Chapter 3 China and Central Asia
3.2. The SCO Role for the Security of Central Asia
3.2.2. Sino-Russia-Central Asian States Interactions in SCO
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April 26, 1996, at leadership summit in Shanghai, “Agreement on Strengthening Military Confidence in Border Areas” was signed by the countries bordering their land with the west part of China to enhance a zone of 100-km. depth from the border of member countries. There were Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, which came to be known as the SF. Then they also signed the “Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions” on the purpose of reducing military forces and promoting security on borders.75 Because Central Asian states were suffered from the threats of three evils of religious extremism, separatism, and terrorism at the beginning of their independence, the SF is gradually evolved from a regional forum to a regional security cooperation mechanism which became Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) after Uzbekistan was admitted as the sixth member in 2001.76
From 2004 to 2005, the SCO had consecutively accepted countries like Mongolia, Pakistan, India, and Iran as observers, greatly expanded the range of cooperation to the Northeast Asia, South Asia, and West Asia. Not only does this situation cause China face multilateral competitions in SCO, but also because the U.S. actively involved in Central Asian affairs by variety means, as a result, the Central Asia became a chess board in which there are more players with different powers.77
3.2.2. Sino-Russia-Central Asian States Interactions in SCO
Within the framework of SCO, China and Russia are regional great powers while Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan are big states in Central Asia; Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are
75 Richard Weitz, China-Russia Security Relations: Strategic Parallelism without Partnership or Passion?, p. 64.
76 Richard Weitz, p. 64.
77 Brzezinski Zbigniew, The Grand Chessboard (NY: Perseus Book Group, 1997), p. 38
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small ones. Each and every country hopes to improve the organization on the issues of security and economy. In order to understand the competitions and developments among China and Central Asian states, factors of history, security, economy, and humanity will be analyzed as following:
History Factor
During the later periods of 1950s, the essential feature of Sino-U.S. international relations was still a situation of struggling between the major two camps of imperialism and socialism. Under this circumstance, China's socialism build-up was influenced by both of the confrontation of Russia and the United States and their policies toward China.78 Strategically speaking, China was pro Russia during this period of time, which made the United States unsatisfied with Beijing who did not trust the United States either.
The SCO emerged from a series of border security negotiations begun in November 1992 between Beijing and the former Soviet states located along China’s western border. Starting from 1996, the five states began to hold annual summit meetings as the SF. At the first leadership summit meeting in Shanghai on April 26, 1996, the governments signed a “Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions,” which established a set of military confidence-building measures along their shared borders. During the second meeting of the five nations under this framework, which occurred in Moscow on April 25, 1997, they signed a “Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions” that restricted conventional military
78 黃安余，新中國外交史 (上海：人民出版社，2005 年 3 月)，頁 39。[Huang Anyu, Xinzhongguo Waijiaoshi (New History of China’s Diplomacy) (Shanghai: People’s Publisher, March 2005), p. 9.]
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deployments and activities within a hundred kilometer-wide demilitarized zone along these common borders.79
The subsequent SF summits began to discuss economic and other nonmilitary issues, including how to cope with regional terrorism, narcotics trafficking, and other transnational threats of concern to all the participating states. By 2001, the governments involved decided they needed a more permanent mechanism to address their expanding multilateral agenda. In particular, they sought more frequent meetings than the annual leadership summits and to extend the range from government agencies to issues of encompass security, law enforcement, and economic cooperation. At their June 2001 meeting, the SF joined with Uzbekistan, whose president had attended the July 2000 summit in Dushanbe as an observer, to institutionalize their interactions by establishing the SCO and to replace the SF.80
Building on the arms control achievements of the SF as discussed above, the SCO has sponsored extensive, senior-level consultations on several issues, including crime, narcotics trafficking, economic development, transportation, communications, energy, the war in Afghanistan, and anti-terrorism. The latter topic had become the most important issue of concern for its members. The parties are establishing concrete mechanisms to facilitate such cooperation-including annual meetings of their defense ministers, foreign ministers, and prime ministers—as well as formal structures to interact with non-member governments and other international institutions.
