上獲得頗為一致的發現(Chang , 2002)。 目前不論在台灣或是在美國，學習障礙 學生大都接受融合教育，融合教育對學 習障礙學生的自尊形成何種影響？此研 究對於學習障礙學生的教育相當重要， 可惜這類研究迄今並不普遍，這也是本 文作者期待此篇拙作，能夠為此領域獻 出一點棉薄的心力。
貳、 學習障礙學生的自尊研究
Chapman(1988)在整理有關學習障 礙學生的自尊研究發現，學習障礙學生 的自尊顯著低於其沒有障礙的同儕。另 外有許多學者也發現學習障礙學生與其 沒有學習障礙學生比較起來，顯得有較 低的自我概念或自尊(Albinger , 1995； Cooley & Ayres , 1988；Cosden , Elliott , Noble , & Kelemen , 1999)。同樣地， Haring 和 McCormick(1990)在其文獻的 回顧也發現，學習障礙學生在其自我效 能(self-efficacy)的評價上低於其他沒有 障礙的學生，學習障礙學生對於他們的 能力和潛能並沒有強烈和積極正向的感 覺。Easton-Gholston(1995)指出負向的自 尊與長期失敗的經驗有關。 許多學者認為學習障礙學生長期且 重複地學業挫敗經驗導致他們的低自尊 (Friend , 1993；Stanley , Dai , & Nolan , 1997)。這樣的結果也使學習障礙學生懷 疑他們自己的能力和智力，降低了學習動機及嘗試努力的意願，也發展了負向 的行為和產生了心理適應的一些問題 (Clever , Bear , & Juvonen , 1992；Valas , 1999)。
時在普通班和資源班(resource rooms)接 受老師們的教導。
(inclusive classroom) 是一個正向的環 境，它可以培養學生對其自己和同儕積 極的態度，所有老師們也投以正向的印 象(positive images)並且給予接納和幫 助。一些學者研究發現從融合教育中， 學 生 可 能 獲 得 正 向 的 社 會 情 緒 成 長 (Moisan , 1998)，也提升了自尊，同儕接 納度和歸屬感(Banerji & Dailey , 1995； Sale & Carey , 1995) 。Vaughn , Elbaum 和 Schumm (1996)面談普通教師及特殊 教育教師，這些老師大都肯定融合教育 是成功的，因為它們改善了學習障礙學 生的自我概念。 Siperstein(1988)指出孤立(isolation) 會引起學生社會功能(social functioning) 的困難。另外有的學者也認為隔離妨礙 了與正常同儕關係的發展，進而引起了 更大的排斥(Vogel & Forness , 1992)。 Wang 和 Reynolds(1996)也說我們不能期 待 學 生 在 隔 離 的 環 境 (segregated environments)成長會建立及珍惜良好的 人際關係。Reid 和 Button(1995)從他們 的研究發現，當學習障礙學生被移到特 殊教育教室上課，離開他們原本的同 學，他們內心是很憤怒和挫折的；因為 大多數的學生想做他們同儕正在做的 事，與同儕一起做相同的事讓他們對自 己有較好的感覺，而這種感覺有助於提 升他們的自我概念(Vanghn , Elbaum , & Schumm, 1996) 。 Ritter ， Michel 和
知覺。有些學者認為把學習障礙學生安 置在普通班會導致負向比較及傷害這些 學生的自我概念(Daniel, 1997; Renick & Harter, 1989)。Renick 和 Harter(1989)和 Wurm(1998)發現在學習障礙學生知覺 其學業能力(Scholastic competence)的研 究中，當學習障礙學生與其他學習障礙 同儕做比較時，其對學業能力的知覺較 高於與其他非障礙同儕。Hocutt(1996) 回顧了一些研究學習障礙學生在普通班 及特殊班對其自我概念影響的論文發 現，許多學習障礙學生在普通班對其學 術能力(academic competence)和行為表 現的自我知覺顯著比其他非障礙學生低 落；除此之外，也發現在部份時段到資 源班上課的學習障礙學生與全部在普通 班受教育的類似學生做比較時，部分時 段到資源班上課的學生自覺有較好的學 術能力。
肆、 建議
如何讓融合教育達成其目標，不僅 幫助學習障礙學生提升學業能力，也同 時能增進他們的自尊，改善其行為，這 是個頗值得我們去思考的問題。筆者不 揣淺漏，有幾點淺見，盼能給教育工作 伙伴一些參考。 一、給予學習障礙學生充分社會支持 Hudson ， Elek ， 和 Campbell- Grossman(2000) 發 現 社 會 支 持 (social也能透過美術課、體育課及音樂課等非 學術性課程，探索他們的優勢能力及培 養興趣專長。 六、給予融合教育的教師充份的支持 和訓練 許多國外學者認為融合教育會失敗 的原因之一是普通班的老師所受到的訓 練準備不夠及支援系統不足(Conway & Gow , 1988 ； Schumm & Vaughn , 1992)，導致普通教師通常沒有對其學習 障礙學生做些什麼課程或教學或評量上 的 調 整 (Baker & Zigmond , 1990 ； Mclntosh , Vaughn , Schumm , Haager , & Lee , 1993)；在 94-142 公法上規定的個 別 化 教 學 通 常 也 很 少 在 普 通 班 實 施 (Zigmond & Baker , 1994)。
內容和概念的困難程度。普通教師雖然 也能理解課程調整及多元評量方式有其 必要，但是實務上要如何做、如何避免 讓普通學生覺得不公平的情況，或避免 讓學習障礙學生覺得是享特權或自覺與 別人不一樣所引起的羞愧感，頗值得普 通教師、特殊教育教師、家長、學生和 學校行政系統的協調溝通，方能找到比 較合適的方式。
伍、 結語
