The Impact of Novelty Seeking on Revisit Intention：Vivid Memory as the Moderating Variable
羅旭壯、顏昌華
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
According to past studies about the leisure and tourism industry, for those tourists who either have positive or negative effects of novelty seeking had been found to have more revisit intention. The purpose of this study was to explore whether novelty seeking has the effect on the tourists’ revisit intention, as well as whether vivid memory can bring about significant effects on their revisit intention. A total sample of 1129 inbounding tourists from Mainland China and outbounding Taiwanese tourists was recruited as subjects to conduct with a five-point Likert scale questionnaire. These subjects were administered the pre-test and questionnaire survey. The Structural Equation Modeling was employed to measure the data analysis. The results indicated that novelty seeking has a positive effect on tourists’ revisit intention. Novelty seeking on the influence of tourists’ revisit intention may be affected by the moderating variable of vivid memory in a positive direction. However, there is insignificant difference between tourists from China and Taiwan. The relationship between novelty seeking and revisit intention has the positive effect in this study. In other words, tourists with more novelty seeking have more revisit intention. If tourists have stable and beautiful memory, their revisit intention will be enhanced. Additionally, if travel agencies deliver a higher level of service quality by arousing tourists’ memory, making different types of tourists and keeping the vivid travel memory, tourists’ higher interest of revisit intention will then be aroused. A conclusion and recommendation would be provided in this study to expound further theory on the revisit intention. A practical
recommendation would also be provided for the tour operators and tourist managers as a means to increase the development of tourism industry and its promotion as well.
Keywords : novelty seeking, vivid memory, revisit intention
Table of Contents
封面內頁 簽名頁 中文摘要...i 英文摘
要...ii 誌謝...iii 目 錄...vi 圖目錄...ix 表目
錄...x 第一章緒論 第一節研究背景...1 第 二節研究問題與目的...3 第三節研究重要性...5 第 二章文獻探討與假設推論 第一節尋求新奇...8 第二節重遊意
願...17 第三節記憶猶新...24 第四節影響重遊 意願之變數...31 第五節尋求新奇、記憶猶新與重遊意願之關
係...33 第三章研究方法 第一節研究架構...40 第二節樣本與 資料蒐集...41 第三節變數操作型定義與衡量...42 第四 節預試效度與信度分析...46 第五節資料分析方法...55 第四章結果與討論 第一節樣本特性分析...57 第二節遊客喜歡重遊目的地的類
型...59 第三節正式量表效度與信度分析...61 第四節共線性與 共同變異檢定...68 第五節尋求新奇、記憶猶新與重遊意願交互影
響...70 第五章結論與建議 第一節研究結論...78 第二節管理意 涵...81 第三節研究限制與後續研究建議...84 參考文 獻...87 附錄一：預試問卷：遊客（出國）重遊意
願...114 附錄二：預試問卷：游客（台灣景點）重游意愿...117 附錄三：遊 客（出國）重遊意願...120 附錄四：游客（台灣景點）重游意
愿...123 圖目錄 圖2-1 尋求新奇的四個構面概念架構...9 圖2-2 尋 求新奇四個構面...12 圖2-3 新奇熟悉連續帶與覺醒程度之關
係...16 圖2-4 重遊意願的前置因素...21 圖2-5 顳葉功能：聽覺、
情緒、記憶...30 圖3-1 研究架構...40 圖3-2 整體模式配 適度評估...54 圖4-1 整體路徑關係結果...71 圖4-2 整體
遊客記憶猶新對尋求新奇與重遊意願影響之干擾圖...72 圖4-3 大陸遊客整體路徑關係結
果...74 圖4-4 大陸遊客記憶猶新對尋求新奇與重遊意願影響之干擾圖...74 圖4-5 臺灣遊客整體路徑關係結果...76 圖4-6 臺灣遊客記憶猶新對尋求新奇與重遊意願影響之 干擾圖...76 表目錄 表2-1 以尋求新奇為旅遊動機的相關文獻...14 表2-2 重遊客的 分類標準...19 表2-3 評估痛苦事件的記憶評量表...25 表2-4 記憶猶新測量問項...27 表3-1 預試效度以及信度分析之
一...48 表3-2 預試效度以及信度分析之二...49 表3-3 預試效度以 及信度分析之三...50 表3-4 預試效度以及信度分析之四...50 表3-5 預試效度以及信度分析之五...51 表3-6 預試效度以及信度分析之
六...52 表3-7 預試效度以及信度分析之七...53 表4-1 各背景變項 之受試對象統計表之一...58 表4-2 各背景變項之受試對象統計表之
二...59 表4-3 遊客喜歡重遊目的地類型...60 表4-4 因素分析、效度 以及信度之一...62 表4-5 因素分析、效度以及信度之二...63 表4-6 因素分析、效度以及信度之三...64 表4-7 因素分析、效度以及信度之
四...64 表4-8 因素分析、效度以及信度之五...65 表4-9 因素分析、
