上課閱讀圖畫故事書對台灣國中生的效益 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士在職專班碩士論文. 指導教授：余明忠博士 Advisor: Dr. Ming-chung Yu 治. 立. 政. 大. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 悅讀:上課閱讀圖畫故事書對台灣國中生的效益. Nat. er. io. sit. y. Pleasure Reading: The Effect of Reading Picture Books in Class on Junior High School Students in Taiwan. n. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. 研究生：黃銀梅撰 Yin-mei Huang 中華民國 99 年 7 月 July, 2010. v.

(2) PLEASURE READING: THE EFFECT OF READING PICTURE BOOKS IN CLASS ON JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN TAIWAN. 立. A Master Thesis Presented to Department of English,. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. National Chengchi University. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. iv n C In h ePartial hi U n g cFulfillment. of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts. by Yin-mei Huang July, 2010.

(3) iii. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Min-chung Yu for his inspiring instruction in the development and completion of this study. And I really appreciate his encouragement when I was stuck. I learned a lot from him during the process of writing the thesis. Without his enlightening guidance, this thesis would not have been completed. Gratitude is also extended to Professor Chin-ching Peng and Professor Chi-yee Lin for their helpful suggestions and insightful comments about the. 政治大. content of this thesis during the oral defense. Furthermore, I greatly thank my friend,. 立. Hsin-hsien Chuang for his kindly help with proofreading the thesis, and Ying-fei Chang. ‧ 國. 學. for her in-time assistance. Finally, I would like to extend my heart-felt thanks to my colleagues and friends. Their support has made this work possible.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v.

(4) iv. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………iii Chinese Abstract……………………………………………………………………. vii English Abstract………………………………………………………………………ix Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................1 Background ............................................................................................................1 Motivation..............................................................................................................6 Purpose...................................................................................................................8 Chapter Two: Literature Review....................................................................................9 Theoretical Background.........................................................................................9 Input Hypothesis ............................................................................................9 Affective Filter Hypothesis and Pleasure Hypothesis..................................10 Bookstrap Hypothesis .................................................................................. 11 The Concept of Pleasure Reading........................................................................12 Self-selection of Materials ...........................................................................13 Pleasant Feelings..........................................................................................14 Meaningful Learning ...................................................................................15 Pleasure Reading in L2 Classroom ......................................................................15 The Value of Picture Books .................................................................................16 Language Ability Development ...................................................................17 Motivation Promotion..................................................................................19 Cultural Awareness Inspiring .......................................................................19 It is for All Ages...........................................................................................20 Pleasure Reading and Reading Comprehension ..................................................21 Pleasure Reading and Writing Ability..................................................................25 Pleasure Reading and Reading Motivation..........................................................28 Related Studies on Pleasure Reading...................................................................34 Need for Investigation..........................................................................................42 Charpter Three: Methodology......................................................................................46 Participants...........................................................................................................46 Instruments...........................................................................................................48 Picture Books ...............................................................................................48 Motivation Questionnaire ............................................................................49 Pilot Study Motivation Questionnaire .................................................50 Formal Motivation Questionnaire........................................................52. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v.

(5) v. General English Proficiency Test.................................................................53 Book Report and Book Log .........................................................................54 Program Response Questionnaire and Personal Interview ..........................55 Instructional Procedures.......................................................................................55 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................59 Chapter Four: Results ..................................................................................................64 Research Question 1: How Do the Experimental Group Participants Change in Their Reading Motivation Through the Pleasure Reading Program?..................64 Results of Overall Reading Motivation .......................................................64 Results of Three Aspects of Reading Motivation ........................................65 Results of Dimensions in the First Aspect of Reading Motivation..............67 Results of Dimensions in the Second Aspect of Reading Motivation .........68 Results of Dimensions in the Third Aspect of Reading Motivation ............70 Research Question 2: To What Extent Do the Experimental Group Participants Improve Their Reading and Writing Ability When Compared to the Control Group Participants?..............................................................................................70 Results of Reading Comprehension Test in GEPT ......................................71 Results of Writing Test in GEPT..................................................................72 Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................74 Discussion of Research Question 1: How Do the Experimental Group Participants Change in Their Reading Motivation Through the Pleasure Reading Program? ..............................................................................................................74 Discussion of Research Question 2: To What Extent Do the Experimental Group Participants Improve Their Reading and Writing Ability When Compared to the Control Group Participants? ................................................................................81 Summary of Discussion .......................................................................................92 Chapter Six: Conclusion ..............................................................................................94 Summary of Findings...........................................................................................94 Pedagogical Implication.......................................................................................96 Limitation.............................................................................................................99 Suggestions for Further Studies .........................................................................100 References..................................................................................................................102 Appendixes ................................................................................................................123. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v.

(6) vi. LIST OF TABLES. Table 3.1 Independent Sample T-test Results of Pre Reading Comprehension Test ...46 Table 3.2 Independent Sample T-test Results of Pre Writing Proficiency Test ...........47 Table 3.3 The Revisions of the Original MRQ ............................................................51 Table 3.4 Proposed Dimensions and Item Numbers of Formal Reading Motivational Questionnaire ...............................................................................................................52 Table 3.5 Marking Protocols for Paragraph Writing....................................................62 Table 4.1 Mean Comparison of the Overall Reading Motivation in the Pretest and the Posttest within Groups .................................................................................................65 Table 4.2 Mean Comparison of the Overall Reading Motivation Posttest between Two Groups..........................................................................................................................65. 政治大 Table 4.3 Mean Comparison of Participants’ Belief in Pleasure Reading between Two 立 Groups..........................................................................................................................65 ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Table 4.4 Mean Comparison of the Three Aspects of Reading Motivation between Two Groups..................................................................................................................66 Table 4.5 Mean Comparison of Dimensions in the First Aspect of Reading Motivation between Two Groups ...................................................................................................67 Table 4.6 Mean Comparison of Dimensions in the Second Aspect of Reading Motivation between Two Groups.................................................................................69 Table 4.7 Mean Comparison of Dimensions in the Third Aspect of Reading Motivation between Two Groups.................................................................................70 Table 4.8 Mean Comparison of Reading Comprehension Test between Two Groups 71 Table 4.9 Mean Comparison of Program Response Questionnaire between Two Groups Item 3: Reading Class Helps me Better Understand Paragraphs or Reading Passages. ......................................................................................................................72. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Table 4.10 Mean Comparison of Writing Proficiency Test between Two Groups ......72 Table 4.11 Mean Comparison between Two Groups in Program Response Questionnaire Item 7: Reading Class Helps me Write Sentences More Correctly. .....73 Table 4.12 Mean Comparison between Two Groups in Program Response Questionnaire Item 8: Reading Class Helps me Spell Words More Correctly. ...........73.

