• 沒有找到結果。

第三章 集中結算例外之評估

第二節 免於集中結算之店頭衍生性商品類型

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法案也因此於最後排除某些衍生性商品,以及某些為避險而利用衍生性交易之市 場參與者免於強制集中結算之要求。

第二節 免於集中結算之店頭衍生性商品類型

依上一節之分析,集中結算制度僅適用於標準化和具流動性之衍生性商品類 型,因此 Dodd-Frank 法案僅要求標準化衍生性商品必頇集中結算。不過除了非 標準化衍生性商品可豁免於集中結算要求外,Dodd-Frank 法案也保留了外匯衍 生性商品豁免之可能,惟要求美國財政部於做出豁免決定前,應考量相關風險是 否已受到適當管控,兼之納入集中結算制度,是否能帶來額外之效益及此效益之 大小。

然而,這些豁免規定的存在意謂原來之立法目的可能遭到妥協,而豁免規定 的創設更意謂濫用之可能,後者若不能被有效防堵,將進一步使法規目的受到阻 撓。以下即從這些層面檢討這些例外所可能引發之影響。

第一項 非標準化之衍生性商品

由於適用集中結算制度之衍生性商品有其性質上之限制,若強制所有衍生性 商品皆頇集中結算,等於排除其他無法集中結算之衍生性商品交易之可能(如非 標準化商品),雖然結果可以大幅提升風險管理之效能,卻無異於扼殺利用這些 非標準化商品避險之機會。相對地,若是允許某些衍生性商品可不經集中結算,

企業避險之需求雖可受到充分尊重,但也隱含規避集中結算此一可能之漏洞,而 影響法案原所欲追求之交易安全目標。

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Dodd-Frank 法案最後所採取的是一種開放性立法,僅管允許非標準化衍生 性商品免於集中結算,但衍生性商品「標準化」與否卻是授權主管機關考量相關 風險後判定之。美國財政部長 Geithner 亦認為不將「標準化」定明於法規中,而 由市場主管機關依個案決定是較恰當的方式,因為後者較接近市場資訊,而能制 定較符合市場現況之認定標準;另一方面,避免明確之文字定義亦可減少操弄文 義以規避集中結算之空間136

非標準化衍生性商品存在之必要

如前所述,美國此次金融改革法案早在立法之初即已對店頭市場交易訂出

「集中結算」之改革方向,不僅總統金融市場工作小組建議所有標準化之衍生性 商品集中結算,並由主管機關加諸相關之擔保和風險管理規範;後續財政部之立 法草案提案(Over-the-Counter Derivatives Markets Act of 2009)亦要求所有標準 化衍生性商品集中結算,並鼓勵衍生性商品朝標準化方向發展,以預防金融體系 之系統性風險、促進店頭市場之效率和透明化、防止市場操縱和價格扭曲、並保 護消費者137。眾議院農業委員會主席 Blanche Lincoln 甚至曾一度提案要求絕大 多數店頭交易之衍生性商品改透過交易所進行交易,因為交易所交易之衍生性商 品不僅頇集中結算且必然為標準化,因此 Lincoln 之提案可謂最極端之方式,不 但促成集中結算,也大幅消弭非標準化衍生性商品存在之空間138

相對於上述立法提案,業界雖然普遍認同店頭市場交易應受更多之監督,但 於支持標準化衍生性商品集中結算之同時,也希望保留客製化衍生性商品之交易

136 Hearing to Examine the Regulation of Over-the-Counter Derivatives, Serial No. 111-23, 111-55, July 10, 2009.

137 Id. Prepared Statement of Hon. Timothy F. Geithner, Secretary, U.S. Department of the Treasury, Washington, D.C.

138 John Bresnahan & Carrie Budoff Brown, Lincoln Wall Street Bill Tacks Left, POLITICO, Apr. 13, 2010, at http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0410/35752_Page2.html (last visited June 28, 2010).

超過 90%以上之五百大企業(Fortune 500)及半數以上之美國中小企業,利用 店頭市場交易衍生性商品以避免特定之經營風險,而這些交易未對金融市場之穩 定造成影響,且在金融危機時期仍持續進行交易,既然並非所有衍生性商品都是 造成金融危機之因素,政府加強管制之決定卻對所有衍生性商品一視同仁,不無 過當之嫌143。提出上述主張之企業來自眾多不同產業,知名者如工程機械生產商 卡特彼樂公司(Caterpillar Inc.)、從事飛機生產和開發之波音公司(Boeing Co.)、

3M 等;尤其是能源相關產業,如商業能源商工作小組(Working Group of

139 Peter H. Stone, Derivatives Fight Widens, NATIONAL JOURNAL MAGAZINE, Sep. 24, 2009.

140 PwC, OTC Derivatives: Should All Customized Derivatives Be Standardized? July 2009, at http://www.pwc.com/us/en/point-of-view/otc-derivitives.jhtml (last visited July 3, 2011).