效度以及信度之六...66 表4-10 因素分析、效度以及信度之七...67 表4-11 1 至3 個因素模型的配適度情形...69 表4-12 各變數平均數、標準差相關矩陣VIF 值以及解 釋量...69 表4-13 理論模式及整體模式解釋力...70 表4-14 整體模型的配適度 情形...70 表4-15 記憶猶新之干擾路徑係數分析整體模型的配適度情形...71 表4-16 大陸與臺灣不同遊客類型於各變數之z 檢定...72 表4-17 大陸遊客整體模型的配適度情
形...73 表4-18 大陸遊客記憶猶新之干擾路徑係數分析整體模型的配適度情形...73 表4-19 臺灣遊客整體模型的配適度情形...75 表4-20 臺灣遊客記憶猶新之干擾路徑係數分析整體 模型的配適度情形...75 表4-21 研究假設檢定結果彙總表...77
REFERENCES
交通部觀光局（2013，2月4日）。綜合旅行社。資料來源: http://www.tbroc.gov.tw/m1.aspx?sNo=0000148&lid=53&t=l3&keyString=^^^53 精神健康基金會（2012，8月3日）。認識身體最高指揮官—頭腦。腦的美麗境界。資料來源:
http://www.mhf.org.tw/wonderfulbrain/guide_a.htm Acker, M., & McReynolds, P. (1967). The need for novelty: A comparison of six instruments. The Psychological Record, 17(2), 177-182. Aggleton, J. P., & Brown, M. W. (1999). Episodic memory, amnesia, and the hippocampal-anterior thalamic axis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(3), 425-444. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211. Alegre, J., & Cladera, M. (2006). Repeat visitation in mature sun and sand holiday destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 44(3), 288-297. Alegre, J., & Juaneda, C. (2006). Destination loyalty: Consumers’ economic behavior. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(3), 684-706. Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1997). An analysis of leisure constraints based on different recreational sport participation levels: Results from a study in Greece. Leisure Sciences, 19(1), 1-15. Alleyne, D., & Boxill, I. (2003). The impact of crime on tourist arrivals in Jamaica. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(5), 381-391. Anwar, S. A., & Sohail, M. S. (2004). Festival tourism in the United Arab Emirates: First-time versus repeat visitor perceptions. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10(2), 161-170. Arentze, T. A., &
Timmermans, H. J. P. (2003). Modeling learning and adaptation processes in activity-travel choice: A framework and numerical experiments.
Transportation, 30(1), 37-62. Arentze, T. A., & Timmermans, H. J. P. (2005). Information gain, novelty seeking and travel: A model of dynamic activity-travel behavior under conditions of uncertainty. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 39(2-3), 125-145. Assael, H. (2004).
Consumer behavior: A strategic approach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Assaker, G., Vinzi, V. E., & O’Connor, P. (2011). Examining the effect of novelty seeking, satisfaction, and destination image on tourists’ return pattern: A two factor, non-linear latent growth model. Tourism
Management, 32(4), 890-901. Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Academic of Marketing Science, 16(1), 76-94. Baker, D. A., & Crompton, J. L. (2000). Quality, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 785-804.
Baloglu, S. (1999). A path analytic model of visitation intention involving information sources, socio-psychological motivations, and destination image. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 8(3), 81-90. Baloglu, S., & Erickson, R. E. (1998). Destination loyalty and switching behavior of travelers: A Markov analysis. Tourism Analysis, 2(2), 119-127. Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K. W. (1999). US international pleasure travelers' images of four mediterranean destinations: A comparison of visitors and nonvisitors. Journal of Travel Research, 38(2), 144-152. Bancaud, J.,
Brunet-Bourgin, F., Chauvel, P., & Halgren, E. (1994). Anatomical origin of d’ej`a vu and vivid ‘memories’ in human temporal lobe epilepsy.
