES), which was developed to measure intercultural effectiveness. According to the authors, the factor analysis produced this 20-item Intercultural Effectiveness Scale with six factors, including Behavioral Flexibility, Interaction Relaxation, Interactant Respect, Message Skills, Identity Maintenance, and Interaction Management. In order to assess and understand the Taiwanese host families’ learning process for intercultural effectiveness, the researcher utilized Chen and Starosta’s (1996) Intercultural Effectiveness Scale (IES). First, the researcher translated the English 13.

(22) version into the Chinese version. During the translation process, the researcher found some confusing terms such as informative messages and persuasive messages. She asked the authors to clarify the confusing terms by mails. Later, the draft was sent to the academic professor, two peers and one expert for more revision. Finally, the revised Chinese version of IES was back-translated into English to make sure the accuracy of translation.. Summary An interculturally competent host family not only has to gain the knowledge of the cultural differences, but also has to be aware of the attitude to avoid having prejudice, stereotypes and ethnocentrism which might make effective intercultural interaction difficult. The most important is mastering the communication skills (both verbal and nonverbal) to behave effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations (Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, & Wiseman, 1991; Portalla & Chen, 2010).. 14.

(23) Learning Process for Intercultural Competence In HRD, “learning is a central phenomenon in theories of complexity, although learning is typically implied rather than specifically explicated” (Chang, 2007, p.230). This statement can be applied to the learning process of intercultural competence. Basically, there are two approaches for intercultural learning: 1). Formal learning—cross-cultural training, which refers to formal and planned efforts provided by the organization to prepare people for more effective interpersonal relationships when they have daily interactions with individuals across cultures; 2). Informal learning—learning by doing, which refers to the set of unplanned learning behaviors that individuals undertake when they interact intensively with individuals from different cultural backgrounds. The previous literature review shows that many scholars have held a developmental point of view toward intercultural competence. McPhatter (1997) and McPhatter and Ganawawy (2003) studied intercultural competence assessment, model, and practice. In 1997, McPhatter developed a cultural competence attainment model for social welfare practitioners. The scholar concluded three major components of intercultural competence: enlightened consciousness, grounded knowledge base, and cumulative skill proficiency, these being:. 1. Enlightened consciousness. Enlightened consciousness included the fundamental processes of restructuring people’s primary worldview and shifting their consciousness (Chang, 2007), making people jump out of their own culture superiority and beginning to feel the equity between own ego and the others. McPhatter (1997) stated that “this essential transformation begins with a shifting of consciousness and awareness of just how endemic and narrow one’s socialization has been” (p. 263). 2. Grounded knowledge base. A grounded knowledge base “begins with the premise that everything must be exposed to a process of critical analysis” (McPhatter, 1997, p. 265). One could only analyze the differences until he/she was capable to use knowledge accumulated beforehand. Existing knowledge database helped people to deal with the information load. 3. Cumulative skill proficiency. Cumulative skill proficiency assumed that intercultural skill could be accumulated, “it is focused, systematic, reflective and. 15.

(24) evaluative” (McPhatter, 1997, p. 272). These three components showed how individual initiate their own experience into personal competency. They were interrelated and should not be separated. This was the integrated perspective of intercultural competence.. Another model provided a good understanding of how to distinguish and divided the learning process of intercultural competence. Chang’s (2007) empirical study, which based on 20 expatriate humanitarian workers from Taiwan, identified three levels in the process: peripheral, cognitive, and reflective. As Figure 2.1 shows, at the peripheral level, cultural differences or culture shock often happened to the people who face a new culture at the first sight, which was the primary experience. New and unexpected situation may surprise them, and it was hard to systematically analyze how people feel at this early stage. At the cognitive level, people begin to become familiar with different cultures and have more cultural awareness and sensitivity to adjust their behaviors. As a result, they can perform their work more effectively and appropriately. At the reflective level, people move to a deeper levels of culture and begin to examine their underlying cultural assumptions, transform and reexamine their self-understanding and how they viewed the relationship between themselves and the outside world. In other word, a transformation causes people to change their perspective for understanding themselves or interpreting the world.. 16.