(7) vii. 國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士在職專班碩士論文提要. 論文名稱：悅讀:上課閱讀圖畫故事書對台灣國中生的效益指導教授：余明忠教授研究生：黃銀梅論文提要內容：. 立. 政治大. 悅讀是指讀者自己挑選有趣的書籍，自發性地廣泛閱讀。本研究是要探討. ‧ 國. 學. 悅讀對國中生的閱讀動機，閱讀能力，和寫作能力的影響。本實驗邀請台北市某. ‧. 所國中 61 位的八年級生參加，分為實驗組(悅讀組)和對照組(傳統閱讀組)。本實. sit. y. Nat. 驗共為期 23 週，在學生的英文閱讀課進行，每週一次，每次 45 分鐘。實驗期間，. io. er. 實驗組在上閱讀課時只專心於閱讀自己所選的圖畫故事書，而對照組則繼續原來由老師所主導的傳統閱讀課程。實驗進行前後二組學生都接受全民英檢的閱讀和. al. n. iv n C 寫作能力測驗及閱讀動機評量。這些測驗資料由電腦進行量化處理與分析，個別 hengchi U 訪談結果則用來輔助說明結果與討論。. 結果顯示，經過悅讀的實驗，學生的整體閱讀動機提升了。此外，多面向的動機顯示，參與者的閱讀自信和閱讀成就與目地深受悅讀課程所影響，尤其是參與者從悅讀中產生很強的愉悅感，也增強了自信心。此結果證明了悅讀的最大功能—增進愉悅感。但是此研究並未發現悅讀能有效地改進參與者的閱讀和寫作能力。因為小樣本及有限的資料，本實驗結果只能提供建議性而非決地性的結果，不過本實驗還是能提供一些教育性的建議。如悅讀能納入學校課程當作正規英文課的輔助。學校每天的早自習是讓學生悅讀的最佳時間。另外，賦予不同程.

(8) viii. 度的學生不同的閱讀目標與配合適當的閱讀活動能增進他們的英語能力。爲了更深刻了解悅讀對國中生的效益，最好從校內全體的七年級生開始進行為期三年的悅讀課程，最後以高中入學的基本學力測驗英文科成績來檢驗其成效。期待面對繁重課業壓力的國中生能透過悅讀快樂地並有效地學習英文。. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v.

(9) ix. ABSTRACT Pleasure reading refers to any reading in which self-motivated readers pick up books they are interested in and engage themselves in those books. Pleasure reading has long been recognized as a powerful tool for fostering reading interest and enhancing literacy development. This study aimed to investigate the impacts of pleasure reading on EFL junior high school students’ reading motivation, reading comprehension, and writing ability. Sixty-one eighth graders in a junior high school in. 政治大. Taipei were divided into the experimental group (pleasure reading group) and the. 立. control group (traditional reading group). This program was carried out during the. ‧ 國. 學. English Reading class, once a week with 45 minutes for each period. During the 23-week reading program, the experimental group only focused on reading. ‧. self-selected picture books without any instructions while the control group still. y. Nat. io. sit. received the skill-based reading approach. Before and after the program, their reading. n. al. er. and writing ability were examined by the reading and writing tests of General English. Ch. i Un. v. Proficiency Test (GEPT) and their reading motivation was measured by the. engchi. Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ). The data collected were analyzed quantitatively and the interview data were utilized to interpret and support the findings. The results revealed that the experimental group participants’ overall reading motivation was enhanced significantly after the program. As for the multifaceted motivation, the results showed that the participants’ “reading self-efficacy” and “reading achievement values and goals” were influenced strongly by pleasure reading. Among the 12 reading dimensions, “enjoyment” was the most significant factor. All the findings confirmed the main value of pleasure reading-- reading for enjoyment,.

(10) x. and such enjoyment promoted students’ reading motivation very positively. With respect to the participants’ reading and writing ability, the results did not show significant improvement. Pleasure reading did not influence the participants’ language proficiency positively. However, both groups made some progress in the posttest in the gain score. Therefore, pleasure reading appeared to be at least as effective as the traditional reading approach. Pleasure reading was more interesting and enjoyable for junior high students. Although the results may not be taken as conclusive because of limited data and small samples, this study still provides some pedagogical implications and. 治政 suggestions. Pleasure reading can be implemented 大 into school curriculum as a 立 counterpart of regular English class, a kind of skill-based English class. The school’s ‧ 國. 學. morning session is a good time for students to read self-chosen materials. Moderate. ‧. tasks should be set for students with different language levels to conquer. Appropriate. sit. y. Nat. reading activities can be integrated to help stimulate students’ reading. To get a clear. io. al. er. picture of its effect on junior high level students, it is necessary to conduct the program for a longer duration and with larger samples. Therefore, it is suggested that. n. iv n C further study can start with all the graders in junior high schools and the study h eseventh ngchi U should last for three years. The entrance exam of senior high school, the Basic Competence Test can be adopted as the measurement of language proficiency. It is expected that junior high students under academic pressure can learn English happily and effectively..

(11) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION. Background With globalization, many non-English speaking countries have made efforts in English education. In Taiwan, the “English fever” is very evident among both teachers and learners (Krashen, 2003). On the one hand, to promote English proficiency, the government has policies with regard to the use of the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT). This is a widely recognized and standardized EFL test. Many people. 政治大. study English in order to pass the test (Shen, 2005). On the other hand, the. 立. government has made some English education reforms. For example, since the. ‧ 國. 學. Ministry of Education (MOE) implemented the Grade 1-9 Curriculum in 2001,. ‧. English education has been officially initiated right from elementary school (Chen,. sit. y. Nat. 2004). Another reform related to junior high students is the English test in the Basic. io. Taiwan.. er. Competence Test (BCT), the examination to be passed to enter senior high school in. al. n. iv n C U the English test in the BCT is Compared to the old highhschool e n gentrance c h i exam,. chiefly concerned with reading comprehension; this has led to the emphasis on students’ English reading ability (Huang, 2004; Lu, 2002). Teachers have thus tried to capitalize on supplementary reading materials to enhance students’ reading ability. However, extra materials are quite scarce. Most of the reading materials are selected by teachers; these materials may not match the student’s interest and language ability. Many teachers utilize only one outside-curriculum reading book for the whole semester. The supplementary materials are usually regarded as “outside reading,” and students are asked to do the reading in their free time (Lin, 2004).. 1.

(12) 2. In Taiwan, English education in junior high school still adopts skill-based instruction or the traditional Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) (Chen, 2004). Teachers teach reading as a way of decoding the language and practicing language skills, just as they do in the regular English class (Sims, 1996; Tai, 1995; Wu, 1994). Teachers emphasize vocabulary analysis, sentence translation and the explanation of grammar rules; Hung (2003) reported that supplementary materials were presented in the form of vocabulary identification, grammatical patterns, and mechanical drills for the purpose of preparation for standardized examinations. It is very common for students to look on the main purpose of English reading as being to pass exams in. 政治大. Taiwan (Greaney, 1996; Wu, 1994). Students need to do many skill-based reading. 立. comprehension exercises to facilitate the development of their reading ability. Under. ‧ 國. 學. such circumstances, supplementary reading has become a source of pressure and. sit. y. Nat. help students learn better (Lu, 2002).. ‧. anxiety (Sheu, 2004). It seems that what has been done to promote reading does not. io. al. er. As Nuttall (2005) noted, the main purpose of an L2 reading program is “to enable students to enjoy (or at least feel comfortable with) reading in the foreign. n. iv n C language, and to read without help h eunfamiliar i U texts, at appropriate speed, n g c hauthentic silently and with adequate understanding” (p.31). Since most junior high students read English mainly for the purpose of taking tests (Jiang, 2002; Liao, 2005; Yan, 2004), it is necessary to alter students’ perceptions with regard to English reading and foster their love for it. Pleasure reading is a good way to discover the joy of reading and to improve language proficiency (Day & Bamford, 2004; Krashen, 2004). Pleasure reading is like a student-centered approach; by being exposed to an input-rich and enjoyable environment, students can increase their knowledge of the target language and their eagerness to learn (Hedge, 1985). According to Nuttall (2005), as a second.

