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Perceived Strategic Human Resource Development Activities and Barriers to Enhanced Performance of Public Sector Employees in Swaziland

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(1)Perceived Strategic Human Resource Development Activities and Barriers to Enhanced Performance of Public Sector Employees in Swaziland by Khangezile Hlengiwe Millicent Fakudze. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Shir-Tau Tsai, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan May, 2014.

(2) Perceived Strategic Human Resource Development Activities and Barriers to Enhanced Performance of Public Sector Employees in Swaziland by Khangezile Hlengiwe Millicent Fakudze. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Approved:. ____________________________ Dr. Shir-Tau Tsai Thesis Advisor. ____________________________ Dr. Larry Miller Committee Member. ____________________________ Dr. Vera Wei-Wen Chang Committee Member. ____________________________ Dr. Vera Wei-Wen Chang Director of the Graduate Program. Graduate Institute of International Human Resource Development National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan 29th May 2014.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is with a humble but grateful heart that I take this time to thank my heavenly Father, the Lord God Almighty, in His holy trinity, for the spiritual guidance, physical protection, and the blessing of life bestowed upon me.I am deeply humbled by the love, mercy and divine providence that enabled me to finish this Master’s degree program in good health.. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr Shir-Tau Tsai for his unfailing support and encouragement throughout the process of conducting the research and writing the final document. A word of gratitude also goes to Dr Chang, Director of the program, for her support and words of encouragement when it seemed like my academic life was hitting a dead end. To Dr Shih, Dr Lee, Dr. Lin, Dr. Yeh and Dr. Lai, I will forever be thankful for the knowledge that you have willingly imparted to me. A special word of gratitude goes to our Visiting Professor, Dr Larry Miller who, with his mentorship and advice I have been able to write what I would term as one of the best thesis I could have ever written. To the IHRD staff and ICDF program managers, thank you for taking care of my welfare.. To all my friends and work colleagues, I cannot mention you all by names, but I truly appreciate your support during this period. Special thank you to Rachel Chunga, my sister from another mother, I have witnessed the amazing love of God through your actions. I will forever be indebted to you. To my classmates, congratulations, together we made it. I pray that as we all go back to our countries, all our dreams are fulfilled and we can be the best in all our endeavors. To my family, I run short of words to thank you enough for all you have done for me. I thank you for believing in me and motivating to succeed. My daughters, I am indebted to you, special mention goes to my youngest daughter, Wenziweyinkosi. I can never repay you for all the time you spent without your mother, nor can I erase the suffering you have undergone as a result. My greatest wish is to provide for you all a better and bright future so that one day you will be independent and responsible citizens of the world. To my husband, Mxolisi Fakudze, I truly apologize for all the sacrifices you were forced to make, the pain and hurt my absence has put you through. I continually pray for your forgiveness.. May the Almighty God bless you all..

(4) ABSTRACT The pressure on governments to improve their performance has reached a new level of intensity, and calls for leaders to rise to the challenge to make improvements in public sector performance. Strategic human resource development (SHRD), with its focus on proactive change management, can help governments survive in an increasingly global, unstable, and competitive environment. Public sector employee performance has been a subject of interest for decades, yet, still remains critical to realizing optimum performance. Against such a background, improving public sector employee performance is no longer a choice but a fiscal reckoning. Market analysts have argued that 80% of the organization’s worth is contained in its human capital. The purpose of the research was to explore and describe the different SHRD activities while explaining and predicting the relationship between selected demographic characteristics and perceived barriers to enhanced performance. A comparative survey of the perceptions of both the supervisors and subordinates was conducted. The research took a quantitative approach, thus, data collection was through the use of a closed-ended questionnaire designed for both supervisors and employees in the Swaziland Civil Service. The questionnaire was reviewed by a panel experts and peers to ensure content validity. The SPSS program was used to analyse the data using correlation, regression, t-test, ANOVA and reliability analysis. The results were expected to provide a basis for enhancing public sector employee performance through the effective implementation of strategic human resource development strategies that will ensure the best use of Swaziland's human resource in a holistic manner. Key words: Public Sector Performance, Strategic Human Resource Development, Strategic Human Resource Management, Perceived Barriers.. I.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS. ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... II LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................................IV LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. V CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1 Background of the Study ........................................................................................................ 2 Research Purposes .................................................................................................................. 5 Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 5 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................................... 6 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................ 6. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................ 9 The Performance Crisis .......................................................................................................... 9 Public Sector Performance ................................................................................................... 10 Strategic Human Resource Development (SHRD) .............................................................. 12 Linking SHRD to Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) ................................. 15 Specific HR Strategies ......................................................................................................... 18 Selected HRD Strategies ...................................................................................................... 19 Performance Management Strategy (PMS).......................................................................... 22 Selected Demographic Characteristics ................................................................................. 22 Enhancing Employee Performance ...................................................................................... 24 Perceived Barriers to Enhanced Performance ...................................................................... 24 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 26. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS .................................................................... 29 Research Framework ............................................................................................................ 29 Research Approach .............................................................................................................. 30 Instrument for Data Collection ............................................................................................. 33. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................... 37 Demographic data of subjects .................................................................................................. 37 Descriptive statistics ................................................................................................................ 38. II.

(6) Supervisors and subordinates’ perceptions of SHRD activities .............................................. 38 Differences between the perceptions of female and male employees ..................................... 41 Perceived Barriers and Enhanced Performance ....................................................................... 45 Correlation Analysis ................................................................................................................ 46. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ........................................ 51 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 51 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 55 Suggestions .............................................................................................................................. 55. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 61 APPENDIX A: COVER LETTER ................................................................................. 65 APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE .............................................................................. 66 APPENDIX: C ITEMS CODING .................................................................................. 69. III.

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Randomly Selected Departments……………………………………………....30-31 Table 3.2 Reliability Statistics for Domains………………………………………………....32 Table 3.3 Coding Guide……………………………………………………………………...33 Table 4.1 Sample Characteristics Based on Demographic Variables………………………..35 Table 4.2 SHRD by Likert Scale, Mean and Standard Deviation……………………...…37-38 Table 4.3 Independent Samples Test for Sex………………………………………………..39 Table 4.4 Independent Samples Test of Marital Status……………………………………..39 Table 4.5 Independent Samples Test for Position…………………………………………...40 Table 4.6 ANOVA Test for Education……………………………………………….…..41-42 Table 4.7 Perceived Barriers and Performance, Mean and Standard Deviation…………….43 Table 4.8 Correlations among Variables…………………………………………….….……45 Table 4.9 Correlation, model summary………………………………………………………46 Table 4.10 Coefficients for SHRD Variables………………………………...………………46. IV.