(25) Reflective level: Cognitive level: Peripheral level: Transform & Enlighten Familiarize & Adjust Encounter & Recognize. Figure 2.1. Three levels of the cultural competence process. Adapted from “Cultural competence of international humanitarian workers,” by W. W. Chang, 2007, Adult Education Quarterly, 57(3), p.194. Copyright 2007 by American Association for Adult and Continuing Education.. Learning Provided by Organization: Cross-Cultural Training (CCT) Generally, training often serves as an approach to improve the quality of products and services. In this study, the improvement of training can be very beneficial to Rotary Youth Exchange Multidistrict Taiwan of Districts 3460, 3470, 3490 & 3510 (hereafter ‘RYEMT’) due to the fact that it improves hosting (service) quality, and thus create more value for its stakeholders. In the past forty years, the field of cross-cultural training has evolved from mainly focusing on “providing orientation programs to people going abroad to a rigorous theory-driven field of inquiry” (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1990, p.205). As Littrell et al. (2006) defined that cross-cultural training is the educative process used to improve intercultural learning via the development of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral competencies needed for effectively interactions in multicultural settings. Further, cross-cultural training has been expanded to various uses. For example, it is used to prepare people for reentry to origin culture and face-to-face contact with people from different cultures (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Littrell et al., 2006). In the following section, the researcher further provides an overview of three domains of cross-cultural training including goals, methods, and effectiveness.. 17.

(26) Goals of cross-cultural training. Bhawuk (1990) discussed that the goals of cross-cultural training are end goals and immediate goals.. The immediate goals refer to the expected behavior change of. trainees that can be assessed right after the training program. That is, trainees should be capable of conduction following behaviors when completing the training. First of all is learning how to learn, which refers to the trainees’ ability to transfer skills from the learning situation to other situations in real life (Brislin & Pederson, 1976; Hughes-Wiener, 1986). Hughes-Wiener (1986) proposed a cyclical model of learning how to learn for intercultural interactions that involves four steps: concrete experience, reflection (over the experience), conceptualization (of abstract concepts), and active experimentation. For example, one individual experiences a situation, which let he or she perceives some cultural differences. He or she would reflect on this experience, and so this experience provides the information to think about it. Reflection over the concrete experience allows the individual to grasp the new knowledge. At this point, the individual needs some help to understand the reasons for these cultural differences. This new knowledge then tested out and used as a reference in creating new experiences. Thus, starting with a concrete experience, through reflection, conceptualization, and active experimentation, one individual goes on generating new knowledge and understanding about different cultures. Trainees should be encouraged to acquire the “learning how to learn” skills in cross-cultural training programs (Brislin & Bhawuk, 1990). Methods of cross-cultural training. Traditionally, there were two categories of cross-cultural training methods, which contained didactics (information-giving) and experimental learning activities (Kealey & Prothereo, 1996). During 1950s and 1960s, the first approach was popular. The purpose of this type of training was to provide participants with useful information, which is mainly passed on through one-way communication. The second approach was popular during 1960s and 1970s. According to Gertsen (1990), the experimental training wanted to influence participants’ feelings, attitudes and behavior in a more direct way. In this type of training, the trainer tries to involve participants as much as possible and to copy the real life situations. Nowadays, these two approaches were usually been combined by most trainers. Some scholars discussed methods along with contents in cross-cultural training 18.