(13) 3. language learner, “the best way to improve one’s knowledge of a foreign language is to go and live among its speakers. The next best way is to read extensively in it” (p.128). For many EFL students in Taiwan, now that the actual exposure to English is limited, reading is the major source of language input. However, intensive teaching and students’ slow reading may result in insufficient input. According to Krashen (1993, 2003), without extensive exposure to the target language, it is certainly impossible for learners to upgrade their reading proficiency as expected. If there is little reading, there will be little language learning (Bright & McGegor, 1970).. 政治大. Students need to read a lot not only to increase the amount of input but also to. 立. naturally develop both reading skills and the knowledge required to read fluently. ‧ 國. 學. (Grabe & Stoller, 2002). The typical teacher-centered instruction approach lowers. ‧. students’ motivation and initiative in class and raises their affective filter, which is. sit. y. Nat. harmful to the language acquisition process. The “affective filter” is devised to help a. io. al. er. learner become entirely “open” to the input. The best acquisition will take place in the environment when the affective filter is down (Krashen, 1985. p.3). Pleasure reading. n. iv n C brings the affective filter down,hbecause i U read for pleasure, their anxiety e n gwhen c h students level is low and defensiveness is absent. Input comprehensible to students is consequently allowed to reach language acquisition (Gunn, 2003; Morris & Tarone, 2003). The effect of successful pleasure reading on second language acquisition has been proved in many studies. The positive findings from these studies indicated that pleasure reading had a great impact on many facets of second language learning, including vocabulary (Gardner, 2004; Raptis, 1997; Swanborn & Glopper, 2002; Tekmen, & Daloglu, 2006), reading ability (Bruton, 2002; Cho & Krashen, 1994;.

(14) 4. Elly , 1991; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Green, 2005; Hafiz & Tudor, 1989; Janopoulos, 1986; Lai, 1993; Mason & Krashen,1997; Tran, 2006; White, 2007), writing ability (Elley & Cuttibng, 2001; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Hafiz & Tudor, 1989, 1990; Janopoulos, 1986; Lai, 1993; Mason, 2004; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Robb & Susser, 1989; Tsang, 1996), reading motivation or attitude (Aranha, 1985; Cho & Krashen, 1994; Davis, 1995; Fox, 1990; Pilgreen & Krashen, 1993; Rausch, 2004; Walker, 1997; Waring, 1997), listening, speaking and reading speed (Krashen, 2001), and even academic achievement (Lai, 1993). In Taiwan, there are quite a few studies exploring the effect of pleasure reading. 政治大. on the learning of English (Chang, 1998; Chen, 2004; Chen, 2005; Cheng, 2003; Chin,. 立. 2006; Chuang, 2007; Huang, 2003; Huang, 2007; Hung, 2007; Juan, 2007; Kao, 2004;. ‧ 國. 學. Kuo, 2005; Lee, 1998; Liao; 2005; Lin, 2004; Sheu, 2004; Sims, 1996; Tsai, 2008;. ‧. Wei, 1996; Wu, 2004; Yang & Nash, 1992). The research target ranged from. sit. y. Nat. elementary school to college level. The focus was on the language ability, learning. io. al. er. attitude or motivation, and the feasibility of implementing an English curriculum. At the elementary school level, Chuang (2007) investigated the effect of. n. iv n C pleasure reading on sixth graders’ h ereading h i U and vocabulary learning, as n g ccomprehension well as their attitudes toward reading English. Chen (2005) probed the influences of pleasure reading on EFL children’s motivation for reading and self-perception as readers. Juan (2007) explored the feasibility of pleasure reading as remedial instruction for elementary school underachievers. In addition, Hung (2007) examined the effects of pleasure reading on incidental word knowledge learning, including the receptive vocabulary knowledge of nouns and the productive morphological knowledge about the past tense forms of regular and irregular verbs. Moreover, Tsai (2008) carried out action research by combining pleasure reading and the teaching of.

(15) 5. writing. At the junior high school level, Chen (2004) studied the impact of pleasure reading on students’ language proficiency and reading attitude, and students’ reactions toward it. Kuo (2005) studied pleasure reading to examine its effect on vocabulary acquisition, reading comprehension and grammatical knowledge. Likewise, Liao (2005) combined pleasure reading and writing instruction to probe students’ reading ability, reading speed, writing ability, learning motivation, and attitude in the affective domain. Sheu (2004) also investigated the influence of pleasure reading on language proficiency, including vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, reading speed, and reading attitude.. 政治大. At the senior high school level, Chang (1998) conducted a study to compare. 立. two groups reading five assigned books with or without study guides. Kao (2004). ‧ 國. 學. implemented a pleasure reading program during extra class and examined its impact. ‧. on students’ reading proficiency, reading speed, motivation and attitude toward. sit. y. Nat. reading. In addition, Lin (2004) also focused on the influences of pleasure reading on. io. al. er. students’ reading, writing, and motivation for learning. At the college level, both Cheng (2003) and Huang (2003) focused on the effect of doing pleasure reading using. n. iv n C word-guessing strategy training.hChin i U the influence of pleasure reading e n(2006) g c hstudied on students’ reading proficiency, reading speed, and attitude and motivation with regard to reading. Huang (2007) also focused on reading ability and attitude. Lee (1988) introduced the basic L2 language acquisition theory and initiated a session of pleasure reading in a freshman formal English class. Wei (1996) also conducted a pleasure reading project in which students kept reflective reading journals and gave oral presentations about their reading. Likewise, Wu (2004) explored the pleasure reading process by using popular fiction as the major reading material. Moreover, Yang and Nash (1992) conducted a reading program to build up students’ cultural.

(16) 6. knowledge of the target language and investigated its effect on attitude enhancement.. Motivation Despite the growing body of research on pleasure reading, the positive results of studies conducted abroad may not apply to the EFL learners in Taiwan because of the difference in educational backgrounds and policies. The status quo of Taiwan English education is to help students pass all sorts of English exams (Zhang, 2003). From previous studies in Taiwan, it appeared that doing pleasure reading was more popular in college and at elementary level because teachers have more freedom to. 政治大. conduct their classes at these levels without the constraint of a teaching syllabus. 立. (Krashen, 2001; Yin, 2004). However, the learning environment at junior high level is. ‧ 國. 學. drastically different from that at college level or elementary level. Junior high. ‧. students in Taiwan are faced with the pressure of doing schoolwork and passing. sit. y. Nat. entrance exams, so English teaching is limited to what is prescribed in the teaching. io. al. er. syllabus (Jiang, 2002; Liao, 2006; Yan, 2004). The benefits of pleasure reading found in previous studies still remain unknown for junior high level students. More studies. n. iv n C needed to be done to ascertain its positive effecti on he n g c h Ujunior high students.. Besides, participants in most studies were asked to do pleasure reading not only in class but also in their free time (Cheng, 2003; Chin, 2006; Huang, 2003; Huang, 2007; Lee, 1998; Lin, 2004; Kuo, 2005; Sheu, 2004; Sim, 1996; Wei, 1996; Wu, 2004; Yang & Nash, 1992). Some of them even did pleasure reading only in their free time (Hung, 2007; Kuo, 2005). Since junior high students have too much homework and tests every day, it is quite hard for them to read supplementary materials in their free time. However, according to Krashen (2004), school pleasure reading can have a positive influence on students’ language learning..