Brain, 117(1), 71-90. Barbeau, E., Wendling, F., Regis, J., Duncan, R., Poncet, M., Chauvel, P., & Bartolomei, F. (2005). Recollection of vivid memories after perirhinal region stimulations: Synchronization in the theta range of spatially distributed brain areas. Neuropsychologia, 43(9), 1329-1337. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy.
Science, 275(5304), 1293-1295. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The Iowa Gambling Task and the somatic marker
hypothesis: Some questions and answers. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(4), 159-162. Beh, A., & Bruyere, B. L. (2007). Segmentation by visitor motivation in three Kenyan national reserves. Tourism Management, 28(6), 1464-1471. Bello, D. C., & Etzel, M. J. (1985). The role of novelty in the pleasure travel experience. Journal of Travel Research, 24(1), 20-26. Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models.
Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238-246. Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York: McGraw Hill Book, Co. Bigne, J. E., Andreu, L., & Gnoth, J. (2005). The theme park experience: An analysis of pleasure, arousal, and satisfaction. Tourism Management, 26(6), 833-844. Bigne, J. E., Sanchez, M. I., & Sanchez, J. (2001). Tourism image, evaluation variable and after purchase behavior: Inter-relationship.
Tourism Management, 22(6), 607-617. Birgit, L. (2001). Image segmentation: The case of a tourism destination. Journal of Services Marketing, 15(1), 49-66. Bitner, M. J, (1992). Servicescape: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of Marketing, 56(2), 57-71. Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books.Jeng, C., Sheu, P. Y., Chen, C. M., Chen, S. R., & Tseng, I. G. (2001). Clinical validation of the related factors and defining characteristics of impaired swallowing for patients with stroke. Journal of Nursing Research, 9(4), 105-115. Brewer, W. F. (1988). Memory for randomly sampled autobiographical events. In:
U. Neisser and E. Winograd (Eds.), Remembering 62 Reconsidered: Ecological and Traditional Approaches to the Study of Memory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 21-90. Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5(1), 73-99. BTA/ETB Research Services (1997). Overseas leisure visitor survey 1996. BTA/ETB Research Services, London, UK. BTA/ETB Research Services (1998). Digest of tourism statistics no. 21. BTA/ETB Research Services, London, UK, January. Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval of emotional memories. Psychological Bulletin, 133(5), 761-779. Butler, R. (1980). The concept of tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5-12. Bywalters, M., Andrade, J., & Turpin, G. (2004a). Determinants of the vividness of visual imagery: The effects of delayed recall, stimulus affect and individual differences. Memory, 12(4), 479-488. Bywalters, M., Andrade, J., & Turpin, G. (2004b). Intrusive and non-intrusive memories in a non-clinical sample: The effects of mood and affect on imagery vividness. Memory, 12(4), 467-478. Cattell, R. B.
(1975). Personality and motivation: Structure and measurement. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. Inc. Chang, J., Wall, G., & Chu, S. T.
(2006). Novelty seeking at aboriginal attractions. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(3), 729-747. Chaudhary, M. (2000). India's image as a tourist destination: A perspective of foreign tourists. Tourism Management, 21(3), 293-297. Chen, J. S., & Gursoy, D. (2001). An investigation of tourists’
destination loyalty and preferences. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality management, 13(2), 79-85. Chon, K. (1991). Tourism destination image modification process. Tourism Management, 12(1), 68-72. Cohen, E. (1972). Toward a sociology of international tourism. Social Research, 39(1), 164-182. Cohen, E. (1979). Rethinking the sociology of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(1), 18-35. Conway, M. (1999).
Unique memories: Creating the mind's 'I'. Nature, 397, 575-576. Conway, M. A. (1990). Autobiographical memory: An introduction. Open University Press, Milton Keynes. Conway, M. A. (2001). Sensory-perceptual episodic memory and its context: Autobiographical memory.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 356(1413), 1375-1384. Conway, M. A., Meares, K., & Standart, S. (2004). Images and goals. Memory, 12(4), 525-531. Correia, A., Oliveira, N., & Butler, R. (2008). First-time and repeat visitors to Cape Verde: the overall image.
Tourism Economics, 14(1), 185-203. Crawford, D. W., Jackson, E. L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13(4), 309-320. Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424. Crompton, J. L.
(1992). Structure of vacation destination choice sets. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(3), 420-434. D_Argembeau, A., & Van der Linden, M.