(27) (e.g. Brislin & Bhawuk, 1990; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996). In order to give a concise overview, the researcher focuses on this perspective of methods in the following section. In 2005, Littrell and Salas summarized past studies and proposed seven approaches: 1. Attribution training: As Brislin defined, “Attribution refers to judgments made about the behavior of others as well as to judgments about one’s own behavior“ (Brislin,1981, p.91). People seek out explanations for the behavior they observe and make judgements through the accumulation of previous experiences. However, many attributions about the behavior of others might lead to misunderstandings, especially in cross-cultural contact. Thus, attribution training focuses on the cultivating attitudes and skills necessary with explanations of how local people see their own behaviors (Befus, 1988). 2. Cultural awareness training: This training is based on the assumption that an individual who has a better understanding of his or her own culture will be more effective in intercultural situations (Bennett, 1986). Thus, it focuses on the knowing unique characteristics of our own culture in order to show a positive attitude toward other cultures. During the training process, the individual understands the impact from his or her own culture, including values, beliefs, and behaviors, so that he or she will increase the willingness to appreciate and accept the cultural differences. 3. Cognitive-behavior modification training: This training method focuses on assisting trainees in distinguish the appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. By participating in cognitive-behavior modification training, trainees practice the appropriate behaviors to achieve the effective communication and avoid misunderstanding in intercultural interaction. 4. Interaction training: This training method is one form of on-the-job training. The new host families learn from experienced host families through collaboration and sharing with other host families. 5. Language training: This training method focuses on providing trainees with the ability to communicate in the global language instead of becoming fluent or professional. In order to achieve successful understanding, people must overcome the challenges of language barriers when you meet others from different countries. The language training can help trainees to overcome these language barriers in verbal and nonverbal communication styles. 19.

(28) 6. Didactic training: This training method involves the provision of information regarding living conditions, working conditions, and cultural differences (Bennett, 1986). Examples include norm, custom, and regulations. This training method focuses on information-giving. According to the training goal, usually, it will be held with other type of training activities in order to provide opportunities of interactions with other trainees. 7. Experiential training: Experiential training involves learning by doing and learning how to learn. As Triandis (1995) defined, experiential training is “ a trial-and-error method in which the trainee spends time with members of the other culture and learns how to get along with them” (P.148). This training method focuses on developing trainees’ intercultural skills to communicate appropriately and effectively in intercultural interactions. Common techniques are used such as look-see visits, role-plays, intercultural workshops, and simulations.. Effectiveness of cross-cultural training. Several scholars have conducted through literature review from 1980 till now regarding to empirical studies of cross-cultural training ( Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell et al., 2006). Mendenhall and his colleagues (2004) found the need to evaluate the quality of these evaluation research studies that they reviewed. Many different dependent variables were used to measure training effectiveness. These variables are grouped into five categories including knowledge (e.g. the ability to make accurate analyses about the behavior of the individual from different cultures, awareness of cultural differences), behavior (e.g. cultural interest, positive attitude toward individuals of other culture, and stereotyping), adjustment (e.g. perceived well-being, health and safety), performance (e.g. academic achievement, contribution to company goals) and satisfaction (Mendenhall et al., 2004). Mendenhall and his colleagues (2004) concluded that the effect of CCT varies depending on the type of dependent variable (knowledge, behavior, etc.) under considerations. Overall, the results from two meta-analyses (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Morris & Robie, 2001) showed that cross-cultural training is an effective tool for enhancing intercultural competence. In Black and Mendenhall’s 1990 study, the result indicated. 20.