融合教育不僅是只把障礙學生安置 在普通班，而是讓這些障礙學生有更多 機會與普通學生一起學習互動及參與學 校所有活動(魏俊華，2002)。蔡昆瀛(2000) 批評如果光把特殊學生與普通學生安置 在同一班級受教育即稱為融合教育，顯 然不合真正融合教育之真諦。筆者認為 如果融合教育缺乏給老師及特殊學生足 夠的訓練和支持，那融合教育是不可能 成功的。 有的學者認為學習障礙學生需要更 強力密集(intensive)系統的教學，這很難 在 普 通 班 被 提 供 (Roberts & Mather , 1995)。有些學者也認為完全融合教育對 於有些有語言及教學特別需求的學習障 礙學生不見得是最好的安置。光是單獨 用身體的安置(physical placement)並沒 有顯出正向的效果(Bassett & Smith , 1996；Hocutt , 1996；Sanacore , 1996)。魏俊華 (2002)：融合教育的發展與評 價。國立臺東師範學院特殊教育中 心特殊教育叢書，16，19-29。 Albinger, P. (1995). Stories from the
resource room: Piano lessons, imaginary illness, and broken-down cars. Journal of Learning Disabilities,
28, 615-621.
Baker, J. M., & Zigmond, N. (1990). Are regular education classes equipped to accommodate students with learning disabilities? Exceptional Children,
56, 515-526.
Banerji, M., & Dailey, R. A. (1995). A study of the effects of an inclusion model on students with specific learning disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 28, 511-522.
Bassett, D. S., & Smith, T. E. C. (1996). Transition in an era of reform.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(2), 161-166.
Bauwens, J., & Hourcade, J. (1991). Making coteaching a mainstreaming strategy. Preventing School Failure,
35, 19-24.
Bear, G. G., & Minke, K. M. (1996). Positive bias in maintenance of self-worth among children with LD.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 19,
23-32.
Bear, G. G., Clever, A., & Proctor, W. A. (1991). Self-perceptions of
nonhandicapped children and children with learning disabilities in integrated classes. The Journal of
Special Education, 24, 409-426.
Brooks, R. (1991). The self-esteem teacher. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Chang, M. H. (2002). The effects of inclusion of students with learning disabilities in academic and non-academic activities on
self-esteem. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 63(04), 1301. (UMI
No. AAT 3048755).
Chapman, J. W. (1988). Learning disabled children’s self-concepts. Review of
Educational Research, 58(3),
347-371.
Clever, A., Bear, G., & Juvonen, J. (1992). Discrepancies between competence and importance in self-perceptions of children in integrated classes. The
Journal of Special Education, 26(2),
125-138.
learning disabilities. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 60(6), 1978.
(UMI No. AAT9933359). Conway, R. N. F., & Gow, L. (1988).
Mainstreaming special class students with mild handicaps through group instruction. Remedial and Special
Education, 9, 34-40.
Cooley, E. J., & Ayres, R. R. (1988). Self-concept and success-failure attributions of nonhandicapped students and students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 21, 174-178.
Cosden, M. A., & McNamara, J. (1997). Self-concept and perceived social support among college students with and without learning disabilities.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 20,
2-12.
