從國家研究途徑分析高等教育與全球化的關係：台灣與中國大陸的比較 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語學程博士學位論文 National ChengChi University International Doctoral Programme in Asia Pacific Studies (IDAS) Ph.D. Dissertation. 指導教授：高永光博士 Supervisor: Dr. Yuang Kuang Kao. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Globalisation and Higher Education in Taiwan and. ‧. Mainland China: State-Centred Approach 台灣與中國大陸的比較. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 從國家研究途徑分析高等教育與全球化的關係：. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 研究生：李佳容 Doctoral Candidate: Sabrina C. J. Lee. 中華民國一 ○ 四年一月 2015 JANUARY.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(3) CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. III. ABBREVIATIONS. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. VII. ABSTRACT. IX. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION. 1. 1.1 Globalisation, State and Higher Education. 4. 1.2 The Trends of Internationalisation of Higher Education. 7. 1.3 Purpose of the Study. 16. 政治大. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW. 立. 19 19. 2.2 State and Higher Education. 38. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1The Advent of Globalisation and Internationalisation. 2.3 Comparative Research on Politics and Education. al. n. 3.2 Research Methods. 59 59. er. io. 3.1 Conceptual Framework. y. Nat. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY. Ch. engchi. i n U. 54. sit. ‧. 2.4 Present Studies on Internationalisation in Taiwan and China. 48. v. 68. CHAPTER 4: STATE POLICIES AND STRATEGIES TOWARDS INTERNATIONALISATION IN TAIWAN. 73. 4.1 State Policies on Internationalisation in Higher Education. 73. 4.2 Strategies of Internationalisation in Higher Education Institutions. 82. 4.3 The Implications. 90. 4.4 Concluding Remarks. 92. CHAPTER 5: STATE POLICIES AND STRATEGIES TOWARDS INTERNATIONALISATION IN CHINA. 93. 5.1 State Policies on Internationalisation in Higher Education. I. 93.

(4) 5.2 Strategies of Internationalisation in Higher Education Institutions. 98. 5.3 The Implications. 105. 5.4 Concluding Remarks. 107. CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS: A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 109 6.1 Education Reforms. 109. 6.2 Education Practices. 114. 6.3 International Academic Achievement. 119. 6.4 State Preference. 124. 6.5 Concluding Remarks. 129. CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION. 立. 政治大. 131 131. 7.2 Globalisation and Higher Education Institutions. 學. ‧ 國. 7.1 Globalisation and East Asian States. 132 133. 7.4 Globalisation, Internationalisation and the State: Future Perspectives. 135. 7.5 Concluding Remarks. 139 141. er. io. sit. y. Nat. APPENDIX. ‧. 7.3 The State and Higher Education Institutions in the Context of Globalisation. al. n. v i n C hin Taiwan and Mainland Appendix II: Interviews Conducted e n g c h i U China Appendix I: Interview Questions. 141 143. Appendix III: Top University Ranking. 147. Appendix IV: List of Universities/Projects. 149. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 151. II.

