臺灣國中生英語閱讀中的圖片輔助：對於閱讀記憶及文本感受之影響

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(1)國立台灣師範大學英語學系碩. 士. 論. 文. Master Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 臺灣國中生英語閱讀中的圖片輔助：對於閱讀記憶及文本感受之影響 Using Picture Cues in EFL Junior High School Reading: Effects on Reading Recall and Text-perceptions. 指導教授：許月貴教授朱錫琴教授 Advisor: Dr. Yueh-Kuei Hsu Dr. Hsi-Chin Chu 研究生：郭育如. 中華民國九十九年七月 July, 2010.

(2) 摘要為了提升學生英語學習成效，多樣化的閱讀教材教法在英語學習和教學中已受到關注和重視。本研究旨在探討單一圖片輔助對於臺灣國中學生英語閱讀能力的影響，同時也針對這些國中生對於有無單一圖片輔助的英語閱讀內容理解、記憶能力和看法為何，進行了解。本研究的受試者為北臺灣某公立國中八年級的兩個班級，共 42 位學生，分成四組進行實驗，以平衡閱讀文章出現的先後順序及有無圖片輔助閱讀的情況讓學生閱讀二篇故事，其中一篇有圖片輔助，另一篇則無。實驗中以回想內容的方式評估學生對於英語閱讀內容的理解，並以問卷測試有無圖片輔助是否對於學生的閱讀產生影響，接著，以訪談的方式了解學生對於閱讀加入單一圖片輔助的看法，同時以變異數分析比較組間內學生對於閱讀記憶及文本感受的差異。本研究主要發現為：一、英語閱讀中有單一圖片的輔助有助於學生對於閱讀內容的回想。二、由問卷結果顯示，英語閱讀中單一圖片的輔助增加了閱讀內容的趣味性和清楚度，並降低了閱讀內容的困難度。然而，受試學生並未因單一圖片的使用明顯感覺到閱讀內容較容易記憶。三、英語閱讀中單一圖片輔助的效益和學生英語程度的高低並無相關。無論學生的英語程度高低，皆能從有單一圖片輔助的閱讀中受惠。整體而言，受試學生對於英語閱讀中有單一圖片的輔助抱持正向肯定的態度，而從訪談內容中，研究者可更進一步了解學生對於單一圖片使用在英語閱讀中的感受和理由。本研究結果顯示，單一圖片使用對於臺灣國中生英語閱讀內容理解、回想和看法有所助益。最後，研究者依據研究發現，對於本研究中國中八年級學生的英語閱讀教材與選擇以及未來相關研究提出建議。. i.

(3) ABSTRACT To improve the effectiveness of EFL reading, supplementing texts with visuals has been means to boost comprehension. This study aims to investigate the effects of using a single picture cue in English reading passages on the reading recall and text-perceptions of EFL junior high school reading in Taiwan. The participants of this study were forty two eighth graders from two classes in a public junior high school in northern Taiwan. They were assigned to four sub-groups to counterbalance the sequence of text topics and the sequence of texts with or without picture cues. Each of the participants read two texts, one with a picture cue and the other one without a picture cue. In this research, written recall for the texts was used to measure the students’ reading comprehension. After reading each text, the students filled out a text-perception questionnaire to understand their text perceptions. Then eight selected students were interviewed to understand the students’ feelings towards using a single picture cue in English reading passages. ANOVA analysis was applied to compare group differences on recall and text-perceptions. The major findings of the present study are as follows. First, using a single picture cue improved the students’ recall for the text. Second, using a single picture cue enhanced students’ perceptions of amusement and clarity of the text, and decreased the perception of difficulty level of the text as well. However, the students’ perception of memorability for the text was not significantly improved in the present study. Third, the effects of picture cues on recall and text-perceptions were not varied due to students’ English proficiency levels. Both higher and lower level students could benefit from the use of picture cues in reading. Overall, most of the students in this research held positive attitude towards using a single picture cue in each English reading passage.. ii.

(4) This study indicates that using a single picture cue in reading passages enhances EFL Taiwanese eighth graders’ reading recall and text-perceptions. With the findings of this research, pedagogical implications for English reading material selection and exercises were provided. Suggestions for future research were also drawn.. iii.

(5) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The graduate program, thesis-writing included, is more challenging than I had expected. During this program, I have encountered difficulties and trials. But for the following people, I have eventually finished the program with a sense of fulfillment. First, I’d like to acknowledge my earnest thanks to my advisors, Prof. Yueh-Kuei Hsu and Prof. Hsi-Chin Chu, who have given me so much inspiration and help to make my thesis complete. With their patient guidance, I have been encouraged to persist in the program and have made great improvement in my study. Next, I want to express my gratitude to my oral examiners, Prof. Hsiu-Sui Chang and Prof. Yi-Chien Li, who carefully read my thesis, came to the oral exam, and offered valuable suggestions to make my thesis even more comprehensive. Then, my wholehearted thanks also go to my friends, especially to Tony Chen and Lily Su, who were always willing to discuss with me and offer me support when I was in need. Finally, I have to convey my greatest thanks to my dearest family, Tim, Sophia, Tony and Jones, who accompanied me all the time with all their care and love. With my parents, brother and husband’s warm consideration and full confidence in me, I have got the strength to go through all the challenges and accomplish my goals in life. I truly have to say that I am so blessed to have you all.. iv.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS Chinese Abstract……………………………………………...…………………i English Abstract…………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………..………………iv Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………v List of Tables…………………………………….…………………………………viii List of Figures…………………………………….…………………………………ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1 Background of the Research ..........................................................................................1 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................6 Research Questions ........................................................................................................7 Significance of the Present Study...................................................................................8 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................ 10 Definition of the Key Terms.........................................................................................10 Picture Cues................................................................................................. 10 Comprehension.............................................................................................11 Recall............................................................................................................11 Text-perceptions .......................................................................................... 12 The Role of Picture Cues in the Reading Process........................................................12 The Dual Coding Theory............................................................................. 13 Mental Model Theory.................................................................................. 14 Transactional Theory................................................................................... 15 Repetition Hypothesis ................................................................................. 15 Visual Input Enhancement .......................................................................... 15 Noticing....................................................................................................... 16 v.

(7) Multimodality.............................................................................................. 17 Research on Picture Cues in Reading ..........................................................................18 Effects of Picture Cues on Comprehension or Recall ................................. 18 Effects of Picture Cues on Text-perceptions ............................................... 21 Guidelines for the Present Study..................................................................................25 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY............................................................... 27 The Participants............................................................................................................27 The school ................................................................................................... 27 The Teacher ................................................................................................. 27 The Students ................................................................................................ 28 Instruments...................................................................................................................30 Reading Passages ........................................................................................ 30 Text-perception Questionnaire .................................................................... 33 Recall Sheets ............................................................................................... 33 Follow-up Interview.................................................................................... 33 Design .......................................................................................................................34 Pilot Study....................................................................................................................36 Data Collection Procedures..........................................................................................38 Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................39 CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ............................................................................... 42 Major Findings from the Students’ Recall ...................................................................42 Results of the Students’ Text-perceptions ....................................................................45 Major Findings from the Students’ Interviews ............................................................50 Summary of the Findings .............................................................................................57. vi.