Cosden, M., Elliott, K., Noble, S., & Kelemen, E. (1999).
Self-understanding and self-esteem in children with learning disabilities.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 22,
279-290.
Cross, B. E. (1997). Self-esteem and curriculum: Perspectives from urban teachers. Journal of Curriculum and
Supervision, 13(1), 70-91.
Daniel, L. G. (1997). Impact of inclusion education on academic achievement, student behavior and self-esteem, and parental attitudes. The Journal of
Educational Research, 91(2), 67-80.
Easton-Gholston, J. C. (1995).
Differences in self-esteem and school perceptions among educational placements of elementary-age students with learning disabilities.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 57(6), 2370. (UMI No. AAT
9633393).
Fisher, B. L., Allen, R., & Kose, G. (1996). The relationship between anxiety and problem-solving skills in children with and without learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29,
439-446.
Friend, P. M. (1993). The effects of a motivation strategy that incorporates goal setting on the test taking
performance of young adolescents with learning disabilities.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(12), 4406. (UMI No. AAT
9409997).
Fuchs, D., Deshler, D., & Zigmond, N. (1994, March). How expendable is
is special education? Paper presented
at the meeting of the Learning Disabilities Association of America, Washington, DC.
Goodwin, S. G. (1999). Developing self-esteem in physical education.
Physical Educator, 56(4), 210-214.
Gresham, F. M. (1984). Social skills and self-efficacy for exceptional children.
Exceptional Children, 51, 253-261.
Guetzloe, E. (1999). Inclusion: The broken promise. Preventing School
Failure, 43(3), 92-98.
Haring, N., & McCormick, L. (1990).
Exceptional children and youth.
Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Co.
Heyman, W. B. (1990). The self-perception of a learning disability and its relationship to academic self-concept and self-esteem. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 23(8), 472-475.
Hocutt, A. M. (1996), Effectiveness of special education: Is placement the critical factor? The Future of
Children Special Education for Students with Disabilities, 6(1),
77-102.
Hudson, D. B., Elek, S. M., &
Campbell-Grossman, C. (2000). Depression, self-esteem, loneliness, and social support among adolescent mothers participating in the new parents project. Adolescence, 35, 445-466.
Jost, K. (1993). Learning Disabilities: What is the best education for students with special needs? CQ
Researcher, 3, 1081-1104.
Kershner, J. R. (1990). Self-concept and IQ as predictors of remedial success in children with learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23,
368-374.
Kim, B. S. K., Omizo, M. M., &
D’Andrea, M. J. (1998). The effects of culturally consonant group counseling on the self-esteem and internal locus of control orientation among Native American adolescents.
Journal For Specialists in Group Work, 23(2), 145-163.
Klingner, J. K., Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Cohen, P., & Forgan, J. W. (1998). Inclusion or pull-out: Which do students prefer? Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 31(2), 148-158.
learning disabilities: The relationship between global self-concept,
academic “discounting,” nonacademic self-concept, and perceived social support. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 17, 140-153.
Langone, J. (1998). Managing inclusive instructional settings: Technology, cooperative planning, and
team-based organization. Focus on
Exceptional Children, 30, 1-15.
Licht, B., & Kistner, J. (1986).
Motivational problems of learning disabled children: Individual
differences and their implications for treatment. In J. Torgeson & B. Y. L. Wong (Eds.), Psychological and
educational perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 225-255). Orlando,
FI: Academic Press.
McLeskey, J., & Pacchiano, D. (1994). Mainstreaming students with
learning disabilities: Are we making progress? Exceptional Children, 60, 508-517.
Mclntosh, R., Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Haager, D., & Lee, O. (1993). Observations of students with learning disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptional
Children, 60, 249-261.
Mercer, C. D. (1997). Students with
learning disabilities. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Miller, S. P. (2002). Validated practices
for teaching students with diverse needs and abilities. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
Moisan, T. A. (1998). Identification and
remediation of social skills deficits in learning disabled children. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 427 489).
Monda-Amaya, L. E., Dieker, L., & Reed, F. (1998). Preparing students with learning disabilities to participate in inclusive classrooms. Learning
Disabilities Research & Practice, 13(3), 171-182.
Murtaugh, M. (1988). Achievement outside the classroom: The role of nonacademic activities in the lives of high school students. Anthropology
& Education Quarterly, 19, 382-395.
Pavri, S., & Monda-Amaya, L. (2001). Social support in inclusive schools: Student and teacher perspectives.