(8) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 General Map of Swaziland……………………………………………………2 Figure 2.1 The Components of HRD……………………………………………………11 Figure 2.2 The HR Wheel…………………………………………………………….…14 Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework……………………………………………..………..27 Figure 3.2 Research Procedure…………………………………………………….…….34. V.

(9) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The question of public sector employee performance had been criticized for decades by many public officials, politicians, academics and civil society, yet, still remains critical even today. Lovegrove, Ulosevich & Warner (2010), reckoned that the concern about improving public sector performance is no longer a choice but a fiscal reckoning. Moreover, Brown (www.articlesalley.com), stated that the human resource is now considered the most important resource in organizations because of the costs attached to recruitment, selection and retention. Those conducting market research have estimated the total costs associated with human capital to comprise the larger share of the organisation’s worth. Consequently, organizations are now realizing that the human resource is indeed the most important asset and, therefore, concentrating efforts to develop them to their full potential for optimal performance and to enhance their competitive advantage. This chapter provides a background and setting of the research, statement the problem and purposes of the research, identifies the research questions to be addressed and highlights the significance of the research. The researcher, being a public sector employee as well, gained interest in the subject of employee performance. Therefore, the justification in conducting the study was to make comparisons among different demographic characteristics of the employees in the public sector to explore how the employee performance can be enhanced. Selected demographic characteristics were used to make the comparisons and following is a brief outline of why each characteristic was selected. According to reviews from previous research, there is a relationship between age and performance. While many researchers concluded that the average age of the employees in many organizations seemed to be going higher, the interest of the research was in exploring whether performance was higher for older or younger employees. Closely linked to the age characteristic were also the years of experience that the employees had served in the public sector (Maurer et.al, 2002). Many countries all over the world are preaching the gospel of gender equality. However, in most organizations, women are still side-lined when it comes to positions of authority because it is perceived that men perform better than women. Such gender bias may work against maintaining a motivated work force and lead to poor performance from the discriminated gender. The workplace gender equality agency in Australia 1.

(10) (www.wgea.gov.au) advocates for, among others, the removal of barriers to the full and equal participation of women in the workforce. Furthermore, the Australian agency advocates for the elimination of discrimination on the basis of gender particularly in relation to family and caring responsibilities for both women and men. The perceived barriers that may affect performance between married and single employees also need to be explored in order to design appropriate interventions to ensure enhanced performance (www.wgea.gov.au). The hierarchical nature of the Swaziland government means that progression is in an upward direction. Therefore, the relationship between higher level and lower level employees is that of supervisor subordinate. Exploring the perceptions to enhanced employee performance from both levels will help to provide human resource development professionals with an all-inclusive approach to the strategic human resource development activities pursued. In addition, the major activity in human resource development is to assess the need for, and provide training opportunities for employees to ensure enhanced performance. The review of the human resource function (2010) in the Swaziland government highlighted the need to ensure that the human resource is utilised in a holistic manner. Hence, educational level was also selected to be explored in the research.. Background of the Study In the business world, highly effective organizations have employees who are committed and make contributions to organizational success. Therefore, human resource development (HRD) professionals should provide activities that support organizational learning in order to establish performance expectations, address higher level problem solving skills, and account for outcomes. In this regard, strategic HRD involves long-term development of people within the organization that fosters continuous organizational effectiveness (Gilley & Maycunich, 2000).. Country Profile Swaziland is a small, landlocked country measuring 17,364 square kilometres. The population, as of July 2012, was estimated at approximately 1,386,914. The country’s labour force was estimated at 457,900 in 2007 and approximately 35, 000 are Public Sector employees (http://www.indexmundi.com). 2.

(11) Figure 1.1 General Map of Swaziland. Adopted from “Swaziland Country Strategy Paper, 2009-2013 Mid-term Review” 2011. Retrieved on June 10th 2013 from http://www.afdb.org For the Swazi government, strategic HRD means attaining effective development and utilization of human resources to improve performance. However, inculcating a performance and learning culture in the Civil Service of Swaziland has been a challenge. The continued need for individual and organizational development arises from the numerous demands for enhancing employee skills and knowledge while also increasing productivity. The continued need for individual and organizational development also arises from the need for improved. 3.

(12) performance of the public sector, as is the case in many developing countries (Review of the HRM Function in the Swaziland Civil Service, Final Report, 2010). The report continued to highlight that managing the public sector in Swaziland has increasingly become a challenging and demanding task. Just like many governments in the Southern African region and worldwide, Swaziland has been subjected to pressures to improve performance of the public sector. The pressures emanate from the deteriorating socio-economic conditions, declining quality of life, and continuing demands from the citizens, in spite of the diminishing resources. As specified in the Departmental goals and objectives of the Human Resource Development, in the Ministry of Public Service of the Swazi Government, the HRD function involves the process by which the knowledge, skills, attitudes and performance of employees are enhanced. However, of the many reports that have been produced regarding performance and reforms, none has specifically addressed how individual employee performance can be enhanced, especially through the various strategies in HRD (www.gov.sz). Research by Dainty (2000), suggested that it is important that human resource management have a way of tracking employee performance based on the objective of the organization and evaluate development of the employee competencies and skills. However, in Swaziland, while every effort has been tried to put in place training opportunities for all employees, linking the benefits of training and improved performance in a visible manner has been a challenge and performance as well as effectiveness still need to be increased. The public sector seems to be a training ground for the private sector as many employees have been lost to the latter after training. The Government in office during the period of 2008 to 2013 decried the absence of a monitoring and evaluation tool for the training department that provides a clear link between training and improved or enhanced performance. Therefore, even the appropriateness of the training programs cannot be measured to ensure that they indeed address the issue of performance improvement (Swaziland Government Programme of Action, 2009). Training has remained one of the most pervasive methods for enhancing the productivity of individuals and improving overall organizational performance. However, strategic human resource development (SHRD) planning purports to ensure that comprehensive organizational training can be achieved as well as individual employee development objectives. Furthermore, academic research suggests that a link exists between 4.