(8) CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS.................................... 61 Effects of Picture Cues on Recall.................................................................................61 Effects of Picture Cues on Text-perceptions ................................................................64 Text-perceptions of Amusement.................................................................. 64 Text-perceptions of Difficulty Level ........................................................... 65 Text-perceptions of Clarity.......................................................................... 66 Text-perceptions of Memorability............................................................... 67 Implications..................................................................................................................68 Implications for Reading Exercises and Material Selection ....................... 68 Implications for Future Research ................................................................ 69 Conclusion....................................................................................................................72 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................73 APPENDIX .................................................................................................................79 Appendix A: Reading Passages ...................................................................................79 Appendix B: Text-perception Questionnaire................................................................81 Appendix C: Recall ......................................................................................................83 Appendix D: Interview.................................................................................................84 Appendix E: Recall Units of the Texts.........................................................................85. vii.

(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 1: The English Performances of the participants................................................29 Table 2: The Comparability of the Two Reading Passages..........................................32 Table 3: The Reading Schedule for the Four Groups of Participants...........................36 Table 4: T-test Results of Comparing the Two Reading Passages ...............................37 Table 5: Descriptive Statistics of Recall with and without Picture Cues in Reading...43 Table 6: ANOVA Source for Recall .............................................................................44 Table 7: Descriptive Statistics of Text-perceptions for Amusement with and without Picture Cues in Reading ................................................................................46 Table 8: Descriptive Statistics of Text-perceptions for Difficulty Level with and without Picture Cues in Reading...................................................................47 Table 9: Descriptive Statistics of Text-perceptions for Clarity with and without Picture Cues in Reading ............................................................................................48 Table 10: Descriptive Statistics of Text-perceptions for Memorability with and without Picture Cues in Reading...................................................................49 Table 11: ANOVA Source for Text-perceptions...........................................................50 Table 12: Findings from the Students’ Interviews for Using Picture Cues in Reading51 Table 13: Reasons from the Students’ Responses to the Use of Picture Cues in Reading .........................................................................................................55 Table 14: Summary of Significant Differences in this Study.......................................58. viii.

(10) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: A Computational Model of L2 Acquisition ..................................................16. ix.

(11) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION. Background of the Research In Taiwan, junior high school students who learn English as a foreign language (EFL) often have difficulties in achieving proficient English reading skills. These reading difficulties, on the one hand, have compromised students’ overall achievement in English learning. On the other hand, they have also revealed the ineffectiveness of the current reading exercises practiced by EFL junior high school teachers. The result of this could turn into a vicious cycle since, as Koda (2007) stressed, reading and language learning are interdependent. Koda pointed out that students have to constantly sharpen their reading techniques so that they can have a better management of the language they are learning. From a similar perspective, Bell (1998) and Hayashi (1999) indicated that improvements on students’ reading abilities enhance their language competence in general. Given the reasons mentioned above, many EFL junior high school teachers in Taiwan view English reading comprehension as one of the major indicators of students’ English capability,1 and hope to assess students’ reading comprehension effectively through reading practices. In terms of assessment, recall is suggested by several language educators as a straightforward and. 1. Junior high school students in Taiwan are expected to reach an acceptable level of L2 reading comprehension so that they can receive a higher grade on the Basic Competence English Test (BCT for English) before entering senior high schools. BCT in Taiwan has been put into practice for twenty times in ten years since 2001. Referring to the past BCT for English, there were always 18 to 23 reading comprehension questions in the total 45 multiple-choice questions. The percentage of the reading comprehension questions is around 40% to 51%, much higher than that of any other questions for vocabulary, phrases, grammar, and cloze test in the BCT for English.. -1-.

(12) valid instrument to evaluate reading comprehension (Bernhardt, 1991; Johnston, 1983). According to Bernhardt (1991), using recall as an instrument to evaluate reading comprehension can avoid many pitfalls commonly found in other assessment measures. Therefore, EFL teachers are recommended to employ recall in the evaluation process to help their students develop stronger reading comprehension. Acknowledging the importance of reading in language learning, EFL junior high school teachers in Taiwan usually try to improve their students’ English reading comprehension by offering them more reading exercises in class. They also introduce to students supplementary English reading materials which are relevant to their learning experiences. However, traditionally, EFL teachers in Taiwan often rely on instructional strategies such as analyzing texts and recognizing sentence structures in reading exercises to improve students’ reading comprehension and overall reading ability (Lai, 2004). By elaborating the text meaning or distinguishing different sentence structures from the print in English reading materials, many EFL teachers in Taiwan believe that students can make considerable progress in their language learning. Still traditional instructional strategies may not be as efficient as they are supposed from the present researcher’s point of view. After teaching and observing EFL junior high school students’ English learning for more than six years, the researcher of the present study noticed that many students often have difficulty in comprehending English reading texts with only words. English words in the above reading materials seem too complicated for students when they are unsure about the main idea or key vocabulary in the texts due to their limited knowledge of English and lack of confidence in comprehending English texts. In order to improve EFL Taiwanese junior high school students’ reading comprehension, the traditional instructional strategies stressing the understanding of English print by merely. -2-.

(13) analyzing texts and recognizing sentence structures are inadequate when the effectiveness of students’ reading comprehension is taken into consideration. In this regard, EFL Taiwanese junior high school teachers may consider adopting various strategies and techniques with possible aids in addition to English print in reading materials (McVicker, 2007). As Goldstone (1989) suggested, though students are always encouraged to achieve comprehension of the print with teachers’ instruction, it is seldom that the print with instruction would attract students’ attention when they learn by themselves. Consequently, the presentation of information in reading materials and the relevant reading exercises to improve comprehension have aroused discussion (Fahnestock, 2003; Goldstone, 1989; Henry & Simpson, 2001; Kress, 2000; McVicker, 2007). Under the above concern, by using what kind of English reading materials and reading exercises would students be encouraged to read, be motivated for extensive reading,2 and be able to improve their English reading comprehension as well as their English proficiency are worth researching. When reading materials as comic books3 are common and popular with many teenagers in Taiwan (Huang, 2006; Tong, 2002), the use of picture cues in EFL junior high school students’ English reading become the concerns in several studies. The interest in understanding teenagers’ reading with pictures is universal. Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) investigated the leisure reading habits of 584 American urban middle school students, and found out that comics were the second preferred reading. 2. Studies have shown that extensive reading is the key to achieving higher reading proficiency (Bell, 2001; Krashen, 1993; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Sheu, 2003). By reading in quantity to gain the general understanding of what is read, extensive reading increases students’ exposure to the language, develops their reading strategies, and enhances their general language competence (Bell, 1998; Hayashi, 1999).. 3. Here refers to comic books, including words and graphic presentation in the meantime.. -3-.