(17) 7. With regard to the effect of pleasure reading on students’ affective factors, most studies focused on either learning motivation or overall reading motivation (Chen, 2004; Chin, 2006; Kao, 2004; Kuo, 2005; Liao, 2006; Lin, 2004; Sheu, 2004; Wang, 2006; Wei, 1996; Yuan & Nash, 1992). However, factors that affect reading behavior may differ from those affecting other learning behavior. For certain aspects of reading, motivation is unique to reading only (McCombs, 1997). Understanding students’ different reasons for reading can help teachers integrate various educational practices to encourage students to read more (Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). Pleasure reading is very useful for promoting general language proficiency, including writing ability (Day. 政治大. & Bamford, 2004; Krashen, 2004). Nevertheless, few of the previous studies focused. 立. on writing ability (Lin, 2004; Tsai, 2008; Wang, 2006; Wu, 2004) and at junior high. ‧ 國. 學. level, only Liao’s (2006) study concerned itself with writing ability. Therefore, it is. ‧. necessary to ascertain the effect of pleasure reading on students’ writing ability. In. sit. y. Nat. addition, graded readers seemed to be the most popular reading materials, judging. io. al. er. from most previous studies (Chen, 2004; Ching, 2006; Chuang, 2007; Kao, 2004; Kuo, 2005; Huang, 2003; Hung, 2007; Lin, 2004; Sims, 1996). Since picture books. n. iv n C U (Danielson, 1992), it would be are highly recommended materials h eforn pleasure g c h ireading worthwhile to explore the effect of using picture books in a pleasure reading program. Given that pleasure reading can be so beneficial, the researcher was inclined to carry out a pleasure reading program in a way of reading picture books in class. Since students in the same class have mixed English proficiency levels, it is quite difficult for teachers to employ one teaching method to meet each student’s needs and to improve each student’s English learning (Zhang, 2003). Accordingly, researchers have proposed alternatives to the existing “one-size-fits-all’ instruction and pleasure reading is one of the good alternatives (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; Oliver, 1976)..

(18) 8. Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine a particular way to foster students’ love for reading and improve their language proficiency. Junior high students rarely experience reading pleasure in their English class because the recreational components of reading have been ignored. Gradually, they may lose their interest in reading in English (Shih, 2005). Providing time for pleasure reading at school is an important step toward enhancing literacy and promoting students’ motivation to read, and it helps students develop a habit of lifetime reading (Sanacore, 1992). When students read for pleasure, they read books suitable to their language levels and. 政治大. matching their interests. They can read at their own paces. Consequently, pleasure. 立. reading may be an appropriate reading approach that fits different language levels and. ‧ 國. 學. satisfies different needs (Krashen, 2004). In addition to enhancing reading motivation,. ‧. it is also hoped that students could improve their language proficiency. Since junior. sit. y. Nat. high students have to take so many tests, it is also expected that they could improve. io. al. er. their academic performance in English through pleasure reading. Moreover, the. n. implications of findings are related to the feasibility of implementing pleasure reading in school curriculum.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v.

(19) 9. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW. In this chapter, the theoretical background to pleasure reading is presented first. Second, concepts of pleasure reading are focused on. Third, the influences of pleasure reading on reading comprehension, writing ability, and reading motivation are discussed. Fourth, the value of picture books for pleasure reading is looked at. Finally, empirical studies are reviewed.. 立. 政治大. Theoretical Background. More and more evidence has appeared in favor of pleasure reading as a good. ‧ 國. 學. way to promote not only students’ reading level but also their general language. ‧. proficiency (Krashen, 2004). The positive influence of reading self-selected materials. sit. y. Nat. without explicit teaching extends to various aspects of language, like vocabulary. io. er. knowledge, reading comprehension, writing ability, listening, speaking, reading speed,. al. and reading motivation or attitude. One obvious attraction of the approach is that. n. iv n C reading can be enjoyable and aththe i U students’ language proficiency esame n g time c h improve (Krashen, 2001). Students can read books that match their interest and language level. In a relaxing environment, they can read books at their own paces. Judging from previous studies that manifested impressive results for pleasure reading, the following hypothesis and theories describe what plays an essential role in pleasure reading. Input Hypothesis Input Hypothesis claims that people acquire language in a very simply way--by receiving and understanding messages. Although learners get used to learning strategies with regard to grammar rules or memorizing vocabulary, “comprehensible.

(20) 10. input” still plays a significant role in second language learning (Krashen, 1985). It is even regarded as a crucial and indispensable to the language learning process (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Krashen (1985) expanded “comprehensible input” as, i+1. If a learner’s current competence is at level i, the comprehensive input should be at i+1 level. In other words, comprehensible input should incorporate both previously acquired language knowledge and something a bit beyond it. In this way, learners can understand most of the learning context and challenge themselves to make progress. If the input is sufficient and is understood, the new grammar will be automatically acquired (Krashen, 1985). Thus, new structures or new grammar rules do not. 政治大. necessarily have to be deliberately taught by language teachers. Whenever a learner. 立. receives a sufficient amount of comprehensible input, he or she will learn new. ‧ 國. 學. grammar rules and structures automatically and practice them naturally. Krashen. ‧. (1994a) proved that pleasure reading is a powerful approach consistent with the input. sit. y. Nat. hypothesis because it provides a great deal of exposure to the target language.. io. al. er. Krashen (1995) even proposed that comprehensible input in the form of reading could. n. serve as the main source from which to acquire reading, writing, vocabulary, or. Ch grammatical development ability.. engchi. i Un. v. Affective Filter Hypothesis and Pleasure Hypothesis The “affective filter” is related to whether a learner entirely “opens” up to the input. The affective filter is “a mental block that prevents acquirers from fully utilizing the comprehensible input they received for language acquisition” (Krashen, 1985. p.3). On the one hand, the affective filter will go up when learners are unmotivated, anxious, devoid of self-confidence, or when they consider the learning environment threatening. When the affective filter is up, despite learners’ understanding the messages they receive, the input will not reach those parts of the.