Security Factor
79 Ramakant Dwivedi, “China’s Central Asia Policy in Recent Times”, op. cit., pp. 150-151.
80 Ramakant Dwivedi, p. 150.
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Within the framework of the SCO, the security factor has been the key factor on issues of border security and military mutual trust; it highlights the importance of taking precaution against terrorism, after the September 11 Event in 2001. Among China, Russia, and Central Asian states, there are religious extremism and ethical separatism caused by religious and ethical factors, furthermore, there are several threats including crimes, narcotics trafficking, illegal immigrants, and illegal weapons trading, which forms the so called “the four powers” or the threats of non-conventional security.81 In order to counter those threats mentioned above, China uses NSC to develop good relations with Russia and Central Asian states, and practically carries out coalition anti-terrorism military exercises to stop these non-conventional threats from spreading. Except for traditional conflicts happened from one country to another, it is more important to highlight the importance of non-traditional security which is to interact with other countries on the fields of national development, non-military, and foreign policies.82
Under the framework of SCO, we can firstly discuss the ethical problem which is effected by geography before non-traditional problem is formed, including China and Russia. In the 19th century, the Tsarist Russia expanded toward its peripherals in which there was no natural obstacle, especially to the Central Asian region in which Russia considered as a critical base of invading India and a route to enter China. After Central Asia was swallowed by Russia, the people from Central Asia were anxious
81 傅仁坤、張益銘，「中亞區域安全與上海合作組織的發展」，第四屆「恐怖主義與國家安全」
學術研討會論文集 (龜山：警察大學，2008 年)，頁 300-301。[Fu Renkun and Chang Yiming, Zhongyaquyuanquan Yu Shanghaihezuozuzhi De Fazhan (Central Asia Regional Security and the Development of SCO) Di Si Jie “Kongbuzhuyi Yu Goujiaanquan” Xueshuyantaohui Lunwenji (The 4th Terrorism and National Security Symposium) (Guishan: Police University of Technology, 2008), pp.
300-301.]
82 Kevin Sheives, “China Turns West: Beijing’s Contemporary Strategy towards Central Asia,” Pacific Affairs 2 (Summer 2006): 205.
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about Moscow's thorough Russification policy, moreover, the Central Asian ethical structure was changed by policies, such as collectivization of agriculture, compulsive emigration, and ethnic discrimination, carried out by Russians. Furthermore, after the disintegration of Soviet Union, the domestic ethnical problem had evolved into ethnical problem among Central Asian states.83
Being independent, the people from Central Asian states feel the uneasy and difficulty caused by the social anxious and economic crisis.84 At the same time, the Islam, an inherent religious in Central Asian states, has took advantage of social turbulence to expand and develop itself to become a religious extremism, and to build a national level of Islam system.85 In order to achieve this goal, the extremists have also planned horrific violent operations such as assassinations and suicide bombings in Central Asia where the original problem of nationality is complicated, which became a combination of religious extremism, ethnical separatism, and international terrorism. In addition, the loosen border management and inherent social problems of poverty and corruption also create conditions for the inflows of illegal drugs, which makes it the main capital source for the “three evils,” becoming a multinational operation.86 Therefore, each member of SF actively strikes on cross-border crime
83 李淑雲，「地緣政治與中亞五國民族問題」，俄羅斯中亞東歐研究 4 (2005): 20-22。[Lee
Shuyun, Diyuanzhengzhi Yu Zhongyawuguo Minzuwenti (Geopolitics and the Ethical Problems of Five Central Asian States) Elosizhoyadonou Yanjiu (The Russian Central Asia and East European Studies) 4 (2005): 20-22.]
84 趙常慶，「論中亞形勢與非傳統安全問題的相互作用」，俄羅斯中亞東歐研究 2 (2006): 49。
[Zhao Zhangqing, Lun Zhongyaxingshi Yu Feichuantong Anquanwenti De Xianhuzuoyong (A Study on the Interaction of Central Asia Status and Non-Traditional Security Problem) Elosizhoyadonou Yanjiu (The Russian Central Asia and East European Studies) 2 (2006): 49.]
85 巨克毅，「當前恐怖主義與極端主義結合趨勢之探討」，非傳統安全威脅研究報告 (台北: 國
家安全叢書，2007 年)。[Ju Keyi, Danchankonbuzuyi Yu Jidwanzuyi Jaihozitantao (A Study on the Trend of Combination of Contemporary Terrorism and Extremism), Faichuantonweixei Yenjoubaogao (Non-Traditional Security Threat Report) (Taipei: National Security Series, 2007), p. 42.]
86 史崇理，「毒品貿易和上海合作組織:前景與矛盾」，俄羅斯研究 3 (2007): 52。[Shi Zhonglee, Dupinmaoyi Han Shanghai Hezuozuzhi Qianjing Yu Maodun (Narcotics Trafficking and SCO) Elousi Yanjiu (Russian Studies) 3 (2007): 52.]