(14) material for both males and females. Su (1994) studied teenagers’ motivation and behavior of reading comic books and found out that the increasing population of adolescence in Taiwan were fond of comics. Several researchers analyzed the reasons why teenage learners would like to spend their time reading comics. As reported by studies, through comic reading, teens find amusement from the fun visuals, feel relaxed with clear and attractive reading texts, and have more conversations with their peers about the comics they read (Henry & Simpson, 2001; Huang, 2006; McVicker, 2007; Su, 1994; Tong, 2002). Due to the above findings, several researchers suggested that teachers could use comics in class since comics, involving picture cues in texts, seem favorable to many teens in their reading process. In addition to why comic books are favored by many teenage learners, the functions of pictures presented in the comic books are also explained in different studies. Royce (2002) pointed out that those picture cues “can activate the students’ background knowledge and thus reduce so-called text shock” (p. 199).4 Fahnestock (2003) inferred that picture cues in texts presented as visual parallelism help readers organize information into a series of resembling and comprehensible examples. Liu (2004), in his empirical study about using comics in the text, indicated that visuals can promote the transformation of texts into mental image in the reading process, and eventually form a mental model5 which would lead to more thorough comprehension and recall. Furthermore, McVicker (2007) explained that “using comic strips is a quick, concise way to teach, practice, and apply reading skills whether it is for initial instruction or remediation of reading. 4. According to Royce (2002), the “text shock” means the uneasiness students have toward the unfamiliar reading texts (p. 199). 5. The Mental Model Theory is elaborated in Chapter 2 of this study.. -4-.

(15) difficulties” (p. 86). Henry and Simpson (2001) claimed that the use of visuals in texts can build students’ reading skills and confidence. Based on the above statements, picture cues seemed to play a positive role in students’ reading. The use of picture cues reduced readers’ anxiety towards unfamiliar texts and increased readers’ interests as well as confidence to manage their English reading. In addition, students’ affirmative perceptions towards reading texts seemed to be aroused because of the accompanied picture cues. However, the above theoretical claims and research findings need more supports and discussion from more empirical studies. Several researchers’ standpoints, though theoretically demonstrated how a visual presentation of pictures helps students’ reading comprehension, recall and perceptions, were not verified in EFL contexts. Concerning the effects of using picture cues on reading, Liu’s (2004) experiment showed that comic strips on learners’ English reading performances worked better to the students at lower language proficiency level. The research from Gambrell and Jawits (1993) about illustrations and reading also indicated that the benefited subjects were lower language proficiency level students. Based on the above findings, the researcher of the present study as well as an EFL teacher, wondered if picture cues in English reading could benefit Taiwanese junior high school students at different English proficiency levels. There were questions left unanswered as regards the effects of using picture cues on EFL junior high school students’ English reading comprehension, recall and text-perceptions. Moreover, since reading exercises for improved comprehension are emphasized in many junior high school English textbooks in Taiwan, and there is often one picture cue in each reading text,6 the. 6. In the Basic Competence English Test, which junior high school students in Taiwan have to take before entering senior high schools, the presentation of picture cues is also one picture cue in one reading text most of the times. -5-.

(16) researcher would like to investigate the effects of using a single picture in English reading texts on EFL junior high school students’ reading recall and text perceptions with the hypothetic visual-verbal complementarity (Royce, 2002).7 To improve students’ ability in English reading comprehension and recall, EFL junior high school teachers usually search for functional reading exercises; they also concern about students’ text-perceptions towards specific reading texts. While noticing students’ difficulty in English reading, EFL junior high school teachers are suggested to help students overcome the barrier and develop reading skills through applying appropriate English supplementary reading materials and reading exercises with picture cues (Henry & Simpson, 2001; Williams, 1995). With teachers’ instruction and assistance, students might find visuals in English texts helpful, gain more successful language learning experience, and build up their confidence and interests in English reading. The researcher of the present study believed that the study regarding the effects of using picture cues on EFL junior high school students’ English reading recall and text-perceptions remained worthy to be investigated.. Purpose of the Study To enhance students’ recall for the improvement of their English reading comprehension, EFL teachers are encouraged to provide effective exercises with helpful English materials which are at appropriate levels of their students. To reach this goal, the present study first aimed to understand the functions of picture cues in English reading, with supportive theories and findings from previous research.. 7. According to Royce (2002), the visual-verbal complementarity means that the visual and verbal modes complement each other to realize a coherent multimodal text.. -6-.

(17) Secondly, the present study explored students’ performances of recall and text-perceptions in English reading with and without the use of picture cues. This study also planned to offer evidence and supplements to the uncertain standpoints of studies regarding language learning with reading materials which emphasize the use of picture cues. Moreover, the present study hoped to provide EFL junior high school teachers with practical English reading exercises, and ultimately to enhance their students’ English reading proficiency.. Research Questions The present study focused on investigating the effects of using picture cues in English reading on EFL junior high school students. This study aimed to address the following research questions: (a) Does supplying a picture cue for English reading texts make a difference in EFL junior high school students’ recall? (b) Is the effect of picture cues on recall varied due to students’ different language ability? (c) Does supplying a picture cue for English reading texts make a difference in EFL junior high school students’ text-perceptions? (d) Is the effect of picture cues on text-perceptions varied due to students’ different language ability? (e) What are students’ perceptions of the reading with and without picture cues? The findings of these research questions would be discussed and compared with the results of previous studies to testify and search for clearer answers about whether and how using picture cues had affected EFL junior high school students’ reading recall and text-perceptions.. -7-.

(18) Significance of the Present Study To achieve a fuller understanding of the effects of using picture cues on EFL junior high school students’ English reading recall and text-perceptions, the present study had conducted the following procedures. The study started with researching relevant theories and findings to substantiate the necessity of investigation on using picture cues in English reading, then followed by an experiment on using picture cues with EFL junior high school students’ English reading materials. After quantitative analyses and qualitative interviews, this study discussed the findings to acquire more in-depth understanding of EFL junior high school students’ English reading with picture cues, their recall performances and text-perceptions towards the reading materials. With pedagogical values of enhancing students’ reading abilities in mind, this study aimed to achieve the following goals. First, it can provide EFL teachers with the knowledge of using picture cues in English reading to improve students’ reading abilities from different perspectives. For examples, the quantitative analyses evaluated and compared the students’ performances of English recall with and without the use of picture cues; also, the students’ text-perceptions towards the reading materials with and without picture cues were revealed; further, the qualitative investigation supplemented the information of the students’ English reading practice. The results of these analyses and interviews may not only explore how the use of picture cues improved the students’ proficiency in English reading recall, but also present how the students’ feelings towards reading were influenced by using picture cues. Second, with the findings and discussion from this study, EFL teachers can better understand the role of picture cues in EFL junior high school reading as facilitators or distractors, and may search, choose or develop more suitable English. -8-.