(29) that cross-cultural training is positively related to skill development such as selfmaintenance, interpersonal and cognitive skills. First, cross-cultural training increases knowledge to develop appropriate perceptions of the host culture (Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996). Second, cross-cultural training is positively related to adjustability and cross-cultural adjustment (Caligiuri et al., 2001; Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992). Third, cross-cultural training is positively related to self-development and the establishment of interpersonal relationships with members from different cultures (Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996). Last, cross-cultural training is positively related to the development of self-confidence and feelings of well-being (Black and Mendenhall, 1990). However, besides the evidences of effectiveness, there are still some contradictory findings and some suggestions have been made for future studies. For example, more qualitative researches are needed in order to explain the findings and offer new aspects of views. In addition, there is a need to study trainees at different stages in the cross-cultural skill development such as during or immediately after training. Finally, more works needs to be done regarding to systematically investigating potential moderators of cross-cultural training effectiveness (Mendenhall et al., 2004).. Learning by Doing: Individual Informal Learning As Noe (2013) wrote, “informal learning refers to learning that is learner initiated, involves action and doing, is motivated by an intent to develop, and does not occur in a formal learning setting.” He explained the reason why informal learning is important is that “it may lead to the effective development of tacit knowledge” (p.9). Host families need to effectively develop tacit knowledge, which refers to attaining intercultural competence in order to communicate effectively with international students. Thus, adopting informal learning is necessary because it involves the host family interactions in personal relationship with other host families, volunteers, and experts through which hosting experience is shared.. Learning by doing. Learning by doing is one of the predominant methods of informal learning (Skule, 2004). There are several other informal learning methods proposed by other. 21.

(30) researchers (Lohman, 2005; Marsick & Watkins, 2001): 1.. Working experience with success. 2.. Trial and error. 3.. On the job training. 4.. Coaching. 5.. Mentoring. 6.. Talking and sharing with others. 7.. Searching the internet. One thing that underlies those methods is that we all learn from experience. We learn from the experience that engaged us mentally, physically and emotionally in the moment. From adult education field, researchers investigate the relationship between experiences and learning to see how people learn from a simulated experience, how people relieve a past experience, or how people make sense of their experience through collaboration with others in a community or through introspective experiences (Merriam, Caffarella & Baugartner, 2007). Intercultural experiences as a development tool. The previous literature review shows that 70% of development occurs through direct, on-the-job experiences, whereas training accounts for less than 10% of development, and coaching and mentoring accounts for only 20% (DeRue & Wellman, 2009; McCall, 2004; Robinson & Wick, 1992). Many other scholars supported direct experiences as the fundamental development tool, with other forms of learning and development (i.e., formal training and mentoring) playing a supporting role (DeRue & Wellman, 2009). Intercultural cognition apprenticeship. The concept of cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1991; Collins, 2006) also supports learning by doing. This situated learning approach refers to learning occurs in the real working environment. Situated learning approach emphasizes that learners must combine knowing and doing at the same time (Leung, Ang & Tan, 2014). It also stresses the usesage of learning communities, in which groups of leaners participate in collaborative learning via sharing of cultural practices, problem solving, and reflection (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Behavioral learning strategies. As Taylor (1994) wrote,“behavioral learning strategies represent actions and tools of the trade employed by the participants” for acting in intercultural appropriate 22.

(31) ways (p. 166). He divided these learning strategies into three groups, these being: 1. As observers: This learning strategy refers not only watching others, but listening to people from different national cultural backgrounds, and collecting information to distinguish the cultural differences. The author emphasized that “observing is learning without communicating” (Taylor, 1994, p.166). Generally, observing is the first step when individuals encounter with others from different cultures. 2. As participants: This learning strategy is actively participating in different cultural activities by working with foreigners, eating foreign foods, and socializing with people from different national cultural backgrounds. 3. As friends: This learning strategy is building long-term, committed relationships with people from different cultures. Taylor (1994) stressed this strategy as the most influential factor on the learning process of the intercultural competence. During the process of becoming interculturally competent, these friends were people for supporting you and giving you advices (p.167).. Experiential Learning Theory As one of the most well-known learning theories, Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory (ELT) differs from other behavioral and cognitive theories in its emphasis on the significance of experiences in the learning and development process ( Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 2001). Basing on the works of Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget, Kolb (1984) asserts that adaptation comes mainly through the learning process. There are four steps in the experiential learning cycle : 1) concrete experience—being fully involved in here-and-now experiences; 2) reflective observation—reflecting on and observing their experiences from many perspectives; 3) abstract conceptualization—creating concepts that integrate their observations into logically sound theories; and 4) active experimentation—using these theories to make decisions and solve problems. In other words, concrete experiences provide the material for reflections and observations. The stage of reflections and observations forms abstract concepts and generalizations which will create new meanings. These new meanings are then tested out and used as a reference in creating new experiences. ELT can be applied to different areas of life at the individual level, the organizational level, and. 23.