(13) strategic. human. resource. development. strategies. and. performance. improvement. (http://www.strategic-human-resource.com/).. Research Purposes The pressure on governments to improve their performance has reached a new level of intensity and, thus, calls for leaders to rise to the challenge to make improvements in public sector performance. SHRD, with its focus on proactive rather than reactive change management, can help organizations survive in an increasingly global, unstable, and competitive environment (Grieves, 2003). The leaders of government in Swaziland have also emphasized the need for competitive advantage and further declared this period as a business unusual phase. This, basically, highlights the leader’s commitment to improving performance and achieving government’s business goals in a competitive manner. However, no research has been conducted in relation to enhancing public sector employee performance, specifically informed by the perceptions of both supervisors and employees in Swaziland. The purpose of the research is to explore and describe the functions of strategic human resource development in relation to both supervisors and employees perceive SHRD activities. The research will also explain the relationship between selected demographic characteristics of employees in the public sector and the employees’ perceived barriers to enhanced performance. Therefore, a comparative survey will be conducted to ascertain the perceptions of both the supervisors and employees to barriers of enhanced employee performance in the public sector.. Research Questions While the study explores a variety of issues surrounding the topic of enhancing employee performance in the public sector, for purposes of guidance and clear direction three major research questions will be addressed by this survey. 1. What are the supervisors and employees’ perceptions of SHRD activities? 2. Do significant differences exist between the perceptions of female and male employees on the strategic human resource development activities? 3. Do significant differences exist between the perceptions of married and single employees on the strategic human resource development activities?. 5.

(14) 4. What are the differences between perceptions of supervisors and subordinates on strategic human resource development activities? 5. Are there significant differences on the perceptions of employees with different educational levels? 6. What are the perceived barriers to enhanced employee performance?. Significance of the Study By providing a comparative analysis of what the supervisors and subordinates perceive to be the barriers to improved performance, the research will recommend measures that can be adopted in order to remove them and enhance public sector employee performance. The research will serve as a foundation to making recommendations regarding interventions that can accelerate economic growth and development through improved performance of public sector employees. The comparisons between supervisors’ and subordinates’ perceptions will also help to establish how to maximise the potential of public sector employees, capitalising on knowledge and performance, to gain competitiveness and effectiveness. Definition of Terms Employee Performance: The activities related to an employees’ job and how well they are executed in an organization involving all aspects that directly or indirectly affect and relate to their work (Schwab & Cummings, http://amr.aom.org). Strategic Human Resource Development: Emerging from training and development to a sophisticated academic discipline and field of practice centred on learning and performance in organizations. HRD is the process of developing and unleashing human expertise through organization development and personnel training and development for the purpose of improving performance (Yorks, 2005). Strategic Human Resource Management: HRM is defined as the effective selection and utilization of employees to best achieve the goals and strategies of an organization, as well as the goals and needs of employees (DeSimone & Werner,2012). Perceptions: Predispositions to behave toward a person or object. Operationally defined for this study as subjects’ responses to statements.. 6.

(15) Performance Barriers: A barrier can be defined as anything, whether material or immaterial, that hinders performance and prevents the achievement of the organizations’ strategic goals and objectives (Eaton, 2008). Perfomance Management: Performance Management is a continuous process of identifying, measuring and developing the performance of individuals and teams and aligning performance with the strategic goals of the organization (Aguinis, 2013). Strategy: Strategy is the direction and scope of an organisation over the long-term: which achieves advantage for the organisation through its configuration of resources within a challenging environment, to meet the needs of markets and to fulfil stakeholder expectations (Riley, 2012).. 7.

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(17) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter consists of the review of literature on research and writings that are relevant to the topic. The last section is a summary, synthesizing the researcher’s findings based on the literature reviewed.. The Performance Crisis According to Connellan (1978), today’s organizations face a performance crisis, a problem of increasing magnitude. As a result, managers are now considering ways to best utilize the human resources of the organization. Managers also realise that if an organization is to maintain or improve overall performance, then the performance of the people within the organization must be the first to improve. Chapter one has already alluded to the fact that all senior managers are now talking the buzz language of “our people are our greatest asset” and “maintaining competitive advantage” in realising their organization’s goals. As a result of the paradigm shift in the priority list of organizational assets, focus is now more than ever on how to develop this HR asset to optimise performance. Connellan (1978), further highlighted the paradigm shift when he noted that the majority of organizational problems are related to human performance. Yet, more attention and resources seem to have been directed toward solving technical and logistic problems. Consequently, the study sought to explain and predict perceived barriers to enhancing employee performance. In particular, the study intends to provide a comparative analysis of the perceptions of the human resource (supervisor and employees) to improved performance. The review of literature is aimed at describing public sector performance and the strategies of HRD that can be applied to enhance performance. Research has observed that today’s organizations are no longer satisfied with their employees merely performing their duties diligently and faithfully on a daily basis. Most organizations require their employees to be committed toward achieving organizational objectives and working as part of highly effective teams, thus performing at their peak levels (Coetzee, 2005).. 9.

(18) Public Sector Performance According to Van Thiel (2002), of late, more attention, time, and money are being spent on performance measurement and evaluation in the public sector than ever before. Seemingly, all levels of the public sector agree on the issue of performance measurement and evaluation. The different levels of the public sector include schools and universities, local governments, and other administrative agencies regarding the issue of performance, its effects and influence in shaping any country’s economy. Consequently, measuring output, outcomes, and evaluation of activities are now important elements in statements by politicians and administrators who are concerned about improving government’s performance. However, many reasons can necessitate the need to improve public sector performance. The reasons are in response to various changes, new advancements and, most importantly, staying abreast in terms of competitiveness. Blaine and Harshak (2003), noted that in today’s economic environment, achieving heightened performance and efficiency are more important than ever to improve competitiveness, deliver better service, and reduce costs. Public sector performance has been a focus of researchers for many years. The reason behind this is the difference of efficiency level between private and public sector organizations. Ali (2011), argues that it is necessary to distinguish between two types of performance; 1. Standard performance is the typical level of output an individual delivers in the normal course of fulfilling a role. This level of performance is influenced by the hygiene factors, which do not drive productivity but whose absence (or negative perception) can destroy motivation. 2. Elevated performance is derived from an individual exerting discretionary effort and “going the extra mile” because of their commitment to the team/organisation and its mission and objectives. Research by Fernandez & Moldogaziev (2011), pointed out the fact that, clearly, organisations would prefer that their employees deliver elevated performance in order for the organization to be at a competitive advantage. For more than a decade, public organizations have been adopting employee empowerment with the aim of improving performance and job satisfaction and promoting innovativeness.. 10.