(19) reading materials and exercises for their students. Helpful reading materials can result in the improvement of their students’ reading abilities, and consequently end in the enhancement of their students’ overall English language proficiency. Further, EFL junior high school teachers can encourage their students of different English levels to develop their reading abilities through the English reading practices of favorable texts.. -9-.

(20) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW. In this chapter, the researcher defines the terms in the present study, introduces relevant theories and hypotheses for the role of picture cues in the reading process, and discusses relevant empirical findings. Finally, the researcher investigates the potential pedagogical values about the effects of using picture cues on EFL junior high school students’ comprehension, recall, and text-perceptions.. Definition of the Key Terms The terms used in this study, including picture cues, comprehension, recall, and text-perceptions, are defined respectively below. Picture Cues In the present study, pictures used in the English reading passages are considered as cues to learners. Platt, H., Platt, J. and Richards (2003) defined a cue in language teaching as “a given signal in order to produce a response by the students” (p. 117). Gambrell and Jawits (1993) used the “text-relevant illustrations” to identify the picture cues in their study (p. 267). Williams (1995) marked that picture cues, like comics, were composed of endurable visual elements. To meet the practical needs in EFL junior high school reading, in this study, the definition of the cue is a single motionless black-and-white picture which is related to the text content and presented beside the words in the reading material. As the text-related cue is confirmed by the researcher of the present study, this picture is supposed to improve student’s reading abilities.. - 10 -.

(21) Comprehension The improvement of students’ English reading comprehension is the researcher’s main concern in the present study. Nassaji (2002) claimed that “second language reading comprehension is a function of the use of multiple sources of knowledge” (p. 468). According to Platt et al. (2003), reading means to understand the contents of the perceived written texts. From such a perspective, the final understanding resulting from reading is called reading comprehension. Based on readers’ purposes in reading different materials, there are four types of reading comprehension (Platt et al., 2003, p. 383): (1) Literal comprehension: reading in order to understand, remember, or recall the information explicitly contained in a passage. (2) Inferential comprehension: reading in order to find information which is not explicitly stated in a passage, using the reader’s experience and intuition, and by inferring. (3) Critical or evaluative comprehension: reading in order to compare information in a passage with the readers’ own knowledge and values. (4) Appreciative comprehension: reading in order to gain an emotional or other kind of valued response from a passage.. In the present study, the focus is mainly on the first type of comprehension (literal comprehension) when EFL students’ English reading comprehension is evaluated and discussed during the research process. Students’ reading comprehension is measured with the recall test. Recall Students may pick up and memorize necessary information from their reading in order to comprehend the whole reading material. Therefore, one indicator of reading comprehension is recall. Liu’s study (2004) described recall as “a postreading task designed to test students’ abilities to understand texts without the help of outside - 11 -.

(22) materials” and “the most straightforward assessment of the interaction between readers and texts” (p. 233). Immediate recall was used as an instrument to evaluate student’s reading comprehension in Liu’s experiment. Following Liu’s experiment, in the present study, students’ recall from their English reading is measured to evaluate students’ comprehension. The researcher intends to discover whether using picture cues in English reading helps students’ recall. Text-perceptions Besides evaluating the students’ English reading recall, the researcher of the present study also expects to find out if using picture cues makes differences in students’ text-perceptions and motivates students to keep reading. Platt et al. (2003) stated perceptions as “the recognition and understanding of events, objects, and stimuli through the use of senses” (p. 337). In this study, the students’ recognition and understanding of written language with the stimuli of picture cues are the researcher’s interests. The researcher is interested in knowing if English reading materials with picture cues enhance the amusement, clarity, and memorability, as well as lessen the difficulty level of the texts from the students’ perspectives. Overall, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between using picture cues in English reading and the students’ reading comprehension performances as indicated by recall, as well as text-perceptions including amusement, clarity, memorability, and difficulty level of the texts.. The Role of Picture Cues in the Reading Process Several scholars and researchers have studied the role of picture cues in the reading comprehension process. Kress (2000) noted the significance of the images in texts. According to Kress, those images have communicational roles and take on tasks. - 12 -.

(23) beyond the performance of verbal language. Royce (2002) described that “the visual and verbal modes complement each other to realize an intersemiotically coherent multimodal text” (p. 192). Besides, Liu (2004) indicated that there are five major functions of visuals in reading: representation, organization, interpretation, transformation, and decoration (p. 226). The five major functions all result in facilitating readers’ comprehension and memory. Likewise, the following theories and hypotheses offer supports to the facilitative functions of picture cues on L2 and EFL reading comprehension. The Dual Coding Theory Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory (DCT) attempted to explain verbal and nonverbal cognition and their interconnected but distinct relationship (Paivio, 1991). Gambrell and Jawits (1993) reiterated the main idea of DCT: “these verbal and nonverbal subsystems perform independent functions, but they can also perform in parallel, or in an integrated manner” (p. 266). Liu (2004) adopted DCT which concerns the nature of language and imagery in his study to explore the effects of comic strips on L2 learners’ reading comprehension. He clarified that in DCT, the linguistic coding system can be called the verbal system, and the nonverbal coding system can be called the imagery system. These two systems “enable the analysis of external scenes and the generation of internal mental images” (p. 227). Liu believed that DCT is a useful theoretical framework for studying the effects of visuals on L2 reading comprehension. He further elaborated the functions of DCT:. In reading, DCT accounts for hypothesized bottom-up and top-down processes in reading. Regarding bottom-up process, DCT assumes that language units derived from natural language are organized and mentally represented in various sensory modalities. Based on familiarity and the effects of context, the reader may use these representations - 13 -.