(32) even at the societal level (Kolb & Kolb, 2009). In one of Kolb’s (1984) study, he mentioned that being effective learners, individuals must engage in four learning abilities—concrete experience abilities (CE), reflective observation abilities (RO), abstract conceptualization abilities (AC), and active experimentation (AE) abilities. That is, they are good at relating with an open mind to people and value interpersonal relations (CE). They are good at seeing things from different perspectives and appreciate different opinions (RO). They are good at making systematic plans and using quantitative analysis (AC), and they must be good at taking actions to influence their external environment (AE). However, it is very difficult to achieve this ideal. So, the learner should continually choose which kind of learning abilities he or she will utilize in the different learning situation (Kolb, 1984, p.30). Generally, the individual’s learning preferences tend to be consistent over time, but sometimes preferences are influenced by circumstances. Kolb (1984) described four basic leaning styles: convergent, divergent, assimilation, and accommodative. The convergent style seeks to bring together information into the one correct answer. It prefers dealing with technical rather than interpersonal issues. The divergent style seeks to generate alternate ideas and implications, with an emphasis on leaning by observation rather than action. The assimilation style seeks to create and understand theory that is logically sound and precise, with an emphasis on fitting disparate observations into an integrated explanation. The accommodative style seeks to respond to the circumstances in which it finds itself—it adapts and acts. It rolls up its sleeves and figures things out. Learning styles give an important piece of information about the learners—but only a piece. Learners are more complex than just their learning styles. ELT pulls together the work of the major experiential learning scholars and has a few important propositions about learning (Kolb, 1984): 1. “Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes” (p. 26). This means, that rather focus on behaviors, the emphasis should be on a process that enhances learning, which should include feedback to let learners know how they perform. 2. “All leaning is re-learning” (p.27). Learning is encouraged when one’s ideas are drawn out so that they can be evaluated, and then integrated to form now ideas about a topic; it has a cyclical nature. 24.

(33) 3. “Learning requires the solution of conflicts between dialectically opposed models of adaptation to the world” (p.29). Conflicts and disagreements exist among the different ways to deal with the world. These conflicts are what drive the learning process. When one moves back and forth between the conflicting ways and learns to resolve these and disagreements, learning happens. 4. “Learning is a holistic process of adaptation” (P.30). Leaning involves the whole person; it calls on a person to feel, think, do, and perceive. 5. “Learning results from synergetic transactions between the person and the environment” (p.34). Our leaning pattern results from how we regularly interact with our environment. The choices we make have an effect on what events we will experience, and since these events affect our future, we essentially shape ourselves and dictate our lives through the decisions we make. 6. “Learning is the process of creating knowledge” (p.36). In ELT, learning takes place in the process when experiences are transformed into knowledge.. Summary In this section, the author briefly reviewed the theories related to the learning process of intercultural competence. Then the development of intercultural competence was divided into three parts: formal learning, informal learning, and experiential learning theory. Formal learning (cross-cultural training) is well planned, budgeted and usually provided by the organization (in our case, it is RYEMT). RYE host families received a series of formal cross-cultural orientations, which are planned, budgeted, and designed by RYEMT before they begin to host international students. In additional, they were given handbooks outlining the responsibilities and coping strategies when emergency accident occurs. Informal learning refers to unplanned learning behaviors that individuals undertake when they interact extensively with others from different cultural backgrounds. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory places emphasis on the continuous and cyclical learning process of creating new knowledge from individuals’ personal experiences.. An important source of information for this study is the. hosting experiences of the twenty host families, what they have gained through their hosting experiences, and how they translate their experiences into concepts from their reflections and observations. Starting with a concrete experience, through reflection, conceptualization, and active experimentation, host families go on generating new. 25.