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activities. In 2001, all six members of SCO signed “Shanghai Pact” on combating the three evils of terrorism, separatism, and extremism, which was provided as a basis of law.87 After the September 11 Event happened, the U.S. had gained opportunity to stay in Central Asia for a long period of time, though a part of the U.S. military forces has withdrawn from Central Asian states such as Kyrgyzstan after “SCO leadership summit” in 2005. So the United States still makes use of the Afghan anti-terrorism military operations as a long term strategy to stay in Central Asia which is an irrefutable fact.88
In order to ensure the security of Central Asian region, the SCO actively promotes transnational cooperation and multilateral mechanisms among its members, including security and executive department cooperation, anti-terrorism mechanism in Tashkent, and joint anti-terrorism military exercises, making SCO a tool to prevent the “three evils” from expanding.
Economic Factor
China has been focusing on developing its southwest provinces since the open door policy was implemented in 1979, and its economy has been rapidly developing in recent years. On the other hand, China's western region, borders with Russia, have provided natural resources needed by the development of the east region, resulting a disparity gap between the eastern and the western parts of China. At present, the characteristic of industry of China's western region has been evolved from agriculture
87 余建華，「中亞的民族問題及其影響論析」，俄羅斯研究 1 (2002): 73-74。[Yu Jianhua, Zhongya De Minzuwenti Jiqi Yinxiang Lunxi (The Analysis of Central Asia Ethnical Problem and its Effective) Elousi Yanjiu (Russia Studies) 1 (2002): 73-74.]
88 余學會、李韜等著，「美國軍事力量進入中亞及其影響」，東歐中亞研究 3 (2002): 39。[Yu
Xuehui and Xu Tao ed, Meiquo Junshililiang Jinru Zhongya Jiqi Yingxiang (The U.S. Military In Central Asia and Its Effective) Donou Zongya Yanjiu (East Europe and Central Asia Studies) 3 (2002):
39.]
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and livestock industry into agriculture and industrial divisions. Although the Central Asian states have been independent from the Soviet Union for more than 10 years, their economies still remain the same structure which mainly produces raw materials and has exporting-oriented feature. Because of industry divisions, Central Asian states are often not self-sufficient in food, and replaced planned economy after independence. With the existing social market economic system, they now have a goal to build a free market.89 After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia has become Central Asian states legal inheritor, and the economic situation has been stable under Putin's administration. Both of the domestic economy and currency status depend on the equilibrium of government budget which mainly comes from the foreign currency created from exporting energy, which is the so-called
“petrodollars”.90 As a result, Russia is eager to dominate the energy of Central Asia in order to suit its energy strategy.
Within the framework of SCO, economic cooperation is divided into two major areas including negotiation from government departments and non-governmental exchanges. On the one hand, the leaders meeting, premier's meeting, the minister's meeting, high officials meetings, and professional working groups are part of governmental department exchanges; on the other hand, the committee of entrepreneur from member states, bank associations from member states, and SCO forum are part of non-governmental exchanges.91
89 趙常慶等編著，中亞五國與中國西部大開發 (北京：崑崙出版社，2004 年 12 月)，頁
91-113。[Zhao Zhangqing, Zhongyawuquo Yu Zhongquoxibudakaifa (The Five Central Asia States and China’s Go West Development) (Beijing: Kunlun Publisher, December 2004), pp. 91-113.]
90 馮紹雷等著，轉型中的俄羅斯對外戰略 (上海：人民出版社，2005 年 4 月)，頁 94-95。[Feng Shaolei ed., Zhuanxingzhong De Elousi Duiwai Zhanlve (Russia’s Foreign Strategy in Transition) (Shanghai: Renmin Publisher, April 2005), pp. 94-95.]
91Take reference to SCO Official Website at http://www.sectsco.org/EN/shownews
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During the leadership meeting in 2006 and 2007, the priority of cooperation included energy issue, information technology cooperation, and traffic issue.
Therefore, the energy cooperation is on mutual-lateral cooperation phase under the framework of SCO. Because Russia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan are rich in energy reserves, they have a huge potential to reach a consensus to cooperate with each other under common energy demands in order to reach a suitable consensus.
It is a critical element for China to keep the rapid increasingly economic development, which determines whether China can maintain its remarkable economic growth rates. The global energy-consuming growth rate was 2.4 % in 2007, which was a slightly drop compared to 2.7% in 2006, but it remained a continuous growth over the past 5 years while China's growth rate was as much as 7.7%, though it was the lowest growth rate since 2002, it was still higher than the average growth rate over the past 10 years, which accounted for half of the global energy-consuming growth rate.