(21) 11. brain responsible for language acquisition (what Chomsky has called the “language acquisition device”). On the other hand, when the affective filter is down, learners are willing to take risks, and not afraid of revealing weakness and making mistakes in learning a language. Krashen (1994a) indicated that the affective filter came to the lowest when learners were so engaged in the context that they temporarily “forget” that they were reading another language. In other words, the best acquisition will take place in an environment where anxiety is low and defensiveness is absent. For example, when the reading activity is pleasurable, the affective filter may not be present and comprehensible input is allowed to reach the language acquisition device.. 政治大. Very closely related to the Filter Hypothesis, the Pleasure Hypothesis advocates. 立. the importance of the pleasure element in language learning (Krashen, 1994b).. ‧ 國. 學. Pleasant learning activities and a relaxing environment can not only provide more. ‧. comprehensible input but also foster a low affective filter. When learning becomes. sit. y. Nat. pleasurable, acquisition becomes possible. As long as acquisition is possible, a. io. al. er. positive attitude and motivation grow naturally. Furthermore, the growth gives. n. feedback to reading that takes place afterward and promotes better language learning and motivation growth.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Bookstrap Hypothesis Bookstrap Hypothesis was proposed by Day and Bamford (2004), which explained the great impact of pleasure reading on reading attitude and motivation. The term “bookstrap” is derived from “bootstrap”, which is “an engineering concept describing a process in which the results of an action are fed back to achieve greater results more quickly with less effort” (p.30). Learners’ initial successful experiences in reading for pleasure help them perceive their ability to read the second language and consider reading rewarding and pleasurable. This perception brings about the.

(22) 12. development of positive attitudes and a growing reading motivation for the second language. These positive initial experiences feed back into subsequent pleasure reading and thus accumulate more gains in reading proficiency, positive attitudes, motivation, and enjoyment. This is bookstrapping, and it can lead learners to become more interested and even “hook on” books, just like the result in Johnson and Allington’s “flow experience” (cited in Day & Bamford, 2004, p.30). A flow experience occurs when learners involve themselves in their favorite reading to such an extent that they lose themselves in it.. 政治大. The Concept of Pleasure Reading. 立. According to Krashen (1995), pleasure reading was originally conceptualized. ‧ 國. 學. with regard to first language learning. It is completely voluntary. In pleasure reading,. ‧. readers have the option of skipping entire sections they find either too difficult or. sit. y. Nat. uninteresting. They even have the option of putting the book down and selecting. io. al. er. another after reading a few pages. They can skip words they do not understand if they think they are following the main point being made. They also have the option of. n. iv n C U Pleasure reading has long looking up every word if that ishtheir e npreference g c h i (p.164). been recognized as a powerful tool for fostering reading interest and enhancing literacy development for first language learners (Adams, 1990; Block & Mangieri, 2002; Herman et al., 1987; Krashen, 1988). The notion of pleasure reading in first language learning has been applied to second language learning and has been modified: Pleasure reading refers to an array of fun reading activities in which students freely engage in a wide range of interesting topics selected by them or recommended by teachers. The purpose of reading, is distinctly different from.

(23) 13. those of traditional reading instruction, is usually related to pleasure, information, and general understanding of the content but not the language (Krashen, 1993, pp.33-34). There are various related terms used in studies, like “extensive reading,” “free voluntary reading,” “recreational reading,” or “sustained silent reading.” In this study, in focusing on students’ reading for pleasure, the term “pleasure reading” is used consistently. Although there are different terms for this reading activity, they all refer to any reading in which readers with self-motivation engage with interesting books they pick up themselves and read extensively (Krashen, 1995). Pleasure reading puts. 政治大. more emphasis on readers’ interests, motivation, and “read-world purposes” (Day &. 立. Bamford, 2004, p.5). Generally speaking, the concept of pleasure reading involves. ‧ 國. 學. three main components: self-selected materials, pleasurable feelings and meaningful. ‧. learning.. sit. y. Nat. Self-selection of Materials. io. al. er. Self-selection of reading materials is the most important component of pleasure reading (Krashen, 2004). In pleasure reading, students are free to choose any. n. iv n C materials that interest them, such h ase language i U literature, children’s literature, n g c hlearner magazines, novels, comic books, newspapers and more (Day & Bamford, 2004, pp.96-106). During pleasure reading, students have the options of giving up on books they do not like or those that are too difficult for their understanding, and choose other books. Successful pleasure reading lies on students’ willingness to find any appropriate materials, the contents of which are comprehensible, interesting, and relevant to themselves (Krashen, 1995). Resnick (2000) highlighted that engagement with the self-selected texts is necessary for pleasure reading. A key--perhaps the defining--feature of pleasurable reading is that one picks up.

(24) 14. and puts down a book or a story at will. There is no need to prove to others that one has read, although sharing opinions about books is not uncommon among those who read for pleasure (p.38). Besides, Resnick also emphasized the importance of pure pleasure reading. Pure pleasure reading means reading is its own reward. That is, reading does not need to come with book reports, discussions, or even assignments. Pleasant Feelings Pleasure is definitely indispensable for readers when doing pleasure reading. When students read books that match their personal interests and are within their. 政治大. competency in a relaxing and informal atmosphere, the affective filter will be lower. 立. and reading becomes pleasurable (Krashen, 1994b). Students should experience not. ‧ 國. 學. pressure or anxiety but pleasure from reading. In other words, during pleasure reading,. ‧. there is no frustration caused by incomprehensible messages, no early demand for. sit. y. Nat. output, and no demand for premature grammatical accuracy. Pleasure is from reading. io. al. er. itself, like the concept of flow, a state people reach when they are deeply but effortlessly involved in an activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991, p.117). In flow, the. n. iv n C concerns of everyday life and even sense ofi self h ethe ng c h Udisappear; the sense of time is changed, and nothing but the activity itself seems to matter. Reading is the most frequently mentioned flow activity; pleasure reading can best generate the condition of flow (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; McQuillan, 1997). When readers are totally involved in pleasure reading, the words and images in the books will seduce them and bring them to places unknown on the wings of imagination. When students find pleasure in reading books, they will keep reading with sustained motivation and acquisition will become possible (Pfordresher, 1985)..

(25) 15. Meaningful Learning Meaningful learning here refers to understanding the meaning of context instead of the language form. According to Carrell and Carson (1997), pleasure reading should include two characteristics: reading a large number of reading materials, and focusing on the meaning of the context rather on the linguistic features of the text. That is, learners read in lots of contexts for global or general understanding, not individually analyzing each word to decode the context. Alderson and Urquhart (1984, p.246-247) also advocated that pleasure reading should focus more on reading exercise than language exercise. Learners choose their favorite books. 政治大. rather than being assigned readings, read based on their own level, and focus on the. 立. message rather than the language form. To aim at general comprehension, learners do. ‧ 國. 學. not need to intentionally focus on sentence structures or grammar rules in the context.. ‧. The level of global understanding varies with learners’ language proficiency, the. sit. y. Nat. nature of the text, and other factors. However, if learners choose correctly, it will be. io. al. er. easier for them to read for general understanding and to read for pleasure.. n. iv n C Pleasure h eReading i UClassroom n g c inh L2. Pleasure reading in the L2 classroom is very different from the traditional instruction led almost entirely by teachers. Pleasure reading in the classroom is a student-centered approach (Day & Bamford, 2004). The best way to define pleasure reading in the classroom is to describe the concrete characteristics of a successful pleasure reading program. Most of the characteristics were proposed by Day and Bamford (2002, 2004), and other researchers reinforced some of them (Gambrell & Marinak, 1997; Huck, 1971; Pino-Silva, 1992; Sanacore, 1992). All the characteristics are integrated and summarized as follows:.