(2004). Phenomenal characteristics associated with projecting oneself back into the past and forward into the future: Influence of valence and temporal distance. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 844-858. Dann, G. M. S. (1977). Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 4(4), 184-194. Dann, G. M. S. (1981). Tourism motivation: An appraisal. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(2), 187-219.
D'Argembeau, A., & Van der Linden, M. (2006). Individual differences in the phenomenology of mental time travel: The effect of vivid visual imagery and emotion regulation strategies. Conscious Cogn, 15(2), 342-350. Darnell, A. C., & Johnson, P. S. (2001). Repeat visits to attractions: A preliminary economic analysis. Tourism Management, 22(2), 119-126. DeVellis, R. F. (1991). Scale development: Theory and applications (Applied Social Research Methods Series, Vol. 26). Newbury Park: Sage. Dodds, W., Monroe, K., & Grewal, D. (1991). Effects of price, brand and store information on buyers’ product evaluations. Journal of Marketing Research, 28(3), 307-319. Duncan, O. D. (1975). Introduction to structural equation models. New York: Academic Press. Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. Faison, E. (1977). The neglected variety drive: A useful concept for consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 4(3), 172-175. Fakeye, P. C., & Crompton, J. L. (1991). Image differences between prospective, first-time, and repeat visitors to the lower Rio Grande Valley. Journal of Travel Research, 30(2), 10-16. Fallon, P., & Schofield, P. (2004). First-time versus repeat visitor satisfaction: The case of Orlando, Florida. Tourism Analysis, 8(2), 205-210. Farley, F., & Farley, S. V. (1967). Extroversion and stimulus-seeking motivation. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31(2), 215-216. Feng, R., & Jang, S. (2004). Temporal destination loyalty: A structural initiation. Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research, 9(2), 207-221. Fennell, D. A., & Smale, B. J. A. (1992). Ecotourism and natural resource protection. Tourism Recreation Research, 17(1), 21-32. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row-Peterson. Fishbein, M., & Manfredo, M. J. (1992).
A theory of behavior change. In M. J. Manfredo (Ed.), Influencing human begaviour: Theory and applications in recreation, tourism and natural resource management (9.32). Champaign, IL: Safamore Publishing Inc. Fiske, D. W., & Maddi, S. R. (1961). Functions of varied experience.
Homewood. IL: Dorsey Press. Flavell, J. H. (1977). Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Inc. Fluker, M. R., & Turner, L.
W. (2000). Need, motivations, and expectations of a commercial Whitewater rafting experience. Journal of Travel Research, 38(4), 380-389.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. (1981). Evaluating structure equations models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing
Research 18(1), 39–50. Francis, J., & Smith, A. (1995). Agency costs and innovation-some empirical evidence. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 19(2-3), 383-409. Franklin, A. (2003). Tourism: An introduction. London: Sage. Frochot, I., & Hughes, H. (2000). HISTOQUAL: The development of a historic houses assessment scale. Tourism Management, 21(2), 157-167. Galloway, G., & Lopez, K. (1999). Sensation seeking and attitudes to aspects of national parks: A preliminary empirical investigation. Tourism Management, 20(6), 665-671. George, R. (2003). Tourist’s perceptions of safety and security while visiting Cape Town. Tourism Management, 24(5), 575-585. George, R. (2010). Visitor perceptions of crime-safety and attitudes towards risk: The case of Table Mountain National Park, Cape Town. Tourism Management, 31(6), 806-815. Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1988). An updated paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment. Journal of Marketing Research, 25(2), 186-192. Gitelson, R. J., & Crompton, J. L. (1984). Insights into the repeat vacation phenomenon. Annals of Tourism Research, 11(2), 199-217. Godbey, G., & Graefe, A. (1991). Repeat tourism, play, and monetary spending. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2), 213-225. Goodrich, J. N. (1978). The relationship between preferences for and perceptions of vacation destinations: Application of a choice model.
Journal of Travel Research, 17(2), 8-13. Grace, D., & O’Cass, A. (2004). An examination of the antecedents of repatronage intentions across different retail store formats. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 12(4), 227-243. Gursoy, D., & McCleary, K. W. (2004). An integrative model of tourists’ information search behavior. Annals of Toursim Research, 31(2), 353-373. Gyte, D. M., & Phelps, A. (1989). Patterns of destination repeat business: British tourists in Mallorca, Spain. Journal of Travel Research, 28(1), 24-28. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, J. B., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2009). Multivariate Data Analysis. 6th Edn., Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Hauber, A. R., & Zandbergen, A. G. A. (1996). Foreign visitors as targets of crime in the Netherlands: Perceptions and actual victimization over the years 1989, 1990, and 1993. Security Journal, 7(3), 211-218. Hawkes, E., & Kwortnik, R. J. (2006). Connecting with the culture: A case study in sustainable tourism. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 47(4), 369-381. Hebb, D. O., & Thompson, W. R. (1954). The social significance of animal studies. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), Handbook of Social Psychology (pp. 551-552). Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley.