141 Testimony of the Honorable Steve Bartlett President and Chief Executive Officer of the Financial Services Roundtable on Banking Industry Perspectives on the Obama Administration‘s Financial Regulatory Reform Proposal, July 15, 2009, Serial No. 111-58.

142 OTC Derivatives: Should All Customized Derivatives Be Standardized? supra note 140.

143 Kara Scannell, Big Companies Go to Washington to Fight Regulations on Fancy Derivatives, THE

WALL STREET JOURNAL, July 10, 2009, at

http://online.wsj.com/article_email/SB124718445317920379-lMyQjAxMDI5NDE3MDExODA0Wj.ht ml (last visited June 29, 2011).

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Commercial Energy Firms)在公聽會中特別強調,能源商品與金融商品不同,通 常有特定交付地點,故運輸途中之價格避險無法以標準化之衍生性商品契約為之,

另外,美國獨立石油協會(Independent Petroleum Association of America)和美國 公共天然氣協會(American Public Gas Association)亦強調,能源公司在店頭市 場交易中通常使用其擁有之天然氣或石油儲備作為擔保品,即使中央對手願意接 受現金以外之擔保品,事實上仍有儲存設備欠缺之限制,故彼等因為集中結算需 求所增生之擔保品負擔並無法降低144

例外對法案目的之影響

從上述各行各業針對己身避險需求所為之具體反映,似乎難以否定非標準化 衍生性商品存在之必要,但是允許此種不集中結算之例外存在是否會產生濫用情 形,進而影響法案立法目的?由於 Dodd-Frank 法案關於「標準化」與否是授權 主管機關認定,而法案要求主管機關考量之因素中,契約條款是否標準化並非重 點,中央對手是否願意結算該類衍生性商品,亦即中央對手之風險考量反而更為 關鍵。據此,CFTC 主席 Gary Gensler 估計,約有 80%以上之衍生性商品契約會 被認定為標準化145,意即因此例外而免集中結算之店頭衍生性交易範圍有限。

即使例外之範圍有限,考量之前所介紹之 AIG 事件──即本次改革法案亟 欲避免發生之情況:由於 AIGFP 所交易之信用違約交換屬於相當客製化之衍生 性商品146,無論 CFTC 如何想要擴大「標準化」之認定標準,當信用違約交換契

144 Hearing to Review Proposed Legislation by the U.S. Department of the Treasury Regarding the Regulation of over-the-Counter Derivatives Markets, Sep. 17, 22, 2009, Serial No. 111-29.

145 Marcy Gordon, Behind Obama‟s Plan to Rein in Derivatives, BLOOMBERG, Aug. 12, 2009, at http://www.businessweek.com/investor/content/aug2009/pi20090812_505067.htm (last visited June 30, 2011).

146 Darrell Duffie, supra note 131; Rena S. Miller, Key Issues in Derivatives Reform, CRS Report for Congress, Apr. 8, 2010, available at http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/R40965_20100408.pdf (last visited July 9, 2011); Paul M. McBride, The Dodd-Frank Act and OTC Derivatives: The Impact of Mandatory Central Clearing on the Global OTC Derivatives Market, 44 INTERNATIONAL LAWYER 1077,

1106-1107( Winter 2010).

147 Paul M. McBride, supra note 146, at 1107.

148 Id. at 1107-1108.

149 See Joanne P. Braithwaite, The Inherent Limits of „Legal Devices‟: Lessons for the Public Sector‟s Central Counterparty Prescription for the OTC Derivatives Markets, EUROPEAN BUSINESS

ORGANIZATION LAW REVIEW 12 87-119 (2011); Zachary J. Gubler, The Financial Innovation Process:

Theory and Application, 36DELAWARE JOURNAL OF CORPORATE LAW 1 55-119 (2011); Jeremy Gogel,

“Shifting Risk to the Dumbest Guy in the Room”- Derivatives Regulation after the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, 11 JOURNAL OF BUSINESS &SECURITIES LAW 1-52 (Fall, 2010).