Exceptional Children, 67, 391-411.
team teaching of general education and learning-disabled students in two fifth-grade classes. Elementary
School Journal, 95, 279-295.
Reid, D. K., & Button, L. J. (1995). Anna’s story: Narratives of personal experience about being labeled learning disabled. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 28, 602-614.
Renick, M. J., & Harter, S. (1989). Impact of social comparisons on the
developing self-perceptions of
learning disabled students. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 81,
631-638.
Ritter, C. L., Michel, C. S., & Irby, B. (1999). Concerning inclusion: Perceptions of middle school
students, their parents, and teachers. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 18(2), 10-16.
Roberts, R., & Mather, N. (1995). The return of students with learning disabilities to regular classrooms: A sellout? Learning Disabilities
Research & Practice, 10(1), 46-58.
Sabornie, E. J. (1994). Social-affective characteristics in early adolescents identified as learning disabled and nondisabled. Learning Disability
Quarterly, 17, 268-279.
Sale, P., & Carey, D. M. (1995). The sociometric status of students with disabilities in a full-inclusion school.
Exceptional Children, 62, 6-19.
Salend, S., & Garrick-Duhaney, L. (1999). The impact of inclusion on students with and without disabilities and their educators. Remedial and
Special Education, 20(2), 114-126.
Sanacore, J. (1996). Ingredients for successful inclusion. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 40(3), 222-226.
Schumm, J. S., & Vaughn, S. (1992). Planning for mainstreamed special education students: Perceptions of general classroom teachers.
Exceptionality, 3, 81-89.
Semmel, M. I., Abernathy, T. V., Butera, G., & Lesar, S. (1991). Teacher perceptions of the regular education initiative. Exceptional Children, 58, 9-24.
Seymour, C. (1997). Possible selves, self-perception, and current self-concept in adolescents with learning disabilities. Masters
Abstracts International, 36(03), 843.
Siperstein, G. N. (1988). Students with learning disabilities in college: The need for a programmatic approach to critical transitions. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 21, 431-436.
Stanley, P. D., Dai, Y., & Nolan, R. F. (1997). Differences in depression and self-esteem reported by learning disabled and behavior disordered middle school students. Journal of
Adolescence, 20, 219-222.
Street, S., & Isaacs, M. (1998).
Self-esteem: Justifying its existence.
Professional School Counseling, 1(3),
46-50.
Sullivan, B. H. (1993). Differential aspects of self-esteem in the
African-American adolescent male.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(9), 4968. (UMI No. AAT
9400284).
U. S. Department of Education. (1996).
Eighteenth annual report to
Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: U.
S. Government printing Office. Valas, H. (1999). Students with learning
disabilities and low-achieving
students: Peer acceptance, loneliness,
self-esteem, and depression. Social
Psychology of Education, 3,
173-192.
Vaughn, S., & Haager, D. (1994). Social competence as a multifaceted construct: How do students with learning disabilities fare? Learning
Disability Quarterly, 17, 253-266.
Vaughn, S., & Schumm, J. S. (1995). Responsible inclusion for students with learning disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 28(5),
264-271.
Vaughn, S., Elbaum, B. E., & Schumm, J. S. (1996). The effects of inclusion on the social functioning of students with learning disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 29(6),
598-608.
Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Niarhos, F., & Gordon, J. (1993). Students’
perceptions of two hypothetical teachers’ instructional adaptations for low achievers. The Elementary
Journal, 94, 87-102.
Viadero, D. (1990, July/August). Learning disabled students found to fare poorly. LDA Newsbriefs, 25(4), 16-17.
Social functioning in adults with learning disabilities. School
Psychology Review, 21(3), 375-386.
Wang, M. C., & Reynolds, M. C. (1996), Progressive inclusion: Meeting new challenges in special education.
Theory Into Practice, 35(1), 20-25.
Whinnery, K. W., King, M., Evans, W. H., & Gable, R. A. (1995). Perceptions of students with learning disabilities: Inclusion versus pull-out services.
Preventing School Failure, 40, 5-9.
Wurm, T. L. R. (1998). Student’s
understanding of learning disabilities and their acceptability ratings of special education placements.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(10), 3739. (UMI No. AAT
9909512).
Yasutake, D., & Lerner, J. (1996). Teachers’ perceptions of inclusion for students with disabilities: A survey of general and special
educators. Learning Disabilities, 7(1), 1-7.
Zigmond, N., & Baker, J. M. (1994). Is the mainstream a more appropriate educational setting for Randy? A case study of one student with learning disabilities. Learning