Hennig-Thurau, T., & Hansen, U. (2000). Chapter 1: Relationship marketing-Some reflections on the state-of-the-art of the relational concept. In T. Hennig-Thurau, & U. Hansen (Eds.), Relationship marketing: Gaining competitive advantage through customer satisfaction and customer retention (pp. 3-27). Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag. Hernandez, M. D., Wang, Y. J., Minor, M. S., & Liu, Q. (2008). Effects of superstitious beliefs on consumer novelty seeking and independent judgment making: Evidence from China. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 7(6), 424-435.
Hirschman, E. C. (1980). Consumer creativity: Nature, measurement and application. Proceedings, Secotid Atuuial National Conference on Marketing Theory. Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, forthcoming. Hirschman, E. C. (1980). Innovativeness, novelty seeking, and consumer creativity. Journal of Consumer Research, 7(3), 283-295. Hirschman, E. C. (1984). Experience seeking: A subjectivist perspective of consumption. Journal of Business Research, 12(1), 115-136. Hirschman, E. C., & Holbrook, M. B. (1982). Hedonic consumption: Emerging concepts, methods and propositions. Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 92-101. Hong Kong Tourist Board. (2001). Visitor profile report (Hong Kong:
research department. China: Author. Hong, S., Lee, S., Lee, S., & Jang, H. (2009). Selecting revisited destinations. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(2), 268-294. Hsee, C. K., & Weber, E. U. (1999). Cross-national differences in risk preference and lay predictions. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12(2), 165-179. Huang, S., & Hsu, C. H. C. (2009). Effects of travel motivation, past experience, perceived constraint, and attitude on revisit intention. Journal of Travel Research, 48(1), 29-44. Hughes, A. M. (1995). Making a database pay off using recency, frequency, and monetary analysis. Journal of Database Marketing, 3(1), 77-89. Hughes, H. L., & Allen, D. (2005). Cultural tourism in central and eastern Europe: The views of induced image formation agents. Tourism Management, 26(2), 173-183. Hughes, M., & Morrison-Saunders, A. (2002).
Repeat and first time visitation in an experience specific context: The valley of the giants tree top walk. Journal of Tourism Studies, 13(1), 20-25.
Hunt, J. D. (1975). Image as a factor in tourism development. Journal of Travel Research, 13(3), 1-7. Izard, C. E. (1977). Human emotions. New York: Plenum Press. Jackson, J., & Colman, W. (1898). Case of epilepsy with tasting movements and ‘dreamy state’-very small patch of softening in the left uncinate gyrus. Brain, 21, 580-590. Jacoby, L. L. (1992). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from
intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30(5), 513-541. James, F. P. (2004). First Timers’ and repeaters’ perceived value.
Journal of Travel Research, 43(1), 29-38. Jang, S. C., & Feng, R. (2007). Temporal destination revisit intention: The effects of novelty seeking and satisfaction. Tourism Management, 28(2), 580-590. Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Johnson, M. K., Foley, M.
A., Suengas, A. G., & Raye, C. L. (1988). Phenomenal characteristics of memories for perceived and imagined autobiographical events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117(4), 371-376. Jones, E. (1957). Pain. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 38, 255-257. Jones, M. A., Mothersbaugh, D. L., & Beatty, S. E. (2002). Why customers stay: Measuring the underlying dimensions of services switching costs and managing their differential strategic outcomes. Journal of Business Research, 55(6), 441-450. Juaneda, C. (1996). Estimating the probability of return visits using a survey of tourist expenditure in the Balearic Islands. Tourism Economics, 2(4), 339-352. Katz, J., & Melzack, R. (1990). Pain ‘memories’
in phantom limbs: Review and clinical observations. Pain, 43(3), 319-336. Kim, J. H., Brent Ritchie, J. R., & McCormick, B. (2012). Development of a scale to measure memorable tourism experiences. Journal of Travel Research, 51(1), 12-25. Knopf, R., Peterson, G., & Leatherberry, E. (1983).