(26) 16. (1) Students read as much as possible in class. Time for pleasure reading in school should be at least as much as that given to instructional reading (Huck, 1971). (2) A variety of reading materials on a wide range of topics and at different levels should be provided. More access to books can inspire students to read more and lead students to develop reading motivation (Gambrell & Marinak, 1997). (3) Students choose what they want to read, and they have the freedom to stop reading material that fails to interest them and they can pick up another book.. 政治大. 立. (4) Frequent use of dictionaries is not encouraged while reading because the. ‧ 國. 學. constant stopping to look up words makes fluent reading difficult.. ‧. (5) Reading is its own reward. After reading, there are few or no follow-up. sit. y. Nat. exercises, reports, discussions, or assignments that may put pressure on. io. er. students.. al. (6) Reading is silent and individual in the classroom. Students read at their own. n. iv n C paces and read consistently without ibeing heng c h U interrupted by questions.. (7) When beginning pleasure reading, teachers should explain the merits and importance of pleasure reading in a foreign language to their students (Pino-Silva, 1992). (8) Teachers serve as reading models for students (Sanacore, 1992).. The Value of Picture Books According to Day and Bamford (2004), materials for pleasure reading can be novels, mysteries, biographies, science fiction, comic books, literature, newspapers,.

(27) 17. magazines, and more. Some materials, like magazines or newspapers, are difficult for second language learners due to their limited linguistic competence and unfamiliarity with topics or culture. For entertainment, information, learning to read, and becoming “hooked on” books, second language learners need materials written especially for them. Among many possible reading materials, children’s literature is found to be especially beneficial to second language learners because it provides authentic language sources rich in comprehensible input (Smallwood, 1991). Literary works for children may help them develop their target language in terms of both quantity and quality, expose them to different cultures, and thus, help them enhance their. 政治大. personalities (Chang, 1998). From among many genres in children’s literature, picture. 立. books are the most promising reading materials for EFL learners (Brewster, Ellis &. ‧ 國. 學. Girard, 1992; Cameron, 2001). Picture books are high-standard and enjoyable literacy. ‧. works with repetition in refrains and charming illustrations. According to Bishop and. sit. y. Nat. Hickman (1992, p.2), a picture book can be narrowly defined as “a picture storybook,. io. al. er. a fiction book with a dual narrative, in which both the pictures and the text work interdependently to tell a story.” In general, a good picture book has the following. n. iv n C U values, which are the same as those (Danielson, 1992; Norton, h e ofn children’s g c h i literature 1995; Thron, 1991). Language Ability Development Language is a whole; language materials do not have to be arranged according to a definite grammatical sequence or fragmented into such parts as vocabulary, grammar rules, and sentence patterns. Instead of beginning with fragments of language, children’s literature uses the complete forms of written language and can be very useful in literacy development (Giddings, 1992). Massive exposure to literature compensates for the deficient linguistic approach in the area of grammar, idioms,.

(28) 18. vocabulary, and syntax. For example, stories in the picture books provide the repetition of key vocabulary and structures. Students can develop their language ability with the repetition model practice in a meaningful context (Ellis & Brewster, 1991). Further, the pictures in the books are very helpful for students to understand the meanings of unfamiliar or abstract vocabulary. In addition to vocabulary acquisition, Mitchell (1998) reported that reading picture books provided students short of writing ideas with rich formats and topics. Picture books are rich in various meaningful contexts, and they are graded from simple to complex in terms of storytelling. The topics are also graded from easy to. 政治大. difficult in various written models. With a variety of contexts in picture books,. 立. learners can realize the appropriate words and structure choices and how these words. ‧ 國. 學. and structures are presented to convey information and meanings. The various writing. ‧. models help learners of different levels to understand the overall features of language. sit. y. Nat. as well as appreciate the beauty and greatness of the target language (Thron, 1991).. io. al. er. Aside from enhancing writing ability, children’s literature can help students develop the other language skills. For example, reading children’s literature is. n. iv n C beneficial for pronunciation (Louie, 1996). When students read rhymes or the hen gchi U. repetitive sentence patterns aloud, their pronunciation, accents, and intonation could be improved at the same time. Thron (1991) also highlighted the value of children’s literature by stating “the best literature draws readers into the world created by language, making them deeply aware of its rhythms, its structures, and its power” (p.52). All in all, students’ English competence can be strengthened by reading works of literature (Icoz, 1992). Once a book has been enjoyed and understood, speaking, reading, and writing opportunities can thus emerge. Children’s literature is the.

(29) 19. practice of all aspects of literacy (Smallwood, 1991). Motivation Promotion Apart from academic benefits, enjoyment is considered the first goal of reading picture books (Mitchell, 1998). “Picture books are a source of personal pleasure and aesthetic satisfaction for all ages” (Bishop & Hickman, 1992, p.4). Picture books have so many attractions over and above their uses in content subjects that they are popular with language learners. Nodelman (1996) pointed out that “pictures can help to understand words” but the greatest contribution that picture books make to children is the “pleasurable experiences” (p.218). Using both illustration and print, the attraction. 政治大. of picture books is doubled, and therefore, the feasibility of students’ understanding. 立. and enjoyment are enhanced. When reading the stories, students are first impressed. ‧ 國. 學. with the appealing pictures. To get more specific meanings for the picture, students. ‧. will get into the literacy world (context) and appreciate the beauty of the target. sit. y. Nat. language. Consequently, reading picture books can generate students’ pleasure: the. io. er. enjoyment of looking at pictures and reading words (Kathryn, et al., 2001).. al. The incorporation of picture books in a language classroom was recommended. n. iv n C by Danielson (1992). The appealing h e npictures i Ustudents more pleasure and provide g c hbring an easier way to understand the context. In particular, humorous touches in pictures inspire students’ reading interest and motivation. Ammon and Sherman (1996) recommended reading picture books especially to those who have low motivation. Picture books are more easily understood than textbooks because they are designed to be more interesting and relevant than textbooks. Reading appropriate picture books aloud can enhance students’ motivation to read. Cultural Awareness Inspiring It is never easy to reach mutual understanding and communication through.

(30) 20. language without cultural awareness. Without understanding the culture of the target language, learning of a language is incomplete (Stewart, 1982). Stories in children’s literature manifest various backgrounds, lifestyles, customs, beliefs, and values because the stories are written by authors with different backgrounds, possessing distinctive characters of many nationalities and ethnic groups (Glazer, 1997). Good children’s literature, as Norton (1995) noted, should demonstrate the contributions and values of the culture of the people. Reading children’s literature extensively enables students to engage with the cultural heritages of others. Students may develop a strong affinity toward their own culture and respect other cultures at the same time.. 政治大. According to Curtain and Pesola (1994), by using children’s literature in. 立. elementary foreign language instruction, students can perceive and experience the. ‧ 國. 學. culture of others and be motivated to learn the target language naturally. For example,. ‧. students can understand multicultural picture books using two perspectives: those of. sit. y. Nat. the text (content) and the related people (author and illustrator). By reading these. io. al. n. situations of the target language.. Ch. er. stories, students can have more opportunities to understand the cultural and social. i n U i eItnis gforcAllh Ages. v. Both young and old learners can benefit from appropriate picture books (Sharp, 1991). On the one hand, the charming illustrations and rhymes in picture books supply younger children with opportunities to learn the basic target language easily. On the other hand, sophisticated topics and literary works challenge older children to have more specific language learning. Although young children and older children value picture books for various reasons and at different levels of complexity, both of them love to read and share picture books. Hence, picture books are not just for little children or pre-readers (Laycock, 1998). For example, Kathryn et al., (2001) found.