(24) to perceive grapheme-phoneme correspondences, and the visual, auditory, and/ or articulatory configurations of letters, words, or word sequences. Regarding top-down processes, DCT provides a broader and more specific account of meaning, coherence, and inference effects. Activating both verbal and nonverbal mental representations of text helps readers create alternative, interconnected contexts for generating inferences and integrating text, which enables them to alter their accessing strategies along a continuum from feature perception to inferential text modeling (Liu, 2004, p. 227).. According to the concept of DTC from the previous paragraphs, language can evoke imagery, and imagery can evoke language. Therefore, picture cues can be prompts for the verbal language in the reading process and enhance readers’ understanding. Mental Model Theory Mental Model Theory argues that picture cues in reading can reduce the cognitive load associated with complex comprehension tasks because they can present essential information more concisely than parallel textual statements (Cooper, Marcus, & Sweller, 1996). Johnson-Laird and Byrne (2000) described that mental models are representations in mind of real or imaginary situations which could underlie visual images and be constructed from the comprehension of discourse. Liu (2004) offered support in his study and explained that “illustrations are easier to process than text because they show spatial relations, whereas text requires the reader to construct a mental representation of the relations” (p. 237). Accordingly, visuals facilitate mental model building. In this case, picture cues can act as facilitative roles in the reading process to transform the text into mental images which eventually change into a mental model of the readers.. - 14 -.

(25) Transactional Theory Transactional Theory focuses on the nature of the relationship between the reader and the text; it also emphasizes the active role of the reader in “creating” the literary work and the importance of inducing the “lived through” experience of the reader during the transaction with text (Gambrell & Jawits, 1993, p. 266). According to Rosenblatt (1986, 2004), the reader and the text are two aspects of a total dynamic situation. The “meaning” happens during the transaction between the reader and the text. The “lived through” experience develops through attention to the personal meaning of the text. Transactional theory indicates that when picture cues occur in reading, they may give readers more clues to set up their own cognition of the literary work and link up readers’ personal experience to assist reading comprehension. Repetition Hypothesis The claim of Repetition Hypothesis is that when pieces of information from the text and from the illustration are well integrated, they act as if the information was presented twice, thus enhancing readers’ performance (Liu, 2004). As explained by Liu, the Repetition Hypothesis suggests another positive explanation for picture cues in reading because when picture cues related to the text appear, they offer readers another chance to glance through certain key points in the reading content, consequently increasing the possibility of overall comprehension. Visual Input Enhancement Ellis (2003) defined “input” as the samples of language which learners are exposed to while learning or using a particular L2 (p. 139). He noted that L2 acquisition depends on comprehensive input which learners understand and then take a portion of it into short-term memory as intake. A computational model of L2 acquisition is illustrated in figure 1.. - 15 -.

(26) input. intake. L2 knowledge. output. Figure 1 A Computational Model of L2 Acquisition (Ellis, 2003, p. 35). Applying the above concept to L2 reading, “visual input enhancement,” according to Izumi (2002), is an “external attention-drawing technique” which implicitly draws the learners’ attention to the form, as a picture cue, contained in the written input (p. 543). As indicated by Izumi, the enhancement from the picture cue as the particular form chosen for the learning target in reading aims to achieve the integration of attention to the form and its meaning. In this regard, picture cues in reading can be viewed as visual input, which arouse readers’ attention, encourage readers to observe, and then may eventually result in the enhancement of comprehension. Noticing “Noticing” can be viewed as the process by which learners consciously attend to the distinguishing linguistic features in the input (Ellis, 2003). Schmidt (1990) claimed that language learning can not happen without conscious attention, and “noticing” is the essential and sufficient condition for acquiring new L2 elements. As suggested by Schmidt, all aspects of language should be acquired through the requirement of noticing, which can be incorporated into many L2 acquisition theories. Liu (2004) referred to “noticing” as an additional remark to analyze the findings of L2 reading comprehension with comic strips in his study:. - 16 -.

(27) During the process of reading comprehension, readers consciously analyze and compare what they have noticed while reading. When the reader has difficulty comprehending the text’s linguistic input because it is too difficult, the comic strip can call the reader’s attention to the linguistic input (Liu, 2004, 237).. As mentioned above, picture cues in reading can transfer from input to intake, which learners consciously notice. The process of noticing enables learners to fill the gap between the literary knowledge and learners’ understanding. Multimodality Kress (2000) identified the concept of multimodality which values different modes of communication in texts, such as language as writing and image, working complementarily together in language learning. When writing is found “on the logic of succession in time,” image is found “on the logic of display in space” (p. 339). As Kress suggested, it is necessary to rethink about language learning because nowadays there are often different modes of communication presented together in texts for learners to have clear understanding of the language and its uses. Royce (2002) collocated the importance of visual and verbal communication and indicated that when visual and verbal systems copresent in texts, they can work together to complete and reinforce the meaning of linguistic features on the page. In other words, the notion of multimodality approves the functions of different modes presented in the language texts, including picture cues in L2 and FL reading, which can strengthen readers’ impressions to the texts and facilitate comprehension. To sum up, picture cues can offer beneficial effects in the reading process. Based on the above theories and hypotheses, picture cues arouse extra attention, prompt for the verbal language, repeat the main idea in the texts, provide additional clues for understanding, strengthen readers’ impressions to the texts, help transform the texts. - 17 -.

(28) into mental images, and finally facilitate comprehension. For the above reasons, the present study intended to confirm if these hypothetic functions of picture cues can enhance EFL junior high school students’ reading recall and text-perceptions as well.. Research on Picture Cues in Reading The role of picture cues in reading is discussed. Since several scholars hold positive attitudes toward the effects of using picture cues in theory, empirical findings from previous research are required to testify if and how picture cues actually work in the L2 and FL reading process. The findings may provide guidance for further investigation on EFL students’ language learning. Effects of Picture Cues on Comprehension or Recall Henry and Simpson (2001) argued that picture books are not just for young readers anymore. Picture books, “combing text and picture cues in ways that make the text clearer and more fun to read,” can be used in high school as well (p. 23). Hibbing and Rankin-Erickson (2003) recommended the use of picture cues in reading as a tool to build the needed background knowledge for struggling readers to improve their comprehension. The functions of picture cues on reading comprehension are confirmed in many studies based on the theoretical supports for picture cues (Fahnestock, 2003; Kress, 2000; McVicker, 2007; Royce, 2002; Schwartz & Rubinstein-Avila, 2006; Williams, 1995). Filippatou and Pumfrey (1996) synthesized a research review of 17 studies from 1973 to 1995, regarding the effects of pictures on reading comprehension. The subjects in those studies were mostly elementary and college students, except two studies investigating 13 to 14-year-old teenagers. 15 out of the 17 studies approved the facilitative role of picture cues in reading, for the results of improved retention or. - 18 -.