(19) The performance paradigm of human resource development (HRD) practice has served the field well, particularly in enhancing the relevance and impact of HRD interventions as noted by Holton III & Yamkovenko (2008). Nonetheless, some very important questions still need to be addressed regarding public sector performance. The questions include issues such as whether delivery of public services is improving or not. Also arising is a quest to compare performance in similar public sector bodies as well as enquiring if performance targets are being met. Other questions that still require answers are surrounding the issue of resource allocation as well as the sustainability of the operations of public sector bodies (Byrne, 2012). Governments of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries are under pressure to improve public sector performance and at the same time control their spending. Meanwhile, no blueprint has been developed for enhancing public sector productivity, OECD countries have adopted diverse approaches to reforming key institutional arrangements. Empirical evidence is said to have, among other institutional factors, suggested appropriate human resource management practices as a means to improve public sector performance (Curristine, Lonti and Joumard: OECD, 2007). Employee empowerment has been flaunted as a management approach that enables businesses to increase competiveness, innovativeness, and responsiveness to customers. In the public sector, empowerment is similarly viewed as a means for improving the quality of public services and unleashing the creative talents of public employees. Furthermore, Fernandez & Moldogaziev (2011), highlighted that empirical findings indicate that simultaneously sharing power, information, resources, and rewards with employees improves effectiveness and productivity, organizational commitment and job involvement. Only a handful of empirical studies have examined the consequences of employee empowerment in the public sector. The same authors further propose a model of perceived performance that is tested. Perceived performance is an end result of a combination of factors, being practice, sufficient resources, knowledge sharing, cooperation at work, physical conditions, organizational rating, supervisory status, location, minority and age. Within the Swazi government, under the Ministry of Public Service, one of the many objectives of the HR Department is to stimulate employees so as to enhance performance and productivity. Therefore, enhancing performance calls for an understanding of the employees’ perceptions of barriers prohibiting their optimum performance (www.gov.sz). 11.

(20) Strategic Human Resource Development (SHRD) By definition, Strategic Human Resource Development (SHRD) refers to the strategic management of training, development and management/ professional education interventions, so as to achieve the objectives of the organisation while at the same time ensuring the full utilisation of the knowledge in detail and skills of individual employees. SHRD is concerned with the management of employee learning for the long term, keeping in mind the explicit corporate and business strategies (McCracken & Wallace, 2000). Other authors claim that “strategic human resource development” is difficult to accept, choosing the “softer” expressions such as “employee development”, or “training and development”. However, the phrase now has considerable international currency and is used widely in the Human Resource Development (HRD) literature to mean the planned learning and development of people as individuals and as groups to the benefit of the business as well as themselves (Garavan, Costine & Heraty, 1995). SHRD has received increasing research attention in recent years and this concept has been examined at multiple levels including individual, organizational and national. SHRD can provide a useful framework for leadership in designing HRD interventions that will ultimately contribute to the improvement of performance in the public sector (McGuire, David & Watson, 2007). SHRD focuses on incorporating HRD activities within organizational goals and values to develop core capabilities that enhance firm competitive advantage. When HRD does not have a strategic role to play in the organization, HRD professionals’ knowledge of learning and performance may not be capitalized on; individual and collective learning may be difficult to achieve (Garavan, 1991). Discovering the relationship between HRD and SHRD develops a curiosity over what the difference between the two is. The first person to have defined HRD described HRD as organized learning experiences in a definite time period that lead to an increased possibility of improving job performance growth (Yorks, 2005). Authors define HRD as the framework for assisting employees develop their personal and organizational skills, knowledge, and abilities. HRD includes such opportunities as employee training,. employee. career development,. performance. management. and. development, coaching, mentoring, succession planning, key employee identification, tuition 12.

(21) assistance, and organization development. A growing body of literature is available on the emergence and growth of human resource development (HRD) and in particular HRD with a strategic focus. HRD is seen as a way of forging a relationship between human resources and strategy (Heathfield, http://humanresources.about.com). Nadler and Nadler (1989), define HRD as organized learning experiences provided by the employer, in a specified period of time for the purpose of increasing job performance and providing growth for individuals. Human resources development is a continuing process comprising three interdependent components: 1. Investment in human resources to enhance productive capabilities. 2. Utilisation of those human resources to produce increased output. 3. Participation of the human beings who have improved resources (better education, better skills levels etc.) Investment in Human Resources. Utilisation of human resources to increase output. Enhancement of productive capabilities. Figure 2.1 The Components of HRD. Adopted from Developing Human Resources. Nadler & Nadler (1989). Copyright 1993 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Sustainable human resources development must involve all three components, as illustrated in the diagram. Effective organizations have employees who are committed and make contributions to organizational success (Marsick & Watkins,1999). Hale (1991), pointed out that human resource development (HRD) professionals support organizational learning in order to establish performance expectations, address higher-level problem-solving skills, and account for societal outcomes. Thus, strategic HRD involves long-term development of people within the organization that fosters continuous organizational effectiveness. Strategic HRD can be viewed as a proactive, system-wide intervention, with it linked to strategic planning and cultural change. This contrasts with the traditional view of training and development as consisting of reactive, piecemeal interventions in response to specific 13.

(22) problems. HRD can only be strategic if it is incorporated into the overall corporate business strategy (Gilley & Maycunich, 2000). The traditional view discussed above is true for the public sector, especially in the government system of Swaziland. However, after the global recession of 2008, governments are committed to providing proactive solutions to challenges. However, successful change evolves not just from a “top-down” approach, but also from a “bottom-up” approach that takes into account the perceptions of the barriers that supervisors and employees encounter in their everyday work life. SHRD is concerned with the management of employee learning for the long term, keeping in mind the explicit corporate and business strategies. Garavan (1991), states that when we say "strategic" we are referring to the effectiveness of the training and development programs in improving the ability of employees to perform their jobs well, thus, increasing productivity. The better they perform their jobs the higher the organization's productivity. Garavan (1991), further highlights that Strategic Human Resource Development also means identifying and preparing capable employees to take up more responsible positions whether fairly soon or in the near future. Employees so identified are provided with adequate training of the right type. Specific reasons have been identified as the main motivating factors for the increased interest in developing the human resource to create and maintain competitive advantage. The critical areas, according to Carbery & Garavan (1995),are to be taken into consideration by organizations as they face the future. Technology is advancing at a frenetic pace, especially in relation to the transfer and accessibility of information and the increasing ease of establishing communication networking facilities. The continuing removal of trade barriers and tariffs, the consequent globalization of markets, the volatility of consumer demand within existing markets, currency fluctuations and political upheaval are by now familiar characteristics of an environment where all is flux. The capability of people to cope and manage within such an environment is a vital element in the success of any business and ultimately a determinant in national economic performance. The new business context is prompting senior management to take a greater interest in the development of their organizations’ human resources. The interest is not only in the private sector but also to the public sector as the focus has shifted from mere service delivery to include business orientation in government 14.