(31) 21. that reading picture books in the secondary classroom could promote students’ motivation, lead to better understanding of concepts, and inspire aesthetic appreciation. Scharer, Peters and Lehman (1995) also considered picture books to be superior reading and teaching materials in middle and secondary classroom. Teachers can use good models and examples in the context to teach literacy elements, factual information, or writing structures. In recent years, many publishers have produced picture books dealing with topics that interest today’s high school students (Giorgis, 1999). The details and the subtleties of the illustrations in the picture books could attract older students and help. 政治大. them gain further knowledge of artistic style and content subjects. These books can. 立. contribute to older children’s artistic and literary backgrounds. For example, Owens. ‧ 國. 學. and Nowell (2001) indicated that picture books could be used for intermediate level. ‧. students to initiate a classroom discussion about how unexpected events in life. sit. y. Nat. happened and why some people found themselves in need of social services. All in all,. io. al. er. learners of different ages are fond of picture books so “the audience for picture books. n. is four, fourteen, or forty” (Bishop & Hickman, 1992, p.10).. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Pleasure Reading and Reading Comprehension Reading is a process concerned with the way the message is processed from the text into meanings. The reading process has to make sense of the text for a reader to comprehend it. Views of the reading process change with time; there are three important reading comprehension process models recognized by most researchers. They are the bottom-up, top-down, and interactive reading processes. Each reading model explains how a reader comprehends a text (Harris & Sipay, 1985). The bottom-up reading process regards all the written text as hierarchically.

(32) 22. organized from the small text units to larger meaning units, including grapho-phonemic, syllabic, morphemic words and sentence levels (Dechant, 1991). This model maintains that readers should learn to read by decoding the smallest components of language first, such as letters, vocabulary words, phrases, and then sentences and longer discourse (Nunan, 1991). That is, readers understand meanings in a serial style, from the smallest linguistic units upward, and then gradually accumulate them to comprehend the higher units. This bottom-up orientation has been widely used in lower-level linguistic structure in L2 learning (Day & Bamford, 2004; Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). According to Day and Bamford, the frequently used. 政治大. grammar-translation approach in EFL learning was related to this reading model.. 立. Teachers spent large amount of class time decoding passages by explaining each. ‧ 國. 學. sound, word, phrase, and sentence. Students were, left to practice mechanic data. ‧. processing, and the method neglected their prior knowledge or the mental processes. sit. y. Nat. and operated without any reader feedback (Eskey, 1973). This processing is viewed as. io. al. er. uni-directional, which implies no higher-level information. This may frustrate a reader. n. attempting to become fluent because this reading model underestimates the. i n C U contribution of readers (Smith, h 1971) engchi. v. In contrast with the bottom-up reading model, the top-down reading model regards reading as a beginning in readers’ minds with a hypothesis about the meaning of some units of the context. Readers recognize words to confirm their assumptions. This reading process is “a psycholinguistic guessing game, involving an interaction between thought and language” (Goodman, 1976, p.498). In the top-down reading model, readers construct the meaning of the text by a series of sampling, predicting, testing, and confirming processes. Readers also reconstruct the meaning of the context by relating what they read to their previous reading experience and knowledge of the.

(33) 23. language. Smith (1971) highlighted the importance of background knowledge and called it the “schema.” Unlike the bottom-up process with its emphasis on decoding of each word, the top-down process emphasizes the reconstruction of messages based on readers’ background knowledge. According to Hudson (1998), reading is “an active process in which the reader brings to bear not only knowledge of the language, but also internal concepts of how language is processed, past experiential background, and general conceptual background” (p.47). Activating readers’ background knowledge helps them holistically perceive the context and then comprehend it better. Although the top-down model has brought different insights to interpreting the. 政治大. reading process, it “fails to distinguish adequately between beginning readers and. 立. fluent readers” (Nunan, 1991, p.66). This model places too much on predicting the. ‧ 國. 學. meaning of the text through context clues and activation of background knowledge.. ‧. Its lack of emphasis on bottom-up processing does not promote accuracy (Eskey,. sit. y. Nat. 1993). This reading process is better for skilled or fluent readers. For beginners with. io. al. er. little background knowledge, Stanovich (1980) criticized, it was more time-consuming than decoding. Based on the above discussion, only bottom-up or. n. iv n C top-down reading model alone cannot h e nprocess i Ucontext effectively. Therefore, an g c h the interactive model is proposed to take the place of both models. There have been many researchers advocating that the reading comprehension process involve both an array of lower-level rapid, automatic identification skills (bottom-up) and an array of higher-level comprehension and interpretation skills (top-down process) (Barbara, 2002; Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983; Eskey, 1993; Stanovich, 1980). All of them considered the interactive reading model as a more accurate conceptualization of reading comprehension. Reading is not a one-way process, but a two-way process. On the one hand, readers predict the context with.

(34) 24. their background knowledge; on the other hand, they decode the language components with their linguistic knowledge. That is, both bottom-up and top-down models work simultaneously throughout the reading process to enable the reader to comprehend the context (Rumelhart, 1977). According to the interactive model theory, “good readers are both good decoders and good interpreters of texts, their decoding skills becoming more automatic but no less important as their reading skill develops” (Eskey, 1993, p.94). Barbara (2002) further proposed that employing a balanced and integrative reading process is the ultimate solution to become a proficient ESL/EFL reader. Pleasure reading is one of the best ways to practice interactive reading model.. 政治大. Automaticity of recognizing words and structures is a major attribute of L2 or. 立. EFL readers’ reading behavior (Adams, 1990). Automaticity of word recognition,. ‧ 國. 學. especially, is the key factor that leads to fluent reading. The only way to develop this. ‧. skill is through a massive amount of repetition. Pleasure reading provides learners. sit. y. Nat. opportunities for exposure in massive amounts to the target language, in which. io. al. er. learners can practice recognizing words automatically and decoding the context skillfully. This practice is a kind of bottom-up strategy. Nagy, Herman, and Anderson. n. iv n C U language through pleasure (1985) stressed that incidental contact h e nwith h itarget g cthe reading was a prime source of automaticity development for L2 or FL learners.. Accordingly, Stanovich (1980) proposed the interactive-compensatory model, which assumes that “a deficit in any knowledge results in a heavier reliance on other knowledge sources, regardless of their leveling the processing hierarchy” (p.35). This statement implies that a process at any level can compensate for deficiencies at any other level. For example, a reader with poor word recognition skills could compensate for them by counting on his background knowledge. This assumption seems to be consistent with the spirit of pleasure reading because a language learner can start to.