(29) reading comprehension. Holmes (1987) indicated that not only for factual recall, but also for inferential comprehension could fifth- and sixth-grade students perform significantly better in the read-with-picture conditions. Although the samples, reading tasks, and experimental conditions were not equivalent in different studies, picture cues enhanced various learners’ comprehension in general. Gambrell and Jawits (1993) pointed out that illustrations help readers to focus attention on information in text, make associations and inferences based on the information, and reorganize the information into useful mental models. Their research also offered positive findings for the beneficial read-with-picture condition to fourth-grade readers’ reading comprehension. Liu (2004) reported a more detailed experiment investigating the role of comic strips on ESL adult students’ L2 reading comprehension by applying immediate recall protocols. The results revealed that the lower language proficiency level students with comic strips in their reading text scored significantly higher than the counterparts who received the text without pictures. However, comic strips did not apparently enhance the performance of ESL adult students at higher language proficiency level. Thus, Liu suggested that ESL or EFL teachers should consider their students’ language proficiency level and cautiously choose the reading texts with visuals which can reflect linguistic complexity to help comprehension. Even though picture cues may play facilitative roles in learners’ reading comprehension based on several theoretical claims and empirical findings, dissimilar arguments and findings about the functions of picture cues in reading still can be found. Schallert (1980) analyzed the role of illustrations in reading comprehension from several researchers’ viewpoints and investigation. There were cases for pictures and cases against pictures as well. Samuels (1970), one of the researchers being studied, was the typical example who considered pictures in text as interferences.. - 19 -.

(30) From his own experimental work, Samuels commented that pictures “interfere with the beginning reader’s ability to concentrate on and learn to discriminate properly the printed stimuli,” and “did not seem to add or to detract from the comprehensibility of the text for good readers” (Schallert, 1980, p. 505). In that case, Samuels concluded that pictures have no positive effects on reading comprehension. Willows (1978a) did not take optimistic attitudes to pictures in reading either. He examined children’s speed and accuracy of reading, and then found both related and unrelated pictures as distracters which lowered learners’ performances. Following that, Willows (1978b) continued another experiment on the influences of picture cues on children’s reading performances. The result showed that poor readers were distracted by pictures the most, which was consistent with his findings in the previous study. Similar findings were found in Harber’s (1983) study. Harber investigated children’s reading and reported that picture cues had a detrimental effect on the poor learners’ performance. Simons and Elster (1990) also argued that “picture-dependent text did not assist children’s reading acquisition process and might interfere with it” (p. 91). Kehoe, Singh and Solman (1992) indicated that adjunct picture cues “block the acquisition of a new association between the written word and the naming response to it” (p. 143). In their study, the children received the no-picture simple stimuli significantly outperformed those who received the compound stimuli with pictures. Izumi’s research (2002) on ESL adults’ language learning revealed that picture cues as visual input worked better in combination with other forms of assistance, but not so well when used in isolation. The statement once again questioned the effectiveness of picture cues in reading comprehension. Moreover, in Filippatou and Pumfrey’s (1996) research review, Rose’s research in 1986 showed that learning disability readers comprehended non-illustrated reading passages better than illustrated ones. Another. - 20 -.

(31) study from Reid and Beveridge (1996) in Filippatou and Pumfrey’s research review described that children would spend longer time on picture cues in reading when they gradually lost focus of their learning. Besides, the least successful children accessed the picture cues more frequently than the most successful ones. For these findings, Filippatou and Pumfrey concluded that picture cues are neither uniformly effective in all reading situations, nor equally effective for readers with different reading abilities. Because of the different findings, whether the effects of picture cues in the present study were positive to EFL Taiwanese junior high school students’ English reading recall remained to be explored. Effects of Picture Cues on Text-perceptions For the possible beneficial effects of picture cues in reading, their influences on EFL students’ text-perceptions of the reading passages, such as amusement, difficulty level, clarity, and memorability, can be the concerns in the following research as well. Different perceptions aroused by picture cues may drive the students to learn in distinct conditions and spontaneously affect the learners’ performances of reading comprehension or recall. According to Ellis (2003), learners may want to learn a language because of the arousal and maintenance of the learners’ interest, and that drive can be called as learners’ intrinsic motivation. Dornyei (1994) conceptualized a general framework of FL learning motivation, in which learners’ interest in their reading materials was listed as a course-specific motivational component that can influence learners’ language learning achievement. Dornyei also suggested that the attractiveness of the reading materials should be increased, and supplying visual aids could be a possible choice. The result from Gardner and MacIntyre’s study (1991) indicated that the aroused motivation have an “energizing effect,” facilitating learning and encouraging students. - 21 -.

(32) to spend more time thinking about the correct answer in their learning process (p. 57). Wang and Guthrie (2004) in their research found out that intrinsic motivation assisted fourth-grade students’ text comprehension. Therefore, besides evaluating the students’ English reading recall, the researcher of the present study also expected to find if using picture cues can increase the amusement of the texts and motivate the students to keep reading. In English reading process, EFL students may meet the worries from the texts when they feel the difficulty level of their reading materials is higher than their language proficiency level. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991a) characterized these worries as “situation specific anxiety” (p. 90), which can also be interpreted as “language anxiety” in several studies about language learning and anxiety (Clement, MacIntyre, & Noels, 1997; Cope, Horwitz, E. K., & Horwitz, M. B., 1986; Ganschow & Sparks, 1996; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991b). Researchers have found that anxiety can have a negative effect on L2 and FL learning process (Anderson, R., Ganschow, L., Javorshy, J., Patton, J., Sparks, R., & Skinner, S., 1994; Cope et al., 1986; Clement et al., 1997; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991a, 1991b; Young, 1992). MacIntyre and Gardner indicated that anxiety has potential problems for students’ L2 and FL acquisition because it can interfere with students’ absorption, retention and production in the language learning process. Furthermore, Gardner and McIntyre (1991b) found out that language anxiety was significantly correlated with language performance of young adults. With lower-level anxiety, students learned better and more actively. Anderson et al. (1994) reported that low-anxious college EFL students demonstrated superior language skills and foreign language aptitude. Ganschow and Sparks (1996) indicated similar findings in their research, which confirmed that in language learning, high school women with lower anxiety outperformed the high-anxious group. The. - 22 -.

(33) previous studies agreed on the negative correlation between language anxiety and language learning. To deal with students’ language anxiety, Cope et al. (1986) suggested that teachers can make the learning context less stressful. Young (1992) in her study mentioned that comprehensible and interesting input help reduce anxiety based on Krashen’s perspectives of effective language anxiety management (p. 164). In this regard, the researcher of the present study intended to notice the advantageous property of picture cues in English reading, and was interested in inspecting if picture cues would reduce English text difficulties, lower student’s language anxiety, and lead to more stress-free language learning. Based on the reported theories and hypotheses, learners can have advantages of using picture cues in students’ text-perceptions of the reading passages. Henry and Simpson (2001) believed that picture cues could make the text clearer to readers since picture cues may function as a bridge between verbal language and comprehension, reinforcing learners’ impression and understanding of the main idea in texts. Hibbing and Rankin-Erickson (2003) gathered comments from middle school students on using pictures in reading and found that pictures were considered supportive roles for helping the students get more ideas of the texts. Considerable studies support the viewpoint, and several researchers approved the functions of picture cues by offering satisfactory findings which confirmed the relationship between using picture cues and improved understanding in reading (Gambrell & Jawits, 1993; Holmes, 1987; Liu, 2004; McVicker, 2007; Schwartz & Rubinstein-Avila, 2006; Wu, 2006). But the opposite voice and findings questioned the appropriateness of using picture cues in reading. According to Willows (1978), the presence of pictures in reading could make the texts seem more complicated for young students to decode. Simons and Elster (1990) pointed out that picture cues with limited information in texts may interfere. - 23 -.