Motives for recreational river floating: Relative consistency across settings. Leisure Sciences, 5(3), 231-255. Korsgaard, M., & Robertson, L. (1995).
Procedural justice in performance evaluation: The role of instrumental voice in performance appraisal discussions. Journal of Management, 21(4), 657-669. Kosslyn, S. M., Ganis, G., & Thompson, W. L. (2001). Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(9), 635-642.
Kozak, M. (2001). Repeaters’ behavior at two distinct destinations. Annals of Tourism Research, 28(3), 784-807. Kyle, G., Graefe, A., Manning, R., & Bacon, J. (2003). An examination of the relationship between leisure activity involvement and place attachment among hikers along the
appalachian trail. Journal of Leisure Research, 35(3), 249-273. Lai, C. N., Yu, T. K., & Kuo, J. K. (2010). How to say sorry: Increasing revisit intention through effective service recovery in theme parks. Social Behavior and Personality, 38(4), 509-514. Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. (2006).
Predicting behavioral intention of choosing a travel destination. Tourism Management, 27(4), 589-599. Lampinen, J. M., Meier, C. R., Arnal, J.
D., Leding, J. K. (2005). Compelling untruths: Content borrowing and vivid false memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(5), 954-963. Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology, 16(6), 495-512.
Lang, P. J., Greenwalk, M. K., Bradley, M. M., & Hamm, A. O. (1993). Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions.
Psychophysiology, 30(3), 261-273. Lapage, W. F., & Cormier, P. L. (1977). Images of camping-barriers to participation. Journal of Travel Research, 15(4), 21-25. Lau, A. L. S., & McKercher, B. (2004). Exploration versus acquisition: A comparison of first-time and repeat visitors.
Journal of Travel Research, 42(3), 279-285. Lee, C. F. (2006). Assessing destination competitiveness: An application to the hot springs tourism sector. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 3(3), 179-197. Lee, T. H., & Crompton, J. (1992). Measuring novelty seeking in tourism.
Annals of Tourism Research, 19(4), 732-751. Lehto, X. R. Y., O’Leary, J. T., & Morrison, A. M. (2004). The effect of prior experience on vacation behavior. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(4), 801-818. Leiper, N. (2004) Tourism management (3rd Edition). Malaysia: Pearson Hospitality Press. Lepp, A., & Gibson, H. (2008). Sensation seeking and tourism: Tourist role, perception of risk and destination choice. Tourism Management, 29(4), 740-750. Li, X., Cheng, C. K., Kim, H., & Petrick, J. F. (2008). A systematic comparison of first-time and repeat visitors via a two-phase online survey. Tourism Management, 29(2), 278-293. Light, D. (1996). Characteristics of the audience for ‘events’ at a heritage site.
Tourism Management, 17(3), 183-190. Lindquist, J. D. (1974). Meaning of image. Journal of Retailing, 50(4), 29-37. Mandel, N. (2003). Shifting selves and decision making: The effects of self-construel priming on consumer risk-taking. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(1), 30-40. Mandler, G.
(1980). Recognizing: The judgment of previous occurrence. Psychological Review, 87(3), 252-271. Mangion, M. L., Durbarry, R., & Sinclair, M. T.
(2005). Tourism competitiveness: Price and quality. Tourism Ecomonics, 11(1), 45-68. Manning, R. E. (1985). Diversity in a demorcracy, expanding the recreation opportunity spectrum. Leisure Sciences, 7(4), 377-399. Marschall, S. (2012). Tourism and memory. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(4), 2216-2219. Mayo, E. J., & Jarvis, L. (1981). The psychology of leisure travel: Effective marketing and selling of travel services.
Boston: CBI. McAlister, L. (1982). A dynamic attribute satiation model of variety-seeking behaviour. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 141-150.
McAlister, L., & Pessemier, E. A. (1982). Variety-seeking behavior: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(3), 311-322.
McClelland, D. C. (1955). Studies in motivation. New York: Appleton, Century Crofts. McGinnis, D., & Roberts, P. (1996). Qualitative
characteristics of vivid memories attributed to real and imagined experiences. American Journal of Psychology, 109(1), 59-77. McGinnis, R. (1968).