(35) 25. read for pleasure before fully mastering the target language. When reading for pleasure, learners first interpret the written text and then confirm their interpretation with their background knowledge. In order to make an interpretation, the “reader brings not only knowledge of the language, but also past experiential background, and general conceptual background” (Hudson, 1998, p.47). In short, when readers read their self-selected materials silently and independently for pleasure, they are carrying out the interactive process upward and downward simultaneously. Readers employ top-down and bottom-up models, which influence, supplement and support each other to lead to effective comprehension of. 政治大. the context. Based on this accurate reading model, pleasure reading can promote. 立. better reading comprehension. According to Krashen’s (1993) reports, pleasure. ‧ 國. 學. reading was effective for the development of reading proficiency. Many others like. ‧. Cho and Krashen (1994), Elly (1991), Elley and Mangubhai (1983), Hafiz and Tudor. sit. y. Nat. (1989), Janopoulos (1986), Lai (1993), Mason and Krashen (1997) all reported. io. al. er. favorably on the effect of pleasure reading on reading comprehension.. n. iv n C U Ability PleasurehReading e n g cand h iWriting. For a long time, English writing teachers have believed that writing ability is acquired from direct instructions and output practices (Krashen, 1993). However, formal written language differs from informal conversational language, which is too complex and difficult to be learned. Teachers in writing classes typically give students more drills and exercises. Nevertheless, such instruction with drills and exercises is only testing, and it does not work on developing writing ability (Krashen, 2004). Smith (1983) also indicated that gains in writing ability from direct instruction were limited and short-term and were shown on the test only. What learners have acquired.

(36) 26. from instruction is not really put into practice in their writings. This is because students can hardly write enough to account for the acquisition of complex writing conventions. Some evidence has been found to confirm that writing proficiency can be improved without formal instruction (Elley, 1991; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Gradman & Hanania, 1991). In these studies, students acquired their writing skills by means of the constant exposure to comprehensible reading input. In addition to direct instruction, more writing does not mean better writing either. Writing quantity is not related to writing quality. Burger (1989) and Mason (2003) concluded from their studies that extra writing class, including correction of. 政治大. students’ writing errors, helped students neither improve their writing quality nor gain. 立. better general English proficiency for the test. Manson also compared three different. ‧ 國. 學. activities of free voluntary reading among EFL college students in Japan. The result. ‧. showed that students who spent more time on writing short commentaries about their. sit. y. Nat. readings did not enjoy better language development or writing abilities. From the. io. al. er. study, she concluded that only output practice could not improve writing ability.. n. Instead, she supported that input (reading) was more effective than output (actual writing).. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. The hypothesis that writing ability comes not from writing but reading is consistent with language acquisition: “Language acquisition comes from input, not output, from comprehension, not production” (Krashen, 2004, p.136). With the basis of Input Hypothesis, it is reading that provides sufficient comprehensible input for readers. This sufficient comprehensible input enables learners to produce a meaningful written text with the previously acquired knowledge and newly available information (Krashen, 2004). When reading is pleasant, it promotes cognitive development and lowers writing apprehension. Krashen (2005) wrote an article about.

(37) 27. the importance of reading input for L2 writing ability. In the article, Krashen indicated that improvement of writing competence involves reading comprehensible input and a low affective filter. More reading can offer sufficient input and relevant background knowledge for writers to use in their writing. In the process of writing, learners need to activate, assimilate, and accommodate their own schemata to comprehend the texts and then to transform them from input into intake. Reading and writing were previously regarded as separate literacy skills: reading was considered as a receptive skill while writing a productive skill. In fact, reading and writing mutually reinforce each other in the process of literacy. 政治大. development. Both of them are concerned with meaning discovery using similar. 立. thought patterns (Horowitz, 1988; Janopoulos, 1986; Reid & Powers, 1993;. ‧ 國. 學. Rosenblatt, 1988). By reading the written language repeatedly, students can produce. ‧. their own works with appropriate words and sentences. Meanwhile, through the. sit. y. Nat. process of writing, students can explore the ways in which the author thinks. Students. io. al. er. can communicate their intended meaning to their reader. Reading and writing have echoed each other in literacy development, and there exists a close interdependent. n. iv n C relationship between the two, just h easnCobine i Up. 1) stated: “Writing is to reading g c h(1996, and waking is to sleeping, as giving is to receiving.” Stotsky (1983) examined this interdependent relationship, and results revealed that better readers tended to produce better writing and better writers tended to be better readers. Besides, many studies related to this close connection have confirmed that writing proficiency is positively influenced by reading in large amounts (Elley, 1991; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Hafiz & Tudor, 1989; Janopoulos, 1986; Lai, 1993; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Tsang, 1996). Writing compositions in a second or foreign language is an acknowledged difficulty for ESL or EFL learners at all levels. However, in view of comprehensible.

(38) 28. reading input for writing in L1 contexts, ESL and EFL researchers have tried to provide learners with a great number of varied materials to increase their writing ability (Elley, 1991; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Janopoulos, 1986; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Robb & Susser, 1989; Tsang, 1996). If learners are constantly exposed to comprehensible reading input, they are supposed to acquire complex writing mechanisms and then improve their writing ability. Krashen (1984) theorized that “if second language acquisition and the development of writing ability occur in the same way, writing ability is not learned but is acquired via extensive reading in which the focus of the reader is on the message, that is, reading for genuine interest and/or. 政治大. pleasure” (p.23). Studies of the reading hypothesis revealed that those less. 立. accomplished students wrote better than the comparison students did after in-school. ‧ 國. 學. free-reading programs using sustained silent reading (Krashen, 1993). This result. sit. y. Nat. instruction but from reading.. ‧. confirmed that the mastery of conventions of writing comes not from direct. io. al. er. From the discussion above, it may be concluded that more comprehensible reading input has greater effects on students’ writing development even without. n. iv n C U pleasure reading leads to less teachers’ instructions or more writing h e npractice. g c h iMore writing apprehension and fewer blocks while students develop their writing ability. Many studies have confirmed that after long-term pleasure reading, learners upgrade their general writing ability because they read more and read with a lower affective filter (Elley, 1991; Hafiz & Tudor, 1989; Janopoulous, 1986; Krashen, 1984; Mason & Krashen, 1997).. Pleasure Reading and Reading Motivation In the behavioristic view, motivation is the expectation of reward, a kind of.

(39) 29. external force. It is also the desire to get positive reinforcement. In the cognitive field, motivation is the choice people make and the degree of effort they put in to reach their goal. Motivation is driven by individual internal needs. From the constructivist perspective, motivation is viewed as both individual personal choice and interaction in social context (Brown, 2000). According to Brown, second language acquisition involves aspects of all the above three levels of motivation. Students are motivated to learn a foreign language because they perceive its reward and understand their needs, and they learn it in a social context that values literacy. Although the views of motivation differ, Dornyei’s (2001) definition of motivation is acceptable to most. 政治大. researchers. He stated, “Motivation is an abstract concept used to explain why people. 立. think and behave as they do” (p.1). He pointed out that motivation concerned human. ‧ 國. 學. behaviors, including the choices of a particular activity, the persistence with it, and the. ‧. effort expended on it.. sit. y. Nat. Motivation for reading explains the extent of the individual’s efforts and. io. al. er. persistence devoted to literacy activities. Since reading is a complicated process, factors affecting reading behaviors may differ from those affecting other learning. n. iv n C behaviors. For certain aspects ofhreading, i U resulting is unique to reading e n g the c hmotivation only. McCombs (1997) cited research evidence to prove the domain specificity of reading motivation. Motivation to read is both domain-specific and multidimensional. What may motivate a particular student to read is not necessarily what may motivate another student to read…Research on student shows that, across different students, when interest in reading particular materials is present, it increases attention, the use of effective learning strategies, and reading comprehension (p. 126)..