(34) knowledge and understanding about different cultures. Thus, Kolb’s ELT could be used as the theoretical foundation to understand host families’ learning process of intercultural competence.. Intercultural Adaptation Adaptation and Adjustment Adaptation and adjustment are similar terms which sometimes even used interchangeably. These terms depict changes happening when individuals or groups have contact with a different culture (Hannigan, 1990). However, these terms without clear differentiation may cause problems in understanding studies. To avoid confusion, the researcher will make clear definitions for each of them. First, a useful definition of adaptation by Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7th edition) is that “the process of changing something, for example your behavior, to suit a new situation.” Second, adjustment is defined as “a change in the way a person behaves or thinks” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 7th edition). Some researchers argued that adaptation is an umbrella term that involves other similar but narrower terms, such as culture shock, assimilation, adjustment, and acculturation (Begley, 1994; Kim, 1995). Ruben and Kealey (1979) defined adaptation as having three dimensions, which are psychological adjustment, culture shock and intercultural effectiveness. After reviewing past definitions of several researches, Hannigan (1990) summarized that adjustment could be conceptualized as a psychological process of achieving harmony between the individual and the environment. Furthermore, he proposed that adaptation encompasses cognitive, attitudinal, behavioral and psychological changes in an individual who lives in a new or foreign culture. In this study, the researcher sees adaptation as a broader concept that includes adjustment in order to make the process of intercultural adaptation more complete.. Perspectives on Intercultural Adaptation As Linda Anderson (1994) stated that “cross-cultural adaptation represents in essence a common process of environmental adaptation”. She divided the intercultural literature into four groups (p.293), these being: 1. The recuperation model: In this model, the most famous and central point is the culture shock that has been discussed detailed in previous part. This model 26.

(35) points out the fact that individuals can learn how to adapt (recover) from the shock in a new culture. 2. The learning model: Some scholars defined intercultural adaptation as a learning model (e.g., Byrnes, 1965; Lee, 1979). One school of this model sees intercultural communication as the most central part of cultural adaptation. Another school of the leaning model emphasizes on the social behavior learning. 3. The combination of recovery and learning model: M. J. Bennett’s (1986) model is a famous one. As one’s experience of cultural difference becomes more sophisticated, one learns to become a more skilled intercultural communicator. 4. The homeostatic model: Few scholars proposed this model. They viewed “cross-cultural adaptation as a dynamic and cyclical process of tension reduction” (Anderson, 1994, p.296). In summary of four perspectives, Anderson (1994) further proposed six general principles that apply to intercultural adaptation: (1) it involves adjustments; (2) it implies learning; (3) it implies a stranger-host relationship; (4) it is cyclical, continuous, and interactive; (5) it is relative; (6) it implies personal development (p.303). Among these principles, intercultural adaptation embraces a more holistic view. When looking at host families’ adaptation process, it contains not only adjustment or recovery from shock or imbalance, but also learning and personal development. In other words, host families learn and grow continuously throughout the adaptation process.. Adaptive Personality Personality is the routinized ways in which individuals respond to environment stimuli (Horowitz, 1991). It is important to note that personality influence individuals to behave a certain way according to the situation, desire to accomplish goals, difficulties encountered, etc. (Caligiuri, 2000). As Kim (2001) mentioned in her book, “adaptive personality serves as the power of initiative and being an agent in the living of one’s life” (p.172). Specifically, the adaptive drive in an individual’s personality serves as the internal capacity by enabling the individual to “ride” the low points of the adaptation process (Stewart &Healy, 1985, p.117).. 27.

