2. Translation Studies and Linguistic Variation
2.3 Reflexivity and the (Un‐) Translatability of Linguistic Variation…
Michael Cronin (1995), Annie Brisset (1996), and John Corbett (1997) explore translation into and out from Irish, Québécois, and Scottish, respectively. Their treatment of the subject presents the three as languages in their own right — minority languages — instead of mere geographical variations of a preferred,
standard dialect. Brisset (1996), in particular, highlights the post‐colonial, colonizer‐
colonized struggle concomitant with minority languages and their translation. In a similar vein, Lawerence Venuti (1996) infuses the debate with the idea of the existence of hierarchical power struggles occurring between centre and periphery language variants. Venuti sees hierarchical power relationships existing between standard and non‐standard dialects. He explains, “language is a continuum of dialects, registers, styles, and discourses positioned in a hierarchical arrangement and developing at different speeds and in different ways” (1996:109). As a result of the supposed pervasiveness of these power struggles, Venuti sees any variation away from the norm (standard dialect) as an important means of subversion of “the major form by revealing it to be socially and historically situated” (1996:91).
2.3 Reflexivity and the (Un) Translatability of Linguistic Variation
If we take Nida’s (1976) search for an equivalent target‐side dialect and Venuti’s (1996) subverting of imperialist norms as two extremes upon a continuum that makes up two decades of discussion of (un‐) translatability of language variation, Gillian Lane‐Mercier’s (1997) treatment of the subject may be seen as a middle ground attempting to reveal the shared inadequacy inherent in these two extremes.
To the continuum of views (translator’s responsibility at the semantic, aesthetic, ideological, and political level), Lane‐Mercier’s work adds the idea of responsibility at the ethical level. “Ethical” responsibility, here, refers to “the translator’s own ethical code, his or her responsibility and engagement with respect to the choices for which he or she opts and the aesthetic, ideological and political meanings these
choices generate” (Lane‐Mercier’s, 1997:63). Lane‐Mercier seems to propose a sort of ethical subjectivism of translation practices. Stated simply, if we accept the notion — championed by post‐structuralist translation theorists — that translator agency cannot be removed from the act of translation — nor from the translational product, itself — then we must also accept that each individual translator has the right and, perhaps, the responsibility to translate in any way he or she sees fit. As a result, much of the discussion that fills the literature about the (un‐) translatability of linguistic variation becomes irrelevant. In contrast to this expectation for ethical responsibility, Lane‐Mercier suggests that in relation to translation of dialect issues, translation scholars have tended to put forth arguments that reactivate “the very assumptions of fidelity to and transparency of source‐text meaning that post‐
structuralist approaches to translation have sought to combat” (1997:49). In order to support this claim, Lane‐Mercier neatly summarizes the main issues of the
sociolect (un)‐translatability debate; namely, risk of meaning creation or loss, risk of ethnocentricity, risk of unauthenticity, and risk of conservatism or radicalism. These all‐too‐ubiquitous arguments do seem to endlessly revolve around questions of equivalence, fidelity, and original meaning.
In a 1999 paper titled “Translation as a(n) (Im)possible Task: Dialect in Literature”, Maria Sanchez takes translation of literary dialect as a case in point to argue for the inclusion of both translatability and untranslatability under a single definition of the term “translation”. Sanchez begins with a brief presentation of the varying views found within Translation Studies literature that take translation as either a possible or impossible proposition. Again, much of the disparity inherent in the varying views can be found to revolve around questions of the aforementioned issues of equivalence, fidelity, and original meaning (Sanchez 1999:301‐302). Based on the notion that translation be perceived as an act of communication, albeit imperfect at times, Sanchez sees translation as “necessary and unavoidable in spite of all its limitations” (1999:301). In other words, although translation may be impossible in theory, the fact that translations have been carried out throughout history and continue to be created today is an irrefutable fact. The aim of Sanchez’s paper is to
suggest that a complete definition of the term “translation” must incorporate both the theoretical impossibility and the empirical evidence of its existence. She chooses to present her argument by way of discussion of translation of literary dialect.