(23) operations. In research by Shanahan et.al (1995), some triggers that have generated the increased interest in developing human resources are further explained. 1. Difficulties in recruiting skilled, competent managers 2. The need to develop a more flexible and adaptable skill base 3. A demand for leadership and team building skills at all operational and administrative levels 4. A requirement for all organizational functions to adopt a strategic focus 5. The need to integrate the potential of all employees with business objectives 6. A greater emphasis on performance evaluation and management 7. The increasing necessity for human resource and succession planning. Informed by the foregoing discussion of what entails SHRD, the discussion also suffices to point out that HR practitioners therefore, need to identify and address the perceived barriers to enhanced performance so that they can be successful in implementing the various functions of SHRD aimed at removing the barriers thus, enhancing performance.. Linking SHRD to Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) Within most formulations of human resource management (HRM), training and employee development represented the vital if not the pivotal component. Researchers argued that the cases for strategic approaches to training and development are easily made if human resource management is to have significant meaning (Garavan, 2007). A study by McLagan (1989), developed an HR Wheel that demonstrates the link between the primary functions of HRM and HRD. The HR wheel helps to understand how the functions of HRD and HRM are intertwined to ensure individual and organizational development.. 15.

(24) Figure 2.2The HR Wheel. Adapted from Human Resource Development, DeSimone & Werner (2012). Copyright 2012 by Cengage Learning. HRM can be regarded as a general approach to the strategic management of human resources in accordance with the intentions of the organization on the future direction it wants to take. HRM can also be defined as all those activities affecting the behaviour of individuals in their efforts to formulate and implement the strategic needs of business (Abu Qayyas, 2007). The business dictionary defines strategic human resource management (SHRM) as proactive management of the employees of a company or organization. SHRM includes typical human resource components such as hiring, discipline, and payroll, and also involves working with employees in a collaborative manner to boost retention, improve the quality of the work experience, and maximize the mutual benefit of employment for both the employee and the employer (www.businessdictionary.com). SHRM is also an approach to making decisions on the intentions and plans of the organization concerning the employment relationship and its recruitment, training, development, performance management, reward and employee relations strategies, policies and practices. The key characteristic of strategic HRM is that it is integrated. SHRM further refers to the overall direction the organization wishes to pursue in order to achieve its goals through people. Authors argued that, because intellectual capital is a major source of competitive advantage, and in the last analysis it is people who implement the strategic plan, 16.

(25) top management must take these key considerations fully into account in developing its corporate strategies (Leolingham, 2000). The focus of both SHRD and SHRM is becoming more clear and evident as relating to both performance and competitiveness of the organization. Five approaches to strategic HRM are identified which include the resource-based strategy and achieving strategic fit. Another approach focuses on high-performance management as well as high- commitment management. The fifth approach emphasizes high-involvement management (Raghunath, http://humanresourceinfo.com). The rationale for strategic HRM is the perceived advantage of having an agreed and understood basis for developing approaches to people management in the longer term. Underlying this rationale to removing perceived barriers to enhanced performance supplies a perspective of inclusive identification of the critical issues to ensure success factors related to people can be addressed (Leolingham, 2000).. Linking Performance Improvement and SHRD Several authors have attempted to provide a clear link between the concept of improving performance, either individual or organizational, with strategic human resource development. In their research, DeSimone & Werner (2012), stated that performance management (as one of the SHRD strategies) is a continuous process of improving performance. Moreover, in trying to understand the link between performance improvement and SHRD, to acknowledge the relationship between individual and organizational performance is also important. The two cannot be considered in isolation, as Swanson & Arnold (1996), would argue that HRD should focus on increasing performance of the organization which basically refers productivity of the people within the organization. The preceding argument, therefore, highlights the fact that today’s organizations which are less hierarchical and more service-oriented, will pay attention to how well their employees perform (Robbins & Judge, 2013). Moreover, HR practitioners are potentially able to make an organization more productive by closing the human performance gaps between exemplary performance and typical performance (Gu Lee, Park & Yang, 2010).. 17.

(26) In the same manner that individual and organizational performance is considered, the same applies for Human Resource Development and Human Resource Management. The former is a subset of the latter. Hence, Cooke (2000), noted that a variety of predominant theories that attempt to provide a link between HRM and performance are centred on the types of strategies that have been identified to lead to superior performance. To strengthen the argument of the link between performance improvement and SHRD, Cooke (2000), focused on three causal routes in HRM that can be used as a basis for determining good or high performance. These routes relate to the specific SHRD strategies discussed earlier. 1.. Increasing employee skills and abilities (systematic training & learning strategy). 2.. Promoting positive attitudes and increasing innovation (culture building &. communication strategy) 3.. Providing employees with expanded responsibilities so that they can make full use of. their skills and abilities (accountability, ownership & performance management strategy). Specific HR Strategies A number of strategies are identified in literature, which set out what an organization intends to do in certain areas of the HR function. A study by Bersin (2006), identified talent management as the most important buzzword in the field of corporate human resources and training today. Talent management refers to the continuous and integrated process for recruiting, training, managing, supporting, and compensating the employees in an organization. The question of how the organization intends to win the war for talent in the market is set out in talent management. Continuous improvement provides a focused and continuous incremental innovation that can be sustained over a period of time. Wheatley (Cornell University), emphasized that continuous improvement provides a synergy and power that results from aligning purpose, people and values in an organization. Knowledge management on the other hand is concerned with the creation, acquisition, capture, sharing and utilising knowledge to enhance learning and performance. Newman (1991), also defined knowledge management as the collection of processes that govern the creation, dissemination, and utilization of knowledge. 18.