In order to avoid overly depending on the sea-lane for the transportation of energy resources from the Middle East which potentially has Malacca Dilemma, China has to develop toward the pluralistic oil sources in accordance with its energy strategy.92
As to Central Asian states, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are devoted themselves to explore the oil and gas fields, and to develop petrochemical industry while
92 龐國強，「從『中國崛起』探究中美、中俄關係與中亞能源發展之戰略意涵」，陸軍學術雙
月刊 (龍潭: 2009): 89。[Pang Guochang, Cong “Zhongquojieqi” Tanjiu ZhongMei ZhongE Guanxi Yu Zhongyanenyuanfazhan Zhi Zhanlveyihan (A Study of on the Relationship between Sino-U.S. and Sino-Russia Based on China’s Peaceful Rising and the Strategic Implication of Central Asia’s Energy Development) Lujun Xueshushuangyuekan (Army Bimonthly) (Longtan: 2009): 89.]
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Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are focusing on developing hydropower system and building power grids. Although the “Outline of Multilateral Economic and Trade Cooperation” had been signed in the SCO leadership summit in 2006 and 2007, declaring the exploitation of oil and gas, construction of oil and gas pipelines, and construction of hydro-power plants are concluded in the collaborative items, all of those constructions need capital and time for development, it also needs the further cooperation of governments and civilians of the member states to become practicable.
Russia today is a energy exporting giant, not only does Russia take it as a key element to maintain its economic status but also a critical maneuver to resume its status in the world, especially when Putin came into power in 2000, regarding energy diplomacy as an important project of its foreign policy.
First of all, it is important for Russia to dominate the energy of Caspian Sea as well as its transport oil pipelines; secondly to monopolize the abundant energy of Central Asia. After the setback of “An-Da Line,” later became the “An-Na Line,”
which illustrates that under the framework of SCO, Russia not only intended to maintain the strategic partnerships with China, but also to dominate the oil pipelines instead of being controlled by China on the basis of Russian national interests.93
At the heads of member states of SCO summit meeting in June 2006, the Russian president Putin put forward the idea of “energy club” under the framework of SCO, trying to safeguard its energy security with concerted effort.
93 姜書益，「中哈管線的興建及其面臨的挑戰」，大國及中亞能源政策學術會議 (中壢：清雲科
技大學，2007 年 9 月)，頁 5-6。[Jiang Xuyi, Zhongha Guanxianxingjian Jiqi Mianlin De Tiaozhan (The Establishment and Challenges of China-Kazakastan Oil Pipeline) Darquo Ji Zhongya Nengyuanzhangce Xueshuhuiyi (Great Powers and Energy Policy toward Central Asia Academic Conference) (Zhonlee: Ching Yun University, September 2007): 5-6.]
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“Mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality and collaboration, respecting different civilizations, and mutual developments” are the basic ideas of Shanghai Spirit, following the developments of security and economic cooperation, the mechanisms of cultural cooperation has also been developing under the framework of SCO; humanity and culture cooperation is a kind of cultural exchanges compared to the security and economic cooperation, which is regarded as the foundation of “soft power” that is different from military affairs, politics, and interest struggle. On the contrary, the soft power has the abilities of offering amnesty and enlistment to one's adversary and makes them obey the orders instead of suppressing people in order to achieve the purpose by itself. As long as one country's policy and culture are favored by its people, the soft power will be rising at the same time.94
As to the SCO member states, it is essential for them to strengthen mutual cultural exchanges, increase people to people mutual understandings; on the one hand to eliminate ethical contradictions and promote the harmonious among the nationalities, on the other hand to form cultural characteristics and promote the cohesiveness and centripetal force of SCO. The three basic functions of cultural cooperation in SCO are as follows:95
1. All member states should strengthen culture exchanges and promote mutual understanding through dialogue and cooperation, and enhance the cohesiveness of SCO through reducing misunderstandings caused by cultural difference of member states.
2. All member states should coordinate the existing cultural and traditional differences in order to reach a consensus on the basis of common regulations.
94 Joseph, Nye Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), p. 5.
95刑廣程、孫壯志編，上海合作組織研究 (吉林：長春出版社，2007 年 4 月)，頁 121-122。[Xing Guangcheng, and Sun Zhuangzhi ed., Shanghaihezuozuzhi Yanjiu (Study on Shanghai Cooperation Organization) (Jilin: Changchun Publisher, April 2007), pp. 121-122.]
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3. All member states should promote economic and trading development through cooperation of culture, education, environmental protection, and tourism. By constantly expanding cooperative fields to finally reach the final goal of regional
3. All member states should promote economic and trading development through cooperation of culture, education, environmental protection, and tourism. By constantly expanding cooperative fields to finally reach the final goal of regional