A stochastic model of social mobility. American Sociological Review, 33(5), 712-721. McKercher, B. (2002). Towards a classification of cultural tourists. International Journal of Tourism Research, 4(1), 29-39. McKercher, B., & Wong, D. Y. Y. (2004). Understanding tourism behavior:
Examining the combined effects of prior visitation history and destination status. Journal of Travel Research, 43(2), 171-179. McWilliams, E. G., &
Crompton, J. L. (1997). An expanded framework for measuring the effectiveness of destination advertising. Tourism Management, 18(3), 127-137.
Melzack, R. (1990). Phantom limbs and the concept of a neuromatrix. Trends Neurosci, 13(3), 88-92. Merckelbach, H., Smeets, T., Geraerts, E., Jelicic, M., Bouwen, A., & Smeets, E. (2006). I haven't thought about this for years! Dating recent recalls of vivid memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(1), 33-42. Milman, A., & Pizam, A. (1995). The role of awareness and familiarity with a destination: The central Florida case.
Journal of Travel Research, 33(3), 21-27. Mitchell, V. W., & Greatorex, M. (1993). Risk perception and reduction in the purchase of consumer services. Service Industries Journal, 13(4), 179-200. Mohr, K., Backman, K. F., Gahan, L. W., & Backman, S. J. (1993). An investigation of festival motivations and event satisfaction by visitor type. Festival Management and Event Tourism, 1(3), 89-97. Morley, S. (1993). Vivid memory for 'everyday' pains. Pain, 55(1), 55-62. Moutinho, L. (1986). Consumer behavior in tourism. Management, Bibliographies and Reviews. 12.3, M.C.B.
Press. Nied?wie?ska, A. (2003). Gender differences in vivid memories. Sex Roles, 49(7-8), 321-331. Norman, K. A., & O’Reilly, R. C. (2003).
Modeling hippocampal and neocortical contributions to recognition memory: A complementarylearning-systems approach. Psychological Review, 110(4), 611-646. Odin, Y., Odin, N., & Valette-Florence, P. (2001). Conceptual and operational aspects of brand loyalty: An empirical
investigation. Journal of Business Research, 53(2), 75-84. Oh, H. (1999). Service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer value: A holistic perspective. Hospitality Management, 18(1), 67-82. Okamura, K., & Fukushige, M. (2010). Differences in travel objectives between first-time and repeat tourists: An empirical analysis for the Kansai Area in Japan. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(6), 647-664. Oliver, R. L. (1980).
A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460-469. Oppermann, M.
(1997). First-time and repeat visitors to New Zealand. Tourism Management, 18(3), 177-181. Oppermann, M. (1998). Destination threshold potential and the law of repeat visitation. Journal of Travel Research, 37(2), 131-137. Oppermann, M. (1999). Predicting destination choice: A discussion of destination loyalty. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 5(1), 51-65. Oppermann, M. (2000). Tourism destination loyalty. Journal of Travel Research, 39(August), 78-84. Otto, J. E., & Ritchie, B. J. R. (1996). The service experience in tourism. Tourism Management, 17(3), 165-174.
Pearson, P. H. (1970). Relationships between global and specified measures of novelty seeking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34(2), 199-204. Penfield, W. (1952). Memory mechanisms. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 67(2), 178-191. Penfield, W., & Perrot, P. (1963).
The brain’s record of auditory and visual experience. Brain, 86(4), 595-696. Petrick, J. F. (1999). An examination of the relationship between golf travelers’ satisfaction, perceived value and loyalty and their intentions to revisit. Diss., Clemson University, Clemson, SC. Petrick, J. F. (2002). An examination of golf vacationers’ novelty. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 384-400. Petrick, J. F. (2004a). Are loyal visitors desired visitors?