(27) Popularly referred to as recruitment and selection, resourcing is about attracting and retaining high-quality people. According to Price (www.hrmguide.co.uk), resourcing allows management to determine and gradually modify the behavioural characteristics and competences of the workforce. Providing an environment in which employees are encouraged to learn and develop to increase their knowledge base is also an important strategy, known as learning and developing. Closely related and sometimes mistaken for training, learning and developing focuses on the individual employee’s need for career growth within the organization. Reward defines what the organization intends to do in the longer term to develop and implement reward policies, practices and processes that will further the achievement of its business goals and meet the needs of its stakeholders. Compensation policies that clearly outline the rewards are encouraged in order to motivate employee performance. The last strategy identifies employee relations as another important strategy that HR practitioners need to define in order to outline the intentions of the organization regarding how the work environment can be made conducive to enhance performance. The strategy identifies what needs to be changed in the ways in which the organization manages its relationships with employees and their trade unions (Raghunath, humanresourceinfo.com).. Selected HRD Strategies Gilley & Maycunich (2002), provided a valuable framework to help in understanding the various domains of SHRD. Among these domains is organizational performance which emphasizes efficiency and performance improvement. Typical activities may include skills training, job analysis and competency modelling, management and leadership development.. Communication strategy In today’s changing scenario, it is essential to educate and train employees about the change. Communication becomes vital to keep the employees informed by developing policies that support clear and transparent communication. Awareness by all employees builds trust and confidence, thus improved performance (http://www.strategic-humanresource.com, 2008).. 19.

(28) Effective HR communication contributes to learning, teamwork, safety, innovation and improved productivity across the organization. Communication also plays an important part in reducing employee turnover and customer turnover (http://www.snapcomms.com).. Accountability & ownership strategy Employees’ accountability and ownership leads to higher productivity and customer acceleration. Every employee in an organization should own at least part of the system since everyone has a responsibility to contribute to the system. Therefore, the system is owned by everyone who contributes to it either by assignment or design. Having been assigned or designed means there is a responsibility to be accountable to management. This basically means every employee will be judged on how well or effectively they carried out the duties for which they were responsible (https://www.rit.edu).. Quality strategy A study by McAdam, Reid & Saulters (2002), revealed that public sector organizations demonstrated an improved performance when quality frameworks were put in place. The quality strategy, therefore, needs to be fostered in the employees through training and development. Mazen & Kayaly (http://unpan1.un.org), observe that organizations and companies succeed, or fail, based on the quality and effectiveness of their employees.. Entrepreneurship strategy Harit (2013), noted that every employee needs to be an independent entrepreneur, who can generate ideas and bring them to reality by using the existing resources and support of the organization to create innovative and creative products and services. Furthermore, entrepreneurship appears to be a strategy that is more likely to be used when the environmental turbulence facing an organization is high and when incremental adaptation is not a viable option because the organization becomes less integrated (Grieves, 2003).. Culture building strategy Robbins & Judge (2011), defined organizational culture is a system of shared meaning held by the members of an organization, that distinguishes them from other organizations. Organizations that value its employees have a sustainable competitive advantage because employees are highly charged, motivated and committed to the 20.

(29) organization. An organization’s culture provides direction concerning the development of integrated and coherent SHRD systems. Truss & Gratton (1994), also defined cultural alignment as the extent to which SHRD contributes to an organizational culture and supports organizational strategies, goals and objectives. Many organizations have a set of values, sometimes these are stated sometimes they are not. Culture is the basic framework of values which guide the actions in an organization. Thus, organizations have to identify the values which reflect and form the framework of these values, resulting in the culture of the organization (Dewar & Whittington, slideshare.net).. Systematic training strategy The planning and organization of formal on-job training and off-job training leads to improving vital employee characteristics, build and sustain appropriate work culture and brings in more professionalism in action. Sloman (1999), observed that training was a key component in achieving empowerment of the individual and in maintaining focus on the customer in order to remain competitive. As the workforce becomes more skilled, the visions of the organization can be more ambitious because the full potential of the people is released into an environment of achievement.. Learning strategy Learning puts a lot more emphasis on the individual being responsible for own selfdirected learning and development. Continuous development and learning environments promote self-development of employees of self and by self (Koster, 2002). The continued need for individual and organizational development arises from the numerous demands for enhancing employee skills and knowledge whilst also increasing productivity. In the Swazi government, training is undertaken to ensure the best use of the country's human resource in a holistic manner through Human Resource and Development. Training, determined by way of a training needs analysis (TNA), is required to equip employees with new skills and provide them with enhanced knowledge having relevance to their jobs. Training also helps to develop a workforce that can perform higher-grade assignment, increase efficiency, effectiveness and standards of performance by the employee (Dinker, 2012).. 21.

(30) Performance Management Strategy (PMS) A correlation exists between strategic performance management and strategic human resource development. By giving the right training and development, HR practitioners expect improvement in performance by both employees and the organization. HR practitioners will revisit training of employees whenever necessary. When there is performance improvement, the organization is well on the road toward higher productivity (http://www.strategic-humanresource.com). The Swazi Performance Management System has been developed as a cascade of processes starting from the development and identification of the Ministry/Departmental strategic objectives to the identification of individual job objectives within the Department or Unit. This PMS is to ensure that managers and supervisors know whether the performance of the employees is delivering the required objectives. PMS will also ensure that poor performance is identified and managed and good performance recognised and rewarded (Review of the HRM Function in the Swaziland Civil Service, Final Report, 2010). A study by Dainty (2000), suggested that the human resource management should have a way of tracking employee performance based on objective of the organisation and evaluate development of the employee competencies and skills. As the performance management system is developed and implemented, HR practitioners should also realize that their role is also increased, so does their capabilities. In addition, Bednarz (2013), suggested that management and supervisors should equally understand the essence of true leadership that ensures removal of barriers to performance through proactiveness and interaction.. Selected Demographic Characteristics A variety of demographic characteristics can be investigated in any research. However, for purposes of this research, only a selection of demographic characteristics of the selected population will be examined.. Age Today’s organizations comprise of an inter-generational mix within the workforce. Therefore, age becomes an important factor to consider in an attempt to explain and predict whether younger employees’ perceptions to barriers will differ from those of older employees or not. Regulations that govern employment state that it is unlawful to afford preferential or less favourable treatment to any employee based on their age. However, some consideration 22.