(36) According to Kim (2001), there are three domains of adaptive personality which are defined in the present theory, these being: 1. Openness: It refers to an individual wants to live “without any reserve in the structure of the present, and yet to let go and flow into a new structure when the right time has come” (Jantsch, 1980, p.255). Similar personal characteristics are open-mindedness (Tamam, 1993; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000), flexibility (Bird et al., 2010), and willingness to communicate (McCroskey & Richmond, 1991). 2. Strength: It is an individual quality that enables individuals to solve problems under pressure and to persist in efforts to make things work (Lazarus, 1996; Lifton, 1993). Kim (2001) defined the strength of personality as “a kind of personal power”—the ability to face intercultural challenges and to learn from each problematic situation (p.176). Similar personality characteristics are tolerance of ambiguity (Bird et al., 2010; Dean & Popp, 1990; Deardorff, 2006), self-confidence/ assertiveness (Van den Broucke et al., 1989). 3. Positivity: It is “the enduring tendency to see bright and hopeful sides to all things” (Kim, 2001, p.177). A person with positive personality is easy to experience joy and satisfaction in daily activities (Seligman & Weiss, 1980). In addition, a positive person believes the one can overcome one’s weaknesses and does not approve such weaknesses to knock him or her down (Maslow, 1969).. 28.

(37) CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODS. This chapter introduced the research approach, researcher frame work, research procedure, researcher participants and criteria, data collection, and data analysis; used for the study.. Research Approach Due to the scarcity of previous study about the host families’ experience, difficulties, strategies, and their learning process of intercultural competence, this research adopted a qualitative design (Mertens, 1998; Patton, 1990) for the purpose of understanding the real situations these host families met during their cross-cultural encounters with international students.. A qualitative approach gives detailed. descriptions of the case being studied and provides analysis of themes or issues (Stake, 1995). Also, it is typically used to answer the “how” and “why” questions, and also can offer more in-depth findings in real-life context (Yin, 2003). In more detail, the resources of data were mainly acquired through three methods including semi-structured interview, observation, and document analysis (see Figure 3.1). First, interview was adopted as primary data resource that included not only information from host families, but also from staffs (volunteers) in relevant institutions. Second, observation was a key method of collection data in this study. Third, documents related to cross-cultural training such as handbooks for host families, training schedules, newsletters and websites of institutions was examined. A useful definition by Creswell and Miller (2000) is that triangulation was defined as searching for convergence from multiple and different sources of information that included four types: across data sources (e.g. participants), theories methods (e.g. interview, documents) and different investigators. In the social research, scholars build on the principle in order to “learn more by observing from multiple perspectives than by looking from only a single perspective” (Newman,2014, p.166). In this study, triangulation was adopted to increase the validity by using across data sources and methods. First, the researcher gathered multiple data resources by interviewing different participants of host families and volunteers in relevant institutions. Moreover different methods of semi-structure interview, observation, and document review were utilized in this study. 29.

(38) Semi-structured Interview. Learning Process for Intercultural Competence of Host families Document Review. Observation. Figure 3.1. Research methods of the study. Research Framework The framework of this study (see Figure 3.2) was structured base on the research purpose and the research quest ions mentioned in Chapter I. When hosting international students, host families would perceive cultural differences and adopt different strategies during the adaptation process. Further, the researcher intends to examine host families’ learning process of intercultural competence.. 30.

(39) Perceived Cultural Differences. Host Families with International Students. Intercultural Competence of Host Families. Learning Process of Intercultural Competence. Figure 3.2. Research framework of the study. Research Participants and Criteria Participants Selection The main objective of this study was to examine the host families’ learning process of intercultural competence. The host family structure may consist of an older individual or a couple whose children have grown up and left the family home, a younger family with children, a single parent with children, or a multi-generational extended family. In addition, local families may have hosted students for several years or have been relatively new to the practice. A family could have been hosting one or more students at a time, and the students could have been international students from any country other than the host country (Engel, 2011). Also, from the RYEMT’s webpage (2015), the excellent host family’s qualification should match one of the criteria listed below:. 1. Young married couples such as those who work with church youth groups. 2. Families with elementary age children in which the grammar of the exchange student will improve the fastest. 3. Families with teenage children that will assist exchange students with social connections. 31.