Tourism Management, 25(4), 463-470. Petrick, J. F. (2004b). First timers’ and repeaters’ perceived value. Journal of Travel Research, 43(1),
29-38. Petrick, J. F., & Backman, S. J. (2002). An examination of the determinants of golf travelers’ satisfaction. Journal of Travel Research, 40(3), 252-258. Petrick, J. F., Morais, D. D., & Norman, W. (2001). An examination of the determinants of entertainment vacationers’ intentions to revisit. Journal of Travel Research, 40(1), 41-48. Pine II, B. J., & Gilmore, J. H. (1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 4, 97-105. Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531-544. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. M., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method variance in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903. Podsakoff, P. M., Todor, W.D., Grover, R.A., & Huber, V.L. (1984). Situational moderators of leader reward and punishment behaviors: Fact or fiction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34(1), 21-63. Pritchard, M. P. (2003). The attitudinal and behavioural consequences of destination
performance. Tourism Analysis, 8(1), 61-73. Qu, H., Kim, L. H., & Im, H. H. (2011). A model of destination branding: Integrating the concepts of the branding and destination image. Tourism Management, 32(3), 465-476. Ratner, R. K., Kahn, B. E., & Kahneman, D. (1999). Choosing less-preferred experiences for the sake of variety. Journal of Consumer Research, 26(1), 1-15. Read, J. D., & Lindsay, D. S. (2000). Amnesia for summer camps and high school graduation: Memory work increases reports of prior periods of remembering less. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(1), 129-147. Reichheld, F. F., & Sasser, W. E. (1990). Zero, defection: Quality comes to service. Harvard Business Review, 68(1), 105-111. Reid, L. J., & Reid, S. D. (1993). Communicating tourism suppliers: Services building repeat visitor relationships. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 2(2/3), 3-20. Reisinger, Y., & Turner, L. (1998). Cross-cultural differences in tourism: A strategy for tourism marketers. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 7(4), 79-106. Riley, M., Niininen, O., Szivas,E. E., & Willis, T. (2001). The case for process approaches in loyalty research in tourism. International Journal of Tourism Research, 3(1), 23-32. Rittichainuwat, B. N., Qu, H., & Leong, J. K. (2003). The collective impacts of a bundle of travel determinants on repeat visitation. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 27(2), 217-236. Rittichainuwat, B. N., Qu, H., & Mongkhonvanit, C. (2008). Understanding the motivation of travelers on repeat visits to Thailand. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14(1), 5-21. Robert, S. M. (2002). Interpreting deindustrialised landscapes of Atlantic Canada: Memory and industrial heritage in Sackville. Canadian Geographer, 46(1), 48-62. Robinson, J. A., & Swanson, K. L. (1990). Autobiographical memory: The next phase. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 4(4), 321-335. Rodgers, W., Negash, S., & Suk, K. (2005). The moderating effect of online experience on the antecedents and consequences of online satisfaction. Psychology and Marketing, 22(4), 313-331. Rogers, E. M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. New York: The Free Press. Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1971). Communication of innovations: A cross-cultural approach (2nd ed.). New York: The Free Press. Ross, G. F.
(1993). Ideal and actual images of backpacker visitors to northern Australia. Journal of Travel Research, 32(2), 54-57. Rubin, D. C., & Kozin, M.
(1984). Vivid memories. Cognition, 16(1), 81-95. Sara, C. M., Joan, B. G. V., & Maria, P. M. R. (2010). Factors influencing repeat visits to a destination: The influence of group composition. Tourism Management, 31(6), 862-870. Schmidhauser, H. (1976). Neue erkenntnisse uber gesetzmassigkeiten bei der wahl des reiseziels (New insights in the regularities in destination choice). Jahrbuch fur Fremdenverkehr, 24/25, 86-102.
Schmitt, B. H. (1999). Experiential marketing. Journal of Marketing Management, 15(1-3), 53-67. Schreyer, R., & Roggenbuck, J. W. (1978). The influence of experience expectations on crowding perception and social-psychological carrying capacities. Leisure Sciences, 1(4), 373-394.
Schriesheim, J. (1980). The social context of leader-subordinate relations: An investigation of the effects of group cohesiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65(2), 183-194. Sharot, T., Delgado, M. R., & Phelps, E. A. (2004). How emotion enhances the feeling of remembering. Nature Neuroscience, 7(12), 1376-1380. Shoemaker, S., & Lewis, R. C. (1999). Customer loyalty: The future of hospitality marketing. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 18(4), 345-370. So, S. I., (Amy) & Morrison, A. M. (2004). The repeat travel market for Taiwan: A multi-stage segmentation approach. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 9(1), 71-87. Sonmez, S. F., & Graefe, A. R. (1998). International vacation decision and terrorism risk. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1), 122-124. Steiger, J. H., & Fouladi, R. T. (1997). Noncentrality interval estimation and the evaluation of statistical models. In L. L. Harlow, S. A. Mulaik, & J. H. Steiger (Eds.), What if there were no significance tests? (pp. 221-257).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Stewart, S. I., & Vogt, C. A. (1999). A case-based approach to understanding vacation planning. Leisure Sciences, 21(2), 79-95. Stewart, W. P., & Hull, R. B.,