(31) needs to be given to the generational gap so as to be prepared for potential communication problems based on experience and prejudicial treatment (www.http://en.wikibooks.org).. Educational Level The educational level of the selected participants for the survey was selected as another important demographic characteristic. According to Bersin (2006), organizations today are more concerned about attracting, recruiting and selecting highly qualified employees who have exceptional capabilities. Moreover, talent management as previously defined, ensures that an organization has the right people on the right job at the right time.. Marital Status Providing a work-life balance is an emerging challenge for HR professionals. Married employees generally tend to have more family commitments than single employees. These are factors outside the work place that can have a negative effect on the performance of employees and it is important to create processes that can be easy to adapt when external factors begin to impact on individual performance. Research shows a positive relationship between flexible work arrangements and productivity (Sullivan, 2011).. Position The main focus of the study is to conduct a comparative survey of the perceptions of barriers to enhanced performance between employees and supervisors. Therefore, including the positions of the participants as one of the selected demographic characteristics is important because it will enable a clear distinction between the two for data analysis. Robbins & Judge (2013), observed that in group assignments or team work, status inequities may create frustration among employees, thus adversely affecting performance. Junior employees may be demotivated and reduce participation when teamed with higher level employees.. Sex The argument of whether male employees perform better than females is still an interesting topic. As such, the researcher would like to explore this demographic characteristic to explain and predict if male employees’ perceptions are different from or the same as females’ perceptions to enhanced performance. Harold & Vincent (2012), noted that. 23.

(32) communication styles and perceptions as well as opportunities for sexual harassment can affect team interactions, thus, hindering performance.. Years of Experience Closely related to the characteristic of age is the characteristic of the number of years that the selected participants have worked in the Swazi government. Similarly, communication and interactions between experienced and relatively new employees can be a challenge that could adversely affect performance. Therefore, HR practitioners need to be conscious of these in order to create a safe, positive and conducive environment that fosters acceptance and respect (Harold & Vincent, 2012).. Enhancing Employee Performance Every manager, no matter what his or her role, knows that exceptional employee performance is critical in today's world (Ripley, 1999). Moreover, managers face an awesome challenge in this competitive and constantly changing environment An organization’s viability is directly related to the performance of its employees. A well-managed organization has an effective performance management system that aligns individual performance goals with the organization’s mission and vision. A comprehensive performance management system will link an employee’s performance to compensation, promotion opportunities, training and development as well as discipline. Canadian Professional Management Services (2013), employees must share in identifying the skills and knowledge needed and in developing appropriate methods to ameliorate shortcomings.. Perceived Barriers to Enhanced Performance Whether the concern is quality, customer focus, productivity, cycle time or cost, the underlying issue is performance. In the opinion of Rummler & Brache (1995), most managers’ attempts to respond to the challenges of performance have been futile because they have failed to create an infrastructure for systematic and continuous improvement of performance. The majority of managers apparently do not understand the different factors affecting employee performance, or rather barriers to performance. Since the focus of the study is on enhancing employee performance in the public sector, providing a comparative analysis of the perceived barriers to enhanced performance from both the viewpoints of the supervisors and subordinates is imperative. The question that 24.

(33) lingers in the mind now is “what is perception and how does it relate to barriers to enhanced performance?” Perception, by definition is a predisposition to behave and relates to the way a person sees and hears things thus becoming aware of their surrounding environment through the five senses. In addition, perception is the way that a person understands and interprets things (Cherry, http://psychology.about.com). Perceptions will enable both supervisors and employees to identify barriers that affect the employees’ ability to perform. Typically, research notes that as much as 80% of all performance barriers are the result of external factors beyond the employee’s control. The supervisor and the organization should, therefore, seek to identify and implement solutions to these barriers in order to improve employee performance (http://hra.iupui.edu/). Employees want their employees to think like entrepreneurs as they work in teams to prove their worth. However, employees have their own expectations from their supervisors that would make them perform at their best. For example, public sector employees expect their supervisors to provide a good working environment, equal opportunities for professional and academic development as well as work-life balance (Coetzee, 2005). Harold & Vincent (2012), observed that most managers lack diversity management skills that would ensure that individual similarities and differences are valued. Such presents a barrier when it comes to performance because the employees are not part of a shared organizational culture that would create and maintain a positive work environment conducive for optimal performance. Barriers to performance are often ignored and not addressed, yet, they are visible to every employee in the organization. Such barriers according to Below (2012), include organizational strategy that is not clear, conflicting priorities from management and supervisors, ineffective senior team, unknown norms and values. Furthermore, issues such as inadequate leadership and management skills, lack of development opportunities and poor communication can lead to poor performance. Further research on performance barriers has stated that 20% of potential performance barriers are internal, within the employee’s direct control.. 25.

(34) Summary The review of literature has uncovered a lot of positive relationships and links between employee performance and strategic human resource development. Therefore, SHRD must be seen as a proactive as opposed to a reactive activity. Some of the most important triggers that have been discussed are summarized below in relation to the public sector in Swaziland. The triggers are among the significant forces which are underpinning the promotion of SHRD in more and more organizations. As an essential part in the machinery of managing organizations, the HRD function is being looked at to provide effective solutions to many business problems. The following are some of the issues that drive the researcher’s interest in the context of the Swazi public sector regarding enhanced performance of public sector employees. The drive for quality: public pressures for higher quality design and delivery of service, knowing how to deliver what the public wants. Taking from the Swazi Government’s Programme of Action (2009), the term “business unusual” was adopted as the keynote of the Administration. This stands for the re-engineering of the usual manner of carrying out Government business into a more efficient form of service delivery. Thus, the quality of service delivery of this Administration shall remain of paramount importance throughout. New competitive arrangements: changes in regulatory contexts such as privatization, deregulation, conversion to agency status, increase in strategic alliance and joint venture arrangements (PPP’s), increasing number of acquisitions, mergers, takeovers and diversifications. To this end, the Swazi Government remains committed to open and competitive economy in which the private sector will be the power house in achieving growth in an increasingly conducive environment. Furthermore, alternative forms of delivery, mainly outsourcing to the private sector, are being considered, where Government will be assured of improved service standards. More flexible and responsive organization: decentralization, short term performance improvement pressures, moving from bureaucracies to “adhocracies”. According to the Programme of Action (2009), while the decentralisation to regional offices has been implemented for numerous Government services, the need to introduce with some urgency a further deconcentration of services from regions to communities is vital. By providing easier access to services Government will be reducing the cost to those users.. 26.