In her paper, Sanchez hits upon several important points that continually surface within Translation Studies literature on translation of linguistic variation. Firstly, by way of Sumner Ives’ (1950) discussion of dialect, Sanchez refers to the approximate representation of dialect in literature. As with both Catford (1965) and Pym (2000), Sanchez, with the help of Ives, alludes to the fact that literary dialect is merely a representation and not word‐for‐word reproduction of dialect. In contrast to Catford and Pym, however, Sanchez sees the imprecise nature of literary
representation of dialect as a problem for the author/translator to overcome rather than a simplification to the task of representation. For whatever reason, it seems that Sanchez misinterprets Ives’ discussion of dialect. She takes what Ives describes as the problem of dialect to the linguist — “every variation from the conventional system of writing the language is a problem for the linguist” (1950:138 quoted in Sanchez 1999:304) — and incorrectly extends it to include writer and translator —
“From Ives' comments we can deduce that, from the start, any form of language which deviates from the norm is a problem for the linguist, the writer and the translator” (Sanchez 1999:304). As can be seen from the original quotation,3 however, Ives did not wish to extend the problematic to either the writer or the translator. On the contrary, in fact, Ives points out that the author’s — and presumably the translator’s — incomplete rendering of dialect is deliberate and artistic. As with Catford (1965) and Pym (2000), Ives’ description of literary dialect as a mere representation of reality offers both writers and translators, alike, a certain degree of freedom with regard to choice of characteristics to be represented
3 “Nearly all examples of literary dialect are deliberately incomplete; the author is an artist, not a linguist or a sociologist, and his purpose is literary rather than scientific. In working out his compromise between art and linguistics, each author has made his own decision as to how many of the peculiarities in his character's speech he can profitably represent” (Ives 1950:138).
in the text. This point will be discussed further in the present paper’s section on Pym’s (2000) work.
The second point brought up in Sanchez’s paper is one mentioned above in relation to Hatim and Mason’s (1990) work — namely, ideology. In contrast to Hatim and Mason, however, Sanchez’s mention of ideology as a problem in translation of literary dialect is merely done in passing — “usually, but not always, the language they speak [dialect] carries some connotations of inferiority” (Sanchez 1999:304)—
and is only developed slightly further in order to applaud a Spanish translator’s use of Andalusian to represent Pygmalion character Eliza Doolittle’s Cockney dialect.
Sanchez’s discussion, in this case, seems to side‐step the issue of creation of meaning — referred to in the present paper with reference to Nida (1976) and Lane‐Mercier (1997). Although dialects from different languages or cultures may appear to have “similar sociolinguistic connotations” (Sanchez 1999:308), in many cases, dissimilar connotations also will exist. The creation of meaning produced through dissimilar sociological connotation is the main issue at the root of the ideological question of translation of dialect.
Two final points discussed by Sanchez include the translator’s degree of familiarity with source language (SL) dialect and the degree of importance of dialectal features for the conveyance of overall effect of the source text. Familiarity with SL dialect is an issue discussed earlier in the present paper with regard to Newmark’s (1988) work. As mentioned previously, I suggest it is not perfect knowledge of dialect that is important, but rather an appreciation of stereotypes and characteristics used by authors in the representation of dialects. With regard to the issue, however, Sanchez does bring to the forefront the importance of a basic understanding of SL dialect in order that translators may avoid semantic mistranslation (Sanchez 1999:305).
Sanchez presents examples from two Spanish‐language translations of Wuthering Heights in order to emphasize the point. In both cases the translator misinterpreted the meaning of certain terms in the source text dialect and, therefore, represented them incorrectly in the target text. The basic issue of source text comprehension is
one that individual translators must deal with as they see fit. One obvious solution to this problem is for translators to seek out advice from an expert (this could take any number of forms — linguist, native speaker, author, and so on) in the form of dialect being used. It is not, however, an issue that is of concern for the translation of dialect alone, but rather something to be considered in many other kinds of
translation scenarios — translation of field‐specific jargon, slang, and cultural terms, for example.
Finally, with respect to degree of importance of dialectal features for the conveyance of overall effect of source text, Sanchez falls back upon something similar to what Pym (2000) calls the easy answer: Often use of target‐side standard language to replace source‐side dialect is a choice in favor of ease and economy (1999:306). As Pym points out, however, the crux of the issue is for the translator to “know what [linguistic] varieties are doing in cultural products in the first place” (2000:69).