(34) with young students’ reading acquisition. Still some other studies or research showed the worries about using picture cues in reading (Harber, 1983; Rose, 1986; Kehoe et al., 1992). Because of the diverse opinions from the above studies, the researcher of the present study investigated if picture cues enhance the clarity of the texts from the EFL junior high school students’ viewpoints and reading experiences. To comprehend and recall the reading materials, EFL students may pick up certain strategies to overcome their English reading difficulties and remember essential information in texts. Platt et al. (2003) pointed out that language learning strategies are “ways in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a language” (p. 261). As Platt et al. suggested, these strategies can be interpreted as thoughts or actions that students make use of on purpose in L2 or FL learning process to achieve better understanding or memory about the new information. Oxford (2002) also indicated that facilitative language learning strategies can advance students’ L2 learning with improved skills of using the new language. Among the language learning strategies, memory strategies for the storage and retrieve of the new language can directly influence the students’ comprehension and recall (Oxford, 1990).8 Therefore, the researcher of the present study planned to find out if reading passages with picture cues can be more memorable to the students and play a helpful role in their English learning process. Learning from the theories and previous research about using picture cues in reading, the present study would investigate if using picture cues in English reading can benefit EFL junior high school students’ reading recall and text-perceptions. The. 8. Oxford (1990) divided learning strategies into two types: direct and indirect. Direct strategies include memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. Indirect strategies include metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. - 24 -.

(35) investigation included observing the differences in the students’ text-perceptions towards the amusement, difficulty level, clarity, and memorability of the passages with or without picture cues. This study worked on helping EFL students identify appropriate reading materials and exercises to reduce their learning difficulties and to increase their English reading competence.. Guidelines for the Present Study Previous research on students’ use of picture cues in the reading process provides valuable suggestions for the present study. There are potential benefits from using picture cues in L2 and FL reading. Mayer and Gallini (1990) described the situations in which a picture is worth ten thousand words:. Our results provide a four-part answer: when the text is potentially understandable, when the value of illustrations is measured in terms of learner understanding, when the illustrations explain, and when the student lacks previous experience (p. 725).. If picture cues play facilitative roles to all the EFL students in these circumstances, then English reading materials with picture cues should be promoted for students’ improvement in language learning. However, different findings indicate the necessity for further investigation on using picture cues. The researcher of the present study, as one of the EFL junior high school teachers, was eager to find out the functions of using picture cues in English reading on EFL junior high school students’ reading recall and text-perceptions. Therefore, in this study, the subjects were EFL junior high school students since reading comprehension and recall of this age group were rarely studied in the previous research. Meanwhile, these students’ text-perceptions with and without picture cues in English reading remained to be. - 25 -.

(36) explored. The amusement, difficulty level, clarity, and memorability of the reading passages to the students were investigated in this study as well. The researcher of the present study was also interested in discovering the connection between the students’ English proficiency levels and their performances of English reading recall with and without the use of picture cues. Moreover, to meet the students’ needs, the design of the English reading texts in this study was similar to the reading practices in EFL junior high school students’ textbooks. Through this study, EFL junior high school teachers may find an alternative, practical solution for their students’ English reading problems, and can offer their students the opportunities to practice for better achievement in English learning. In sum, with the background knowledge attained from the previous research, this study searched in depth for the effects of using pictures cues on junior high school EFL students’ English reading recall and text-perceptions. This study also aimed to identify possible pedagogical applications to help students improve their English reading recall and text-perceptions.. - 26 -.

(37) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY. This study aimed to investigate the effects of using picture cues on EFL junior high school students’ English reading, including recall and text-perceptions, and whether these effects differ between higher and lower English proficiency levels. This chapter introduces the participants and instruments in the present study, illustrates the design and data collection procedures, and describes the data analysis process.. The Participants In this section, the background information about the school, the teacher, and the students in the present study are introduced. The school This study took place in a public junior high school in Taipei City, where the researcher of the present study taught in the academic year of 2008. The junior high school consisted of 21 classes, from Grade 7 to Grade 9. There were seven classes in each grade, and around 25 students in each class. To improve students’ academic achievement and English performance, daily English use was encouraged and English reading training was emphasized at this school. To promote students’ English learning as required by the school, besides four regular English classes every week, the eighthand ninth-graders had an extra period weekly for more English practice. As a result, the eighth- and ninth-graders at this school had a total of 5 period English classes each week in the whole academic year of 2008, consisting of two semesters. The Teacher The EFL teacher in the experiment was also the researcher of the present study.. - 27 -.

(38) The teacher had six and a half years of English teaching experience at the junior high school, and taught eighth-graders in the academic year of 2008. To improve the students’ English reading abilities, the teacher periodically carried out English reading exercises with or without picture cues one period per week as the extended English curriculum at the school. The English reading exercises in the second semester of 2008 academic year began from March 2009, including the three-week experiment in this study from April 7 to April 22. By conducting the experiment, the researcher assessed the effects of picture cues on students’ reading recall and text-perceptions. The Students The present study involved 42 public EFL junior high school students from two intact classes, who were in their second semester of the eighth grade. The students had learned English for more than five and a half years since the third grade of elementary school. They had picked up at least 721 headwords from their textbooks to be able to read short passages, and were expected to reach a 1000-headword level as required by the Nine-year Integrated English Curriculum Guidelines. These participants were in two different classes, Class A with 20 students and Class B with 22 students of full participation in the present study. After the experiment on the use of picture cues in students’ English reading, students’ performances of recall and text-perceptions were analyzed and discussed. In addition, to find out students of which English proficiency level would benefit more from the English reading exercises in this experiment, the 42 students were divided into two groups based on their English proficiency levels (higher and lower). The findings from Liu (2004) and the noticed twin-peak distribution phenomena in the BCT for English (Chen, 2007; Chou, 2003; Huang, 2002; Taiwan Education Testing Service [TETS], 2002) reflected the necessity of investigation on the effects of using picture cues on reading of the students at different. - 28 -.