(35) Supply of resources: demographic pressures reducing the supply of human resources, limited mobility of staff, educational provision unable to match organizational demand, growth of the “me” culture with demand for individual development. Ministry of Public Service, Strategic Plan (2009). The need to address the supply of resources is also emphasized in the Ministerial portfolio responsibility of Performance Monitoring and Productivity Improvement in the Public Service. Public sector management: in addition to seeking excellence, the Swazi Government seeks to have a well-managed public service. Civil servants are expected to be committed to the work and extensive training will be provided for performance improvement to be embraced. within. a. Government-wide. performance. management. system. (Cabinet. Performance Report, 2013). Strategic HRD is, therefore, the key to improved business performance because it not only coordinates the activities of the HR function but also aligns it with the organization’s business strategy to ensure competitiveness. HRD encompasses the broad set of activities that can improve the performance of the individual. Informed by the foregoing review of related literature on SHRD, it therefore, suffices to highlight the following strategies as being the key to improved performance not only within the public sector but in every work environment, private and business. These are the communication strategy, systematic training strategy, learning and development strategy, quality, accountability and ownership as well as the performance management strategies. Several scholars have contributed to the emergence of a strategic perspective on HRD. A majority of them agree that SHRD when considered at multiple levels of analysis and combinations of SHRD practices, rather than single, isolated practices, can make an impact on organizational performance and competitive advantage. Undeniably, enhancing employee performance can be a daunting task because a one size fits all solution does not exist. Informed by the review of literature, the remaining 20% of potential performance barriers are said to be within the employees’ control.. 27.

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(37) CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS This chapter covers the methods that were used in conducting the research. The chapter begins by describing the conceptual framework for the study and a description of the research approach. The population for the survey is also identified as well as how the sample of participants was selected. The instrument for data collection is described, including what procedures were undertaken to ensure content validity and internal consistency reliability of the research. The chapter also describes how the data was analysed. Finally the research procedure is outlined to describe the flow of activities for the research.. Research Framework Research framework outlined the collection of items to ask and things to observe in particular contexts, along with contextually appropriate techniques for doing so. Research framework also included processes for integrating research or data from other practice areas as well as specific methodologies for making meaning of the raw research (Fischler, 1981). Another definition noted that the research framework would present a structure for supporting or enclosing the data collected especially since the research began as a skeletal support that would be used as the basis for the model that was being constructed. Therefore, research framework consisted of a set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that constituted a way of viewing reality (www.thefreedictionary.com). The research was influenced by the work of Çalişkan (2010), in his research titled “The. impact. of. strategic. human. resource. management. on. organizational. performance.”Çalişkan (2010), stated that the relationship between HRM and firm performance has been a hotly debated topic over the last two decades and both organizations and academics are striving to prove that HRM has a positive impact on bottom line productivity. The research generally reports positive statistical relationships between the greater adoption of HR practices and business performance. Therefore, since the relationship between SHRM and SHRD as previously discussed, has already highlighted the fact that SHRM practices encompass the very function of SHRD. As a result, adopting SHRM practices that improve organizational performance will cascade down to inform the SHRD strategies that will in turn enhance individual performance.. 29.

(38) STRATEGIC HRD Communication Systematic Training Accountability & Ownership. DEMOGRAPHICS Age. Culture Building. Gender. Quality. Educational Level. Performance Management. Marital Status Position Years of Experience. Perceived Barriers to Enhanced Performance. Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework. Research Approach The study took a quantitative approach. Quantitative research consists of studies in which the data concerned can be analysed in terms of numbers. The research was based more directly on original plans and the results were more readily analysed and interpreted. Quantitative research is, as the term suggests, concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form. Quantitative research tends to emphasize relatively large-scale and representative sets of data, and is often, falsely presented or perceived as being about the gathering of facts (Hughes, 2006). The researcher used the quantitative approach to the study because the research was a comparative survey that sought to explain and predict the relationship between barriers to 30.

(39) enhanced employees as perceived by both the supervisors and employees. Moreover, the quantitative approach was the most appropriate for the study since the researcher gathered data from a large number of people. Some of the strong characteristics of quantitative research are that the research can have precision through quantitative and reliable measurement. In addition, the researcher can exercise control through sampling and design (Hughes, 2006).. Population, Sampling and Subject Selection Population Some authors define population as the total number of units from which data can be collected such as individuals and organisations. They further describe a population as all elements that meet the criteria for inclusion in a study (http://uir.unisa.ac.za). The target group that made up the population for the study were public sector employees based in the Swazi government Ministries’ headquarters that are all located in Mbabane, Swaziland. For purposes of accessibility, time and financial constraints, including every public sector employee was not possible as some of the government offices are remotely located.. Sampling Procedure Multi-stage cluster sampling was used to shortlist the government departments that are located in the preferred location, Mbabane. The criterion for selecting participants was based on the fact that they were available and easy to access. The sample represented the most convenient and available participants in addition to being easy and inexpensive to access.. Sample size Smith (2013), advised that before calculating a sample size, researchers should consider a few things that need to be determined about the target population and the sample needed. Regarding the population size, the author advised that researchers should consider the number of people that fit the researcher’s target population.. 31.

(40) In addition, good research should be able to state the desired margin of error, popularly known and referred to as confidence interval. However, researchers advise that no sample will be perfect, thus, the researcher should individually make the decision on how much error will be allowed in their study. The confidence interval determined how much higher or lower than the population mean the researcher was willing to let their sample mean fall. Furthermore, after determining the confidence interval, the researcher had to state the confidence level. The confidence level basically highlighted how confident the researcher intended to be that the actual mean fell within their confidence interval. The Swazi government has over 35, 000 public sector employees in 100 Departments housed within 18 Ministries spread out in the four administrative regions of the country. However, for purposes of accessibility, time and financial constraints, the research covered only those in Mbabane. The researchable population for this region was 1375 employees. In order to achieve a confidence level of 95% while allowing a margin of error of 5%, the size of the sample selected for the study was 300 participants. Since the sample constituted a subgroup of the target population that the researcher intended to study, the findings will then be generalized to the larger population. The table below shows the distribution of the Ministries and Departments from where the sample of 300 participants was selected. Table 3.1 Randomly Selected Departments Ministry. Department. Tourism. Tourism, Wildlife and Forestry.. Foreign Affairs. Protocol.. Natural Resources and Energy. Accounts, Energy, Property Valuation.. Agriculture. Administration, Economic Analysis & Planning, Data Investigation Unit.. Economic Planning and Development. Aid Coordination, Central Planning, Macro Economic Unit.. Housing and Urban Development. Urban Government, Housing Settlements.. Commerce and Industry. Handicraft Promotion, Trade Development.. Education and Training. Teaching Service Commission.. Finance. Budget & Economic Affairs, Fiscal & (continued) 32.

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