Perhaps, discussion of dialect in the depth necessary to tease out such subtleties is beyond the scope of Sanchez’s paper. After all, her investigation of issues relating to translation of dialect is meant to highlight the assumption that translation is at times possible, but in other instances impossible. As mentioned earlier, Sanchez’s paper takes translation of dialect as the obvious starting point from which to add weight to her claim, “any definition of translation should never exclude the possibility or impossibility of language transfer, but should include both aspects as unavoidable and complementary” (1999:309).
One final point I would like to add is in her 2009 book, “The problems of literary translation: a study of the theory and practice of translation from English into Spanish”, Sanchez does make a slightly more thorough study of dialect and its translation. Again, however, her investigation of specific examples — Shaw’s Pygmalion; Brontë’s Wuthering Heights; and Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover (2009:205‐228) — is aimed toward the goal of providing support for her claim that any definition of translation must include aspects of both possibility and
impossibility. Sanchez’s work does introduce into the translation of dialect debate a couple of novel issues.
Firstly, in a section dedicated to discussion of the “use of non‐standard language for literary purposes” (2009:197), Sanchez — by way of a quote taken from Altano (1988) — presents the notion, “when we speak of a literary work written in non‐
standard – or dialectal – language, we usually mean that the non‐standard variant has been used for direct speech, while the standard norm has been used in the narrative passages” (ibid.). Sanchez goes on to suggest universal applicability (ibid.) of Altano’s claim that Italian dialectal novels almost always use standard language for narrative voice and dialect “for the scope of characterization” (1988:152). This seems like quite an oversimplification since, for example, obvious counter‐examples in English — Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Irvine Welsh’s
Trainspotting — are readily provided. I would suggest the universality of Altano’s distinction remains to be shown.
Secondly, as in her 1999 paper, Sanchez quotes Ives (1950) reference to the
inauthenticity of literary dialect. Although in her 2009 book she does not make the same erroneous extrapolation to apply Ives quote to translator and author as she does in her paper, she does still, however, seem to miss the point that literary dialect is deliberately created as a caricature of the real‐world language variant. This is a point that will be developed further in the present paper’s discussion of Pym’s (2000) claims regarding the distinction between authenticity and parody of dialect.
As mentioned earlier, appreciation of the function of linguistic variation in a literary text is of utmost importance with regard to any meaningful discussion of the
translation of variety (Pym 2000:69). Although this is not a novel issue, it does seem that, as it is with Sanchez, a great deal of Translation Studies literature on the
subject still posits faithful replication of reality as one of the goals of the author who uses literary dialect in his or her work. As a result, anything short of “faithful
replication of reality” — whether it be source‐side or target‐side reality — by the translator is considered, as Sanchez suggests, proof of an impossibility of translation.
The issue seems to bring us back to Lane‐Mercier’s suggestion that in relation to translation of dialect issues, translation scholars have tended to put forth arguments that reactivate “the very assumptions of fidelity to and transparence of source‐text meaning that post‐structuralist approaches to translation have sought to combat”
(1997:49). The twelve years between Lane‐Mercier and Sanchez’s publications do not seem to have moved Translation Studies much distance away from issues of faithfulness and fidelity.
2.4 Reconsideration of Textual Function
If Lane‐Mercier’s discussion of sociolect can be said to have been the pinnacle of the linguistic variation (un)‐translatability debate’s swing away from the semantic moving toward the aesthetic to the ideological, the political, and the ethical, then Ineke Wallaert’s (2001) discussion of the illocutionary force inherent in sociolect brings us full‐circle back to the textual. Although Wallaert does not make light of ideological and political concerns referred to in research that precedes her work, she does feel that “considerations of the textual functions of literary sociolects should precede questions regarding the translator’s ideological responsibility (2001:171). Wallaert returns the conversation to the question of the function of sociolect in the text. In particular, she points to the self‐referential, illocutionary nature of sociolect to “say something about language by using a particular form of language” (2001:177). Wallaert argues that although “the way literary sociolects are translated does indicate the translator’s ideological stance” (2001:171), it is equally, if not more, important to recognize that literary sociolects function in texts as
meaning‐creating and foregrounding devices. It is in this line of argument that Wallaert brings up the notion of the illocutionary effect of literary sociolects. In her article, Wallaert focuses the discussion entirely on self‐reflexive texts, ones in which the language of the text is used to point directly to, and overtly make comments on, the nature of language itself. For example, Wallaert looks at Baudelaire’s translation of Edgar Allen Poe’s The Gold Bug in order to raise questions about the validity of