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結果,Dodd-Frank 法案中之其他規範,如保證金、部位限制、交易資料申報和 登記等,應可透過對主管機關之揭露而對監管店頭衍生性交易有一定之助益,以 彌補集中結算制度之不足。

第二項 外匯衍生性商品

外匯相關之店頭衍生性商品交易,依國際清算銀行(Bank for International Settlements, BIS)之統計資料顯示,僅次於利率相關之衍生性商品而占所有店頭 市場交易市場價值之第二位150,然對於此類具市場重要地位之衍生性商品,

Dodd-Frank 法案卻授權美國財政部可於評估後將之排除於交換契約定義外,而 免於適用強制集中結算規定。美國財政部於是在 2011 年 5 月 5 日提出行政決定 預告,表明將豁免外匯換匯契約(foreign exchange swaps)與遠期外匯(foreign exchange forwards),並根據法案之要求,說明其決定所考量之因素,惟在預告期 間已受到部分學者和業界批評,認為其理由偏頗或不夠充分,忽略原法案所希望 達到之交易資訊公開和風險管理等目的。

外匯衍生性商品風險之評估

免除外匯換匯與遠期外匯集中結算之要求,是否會造成系統性風險或影響金 融體系穩定性的問題,美國財政部如前述,係引用相關業界之看法,認為此類外 匯衍生性商品與其他衍生性商品在本質上有所不同,主要風險在交割面而非交易 對手風險;且該市場已持續穩定交易達數十年,即使在此次金融危機中亦正常運 作,因此不應與其他衍生性商品受同樣之機制規範151

150 BIS, Semiannual OTC Derivatives Statistics at End-December 2010, at http://www.bis.org/statistics/derstats.htm (last visited July 7, 2011).

151 See Comment Letter by Dan Shackelford, Vice President and Chair of Fixed Income Derivatives Committee, T. Rowe Price Associates, Inc. and Jonathan D. Siegel, Vice President & Senior Legal Counsel, T. Rowe Price Associates, Inc. to Mary Miller, Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets,

Department of the Treasury (Nov. 29, 2010); Comment Letter by Global FX Division of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, Association for Financial Markets in Europe, and the Asia Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, to Mary J. Miller, Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets, Office of Financial Institutions Policy, Department of the Treasury, Determination of Foreign Exchange Swaps and Forwards (Nov. 29, 2010). FX Investor Group, Response to the Department of the Treasury‟s Request for Further Comments on the Proposed Determination of Foreign Exchange Swaps and Forwards, June 3, 2011, at http://www.regulations.gov/#!home (last visited July 5, 2011).

152 Michael Greenberger, Comment Letter by Michael Greenberger, Professor, University of Maryland School of Law, Director, Center for Health and Homeland Security, and Americans for Financial Reform, to Mary J. Miller, Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets, Office of Financial Institutions Policy, Department of the Treasury, Determination of Foreign Exchange Swaps and Forwards under the Commodity Exchange Act (June 6, 2011) [hereinafter Comment Letter by Michael Greenberger to Treasury Determination 2011], available at

http://www.michaelgreenberger.com/files/Revised_AFR_FX_6-5-11.pdf (last visited July 6, 2011). 作 者在此份文件中引用相關研究報告,指出在金融危機過後,美國聯準會對外匯衍生性商品市場也 提供了 5.4 兆美金之援助,且在 2007 年到 2008 年之危機過後,外匯衍生性商品市場本身也存在 一短時間之危機。

153 Darrell Duffie, Comment Letter by Darrell Duffie, Professor, Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, to Inc to Mary Miller, Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets, Department of the Treasury, On The Clearing of Foreign Exchange Derivatives (May 12, 2011), available at http://www.darrellduffie.com/uploads/policy/DuffieClearingFXDerivatives2011.pdf (last visited June 29, 2011).

154 Id.

155 Comment Letter by Michael Greenberger to Treasury Determination 2011, supra note 152.

156 Darrell Duffie, On the Clearing of Foreign Exchange Derivatives, supra note 153.

157 WFE & IOMA, Comment Letter to Department of the Treasury, Determination of Foreign Exchange Swaps and Forwards under the Commodity Exchange Act (Nov. 29, 2010) [hereinafter WFE & IOMA Comment Letter 2010], at

http://www.world-exchanges.org/news-views/press-releases/wfe-ioma-letter-regarding-fx-swaps-regula tion (last visited July 1, 2011).

158 Darrell Duffie, On the Clearing of Foreign Exchange Derivatives, supra note 153. Michael Greenberger, Comment Letter by Michael Greenberger, Professor, University of Maryland School of Law, to Mary Miller, Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets, Office of Financial Institutions Policy,

158 Darrell Duffie, On the Clearing of Foreign Exchange Derivatives, supra note 153. Michael Greenberger, Comment Letter by Michael Greenberger, Professor, University of Maryland School of Law, to Mary Miller, Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets, Office of Financial Institutions Policy,