(39) language proficiency levels. According to the latest mock BC English test in the academic year of 2008, the English average score of the 42 participants was 51.64, as a full mark was 80 and the medium score was 54.9 The researcher made a distinction between the participants whose individual scores were over 54 as students at a higher language proficiency level (higher level students) and those who had individual scores below 54 as students at a lower language proficiency level (lower level students). In this study, there were 21 higher level students (8 in Class A and 13 in Class B). At the same time, there were 21 lower level students (12 in Class A and 9 in Class B). The higher level students’ scores were from 54 to 80 as the lower level students’ scores were from 1 to 54. The English performances of the 42 participants are shown in Table 1.. Table 1 The English Performances of the participants. The Number of Participants. 42. Mean Scores from the Latest Mock BC English Test. The Number of the Higher Level Students. The Number of the Lower Level Students. (The Full Mark = 80). ( Individual Score ≥ 54. (Individual Score ≤ 54 ). 51.64. 21. 21. 9. There were two students who got the medium score, 54, in the mock BC English test. As there were totally 42 students’ scores in this experiment, and the two students’ scores were both placed as the twenty-first, for equally grouping, one who scored 54 in Class A was distributed to students at a higher language proficiency level; the other in Class B was distributed to students at a lower language proficiency level. - 29 -.

(40) Instruments The instruments implemented in this study were (a) two English reading passages, (b) text-perception questionnaires, (c) recall sheets, and (d) interview questions. Inspired by the previous studies, such as Liu (2004)’s study in which immediate recall was used for measuring reading comprehension, Cope et al.’s (1986) study in which the five-level Likert Scale was used for investigating students’ language learning difficulties, and Radnofsky and Spielmann’s (2001) study in which qualitative information was searched for understanding students’ language learning problems, the researcher of the present study adopted the above instruments to meet the needs of this study and then proceeded the data collection procedures afterwards. Reading Passages (See Appendix A) There were two English reading passages chosen from Elementary Steps to Understanding (Hill, 1980) for measuring students’ recall and text-perceptions. The two comparable passages were selected for this study based on the following reasons. First, measured by the tool of Windows, the length of reading in Kang Hsuan English Textbook Ⅲ for the eighth-grade participants was between 87 and 123 words, including 6.5 to 9.0 words per sentence, 9 to 14 sentences per reading. The readability range of the reading in the Textbook was from 3.8 to 8.0 according to Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level. Therefore, the length of the two passages was acceptable, 150 words in both Passage 1 and Passage 2, 27 words longer than the longest reading in the participants’ Textbook. Passage 1 consisted of 9 sentences, with an average of 16.6 words per sentence. Passage 2 consisted of 11 sentences, with an average of 13.6 words per sentence. The readability of the two passages was both 6.0, which was within the readability range in the participants’ Textbook. Second, according to the. - 30 -.

(41) introduction of the book Elementary Steps to Understanding, the vocabulary in the two passages was within 1000 headword level,10 within the number of English vocabulary for junior high school students when they graduated. For the participants’ Textbook, the number of new vocabulary for the eighth-graders was 5 words in each passage, where the researcher didn’t replace any words. Third, as for the grammar in reading, the major tense used in the two passages was past tense, which the participants were capable to handle at the present language proficiency level. Fourth, both of the two passages were narratives, a familiar literary style to eighth-graders, with a conflict in the story and a fun turning point at the end. Fifth, there were similarities in the presentation of the two passages. The glossing of vocabulary was offered at the bottom of each passage, similar to the form of reading comprehension practice in students’ Textbook. Then, for the purpose of understanding the functions of using picture cues in reading, each passage was designed in two versions. One was presented with a black–and-white picture cue, which illustrated thematic information of the verbal content, placed above the written text. The other was presented simply with the verbal content without any picture cues. Most important of all, based on the confirmation by a yes-no question in the beginning of the text-perception questionnaire (See Appendix B), none of the students in this study read the two passages before. This ensured the application of the two passages in this study. The comparability of the two reading passages is shown in Table 2.. 10. According to the Nine-year Integrated English Curriculum Guidelines, the number of English vocabulary for the junior high school graduates before 2011 is 1000 words for production.. - 31 -.

(42) Table 2 The Comparability of the Two Reading Passages Passage 1. Passage 2. Elementary Steps to Understanding (Hill, 1980). Elementary Steps to Understanding (Hill, 1980). 150 words (including 9 sentences, with on average 16.6 words per sentence). 150 words (including 11 sentences, with on average 13.6 words per sentence). Readability. 6.0. 6.0. Vocabulary. within 1000 headword level. within 1000 headword level. Reference. Length. 5 words New Vocabulary for the participants (eighth-graders) Grammar. Literary Style. 5 words. past tense. past tense. Narrative (A story about a boy and his mother who loved drawing with a conflicting try in the story and a fun turning point at the end.). Narrative (A story about two kids who had fun at home with a conflicting fight in the story and a fun turning point at the end.). a. glossing of vocabulary offered at the bottom of the passage. a. glossing of vocabulary offered at the bottom of the passage. b. designed in two versions (one with a picture cue; the other with only verbal content). b. designed in two versions (one with a picture cue; the other with only verbal content). No participants read it before (confirmed by a yes-no question in the questionnaire).. No participants read it before (confirmed by a yes-no question in the questionnaire).. Presentation. Confirmation. - 32 -.

(43) Text-perception Questionnaire (See Appendix B) To compare the students’ perceptions with and without using picture cues in reading, a questionnaire with four text-perception statements was designed for the students to complete right after they read over each passage. In this questionnaire, Statement 1 to Statement 4 assessed the amusement, difficulty level, clarity, and memorability of the passages. The students were asked to choose one best answer from the five options for each statement. The five options were presented on a five-level Likert Scale, which represented the degree of the students’ approval to the statements: 5 for strongly approval; 4 for approval; 3 for neutral; 2 for disapproval; 1 for strongly disapproval. In addition, to ensure the validity of the instruments in this experiment, the students were asked to check if they had read the passages before at the very beginning of the questionnaire. Recall Sheets (See Appendix C) To check the students’ comprehension and memory for the reading passages, the students were encouraged to recall and write down the story as detailed as possible, either in English or in Chinese, on a piece of paper. According to the instruction for recall, the details of the story should be written in sequence. Follow-up Interview (See Appendix D) To find the function of picture cues from different cases in this experiment, eight randomly selected students from the two language levels (4 from each level: higher and lower) of the two classes (4 from each class: Class A and Class B) were interviewed after quantitative data collection. The students’ interview contained five questions. concerning. the. students’. reading. motivation,. reading. anxiety,. comprehension for main ideas, immediate memory, and preference for the use of. - 33 -.