(5) LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES: FIGURE 3. 1 GLOBALISATION AND STATE RESTRUCTURING .................................................................. 64 FIGURE 3. 2 STATE CAPABILITIES AND GLOBALISATION ....................................................................... 65 FIGURE 3. 3 FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 67 FIGURE 4. 1: TREND OF FOREIGN STUDENTS REGISTERING IN HEIS IN TAIWAN (2006-2013) .................. 83 FIGURE 4. 2 ACADEMIC COOPERATION (2009-2013) ....................................................................... 86 FIGURE 4. 3 NUMBER OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN SSCI JOURNALS (TAIWAN)........................................... 88 FIGURE 4. 4 NUMBER OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN SCI JOURNALS (TAIWAN) ............................................ 89 FIGURE 5. 1 NUMBER OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS IN CHINA ........................................................... 99. 政治大 20114 ...................................................................................................... 100 立 SSCI J (C ) ........................................... 103 P P. FIGURE 5. 2 TOP HOST COUNTRIES’ INTERNATIONAL ENROLMENT AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL HE ENROLMENT IN. FIGURE 5. 3 NUMBER OF APERS UBLISHED IN. OURNALS. HINA. ‧ 國. 學. FIGURE 5. 4 NUMBER OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN SCI JOURNALS (TAIWAN) .......................................... 103. ‧. TABLES:. sit. y. Nat. TABLE 2. 1 ACTORS AND THEIR ROLES IN THE INTERNATIONALISATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION ................. 34 TABLE 3. 1 TAIWAN GOVERNMENT’S PROJECTS ON HIGHER EDUCATION INTERNATIONALISATION ............. 59. io. n. al. er. TABLE 3. 2 MAINLAND CHINA GOVERNMENT PROJECT ON HIGHER EDUCATION INTERNATIONALISATION ... 60. i n U. v. TABLE 3. 3 ACTORS AND THEIR ROLES IN THE INTERNATIONALISATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION ................. 63. Ch. engchi. TABLE 4. 1: YEAR-BY-YEAR BUDGETS FOR SUB-PLANS OF THE 1ST PHASE PLAN ....................................... 76 TABLE 4. 2: LIST OF GRANTED UNIVERSITIES IN THE 1ST PHASE PROJECT ................................................ 77 TABLE 4. 3: YEAR-BY-YEAR BUDGETS FOR SUB-PLANS OF THE 2ND PHASE PLAN ..................................... 79 TABLE 4. 4: LIST OF GRANTED UNIVERSITIES IN THE 2ND PHASE PROJECT ............................................... 80 TABLE 4. 5: FOREIGN STUDENTS REGISTERING IN HEIS IN TAIWAN (2006-2013) .................................. 83 TABLE 4. 6: SUMMARY OF ACADEMIC EXCHANGES TAIWAN V.S. FOREIGN COUNTRIES (2007-2013)........ 84 TABLE 4. 7: NUMBER OF AGREEMENT SIGNING (BY COUNTRY) ............................................................ 85 TABLE 4. 8 QS WORLD UNIVERSITY RANKING (TAIWAN) .................................................................... 87 TABLE 4. 9 QS ASIAN UNIVERSITY RANKINGS (TAIWAN)..................................................................... 87 TABLE 4. 10 SCI IMPACT 2008-2014............................................................................................. 87 TABLE 5. 1 CENTRAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT FUNDING ALLOCATION IN PROJECT 985 (3RD PHASE) ....... 97 TABLE 5. 2 QS WORLD UNIVERSITY RANKING (CHINA) .................................................................... 101. III.

(6) TABLE 6. 1 NUMBER OF UNIVERSITIES BY RESEARCH PERFORMANCE IN BROAD SUBJECT AREAS, 2008-2011 ...................................................................................................................................... 120 TABLE 6. 2 NUMBER OF UNIVERSITIES BY RANGE OF RESEARCH-ACTIVE AREAS, 2008-2011 ................. 120 TABLE 6. 3 DISTRIBUTION OF UNIVERSITIES BY RESEARCH PERFORMANCE IN NICHE AREAS, 2008-2011 . 121 TABLE 6. 4 NUMBER OF UNIVERSITIES WITH THE HIGHEST PUBLICATION GROWTH RATE BY BROAD SUBJECT AREA AND COUNTRY OR TERRITORY, 2008-2011 .................................................................. 121 TABLE 6. 5 NUMBER OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN SSCI JOURNALS, 2008-2013 ...................................... 122 TABLE 6. 6 NUMBER OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN SSC JOURNALS, 2008-2013 ....................................... 122 TABLE 6. 7 QS WORLD UNIVERSITY RANKINGS (TAIWAN VS. CHINA).................................................. 122. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. IV. i n U. v.

(7) ABBREVIATIONS ACA. Academic cooperation agreement. AIEA. International Education Administrators in the United States. ARWU. Academic Ranking of World University. ASEAN. Association of Southeast Asian Nations. CBIE. Canada Bureau for International Education. CCP. Chinese Communist Party. CEAIE. China Education Association for International Exchange. CERNET. Chinese Education and Research Network. CI. Confucius Institute. DGBAS. Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics under the Executive Yuan. 立. 政治大. Department of International and Cross-strait Education. DPP. Democratic Progressive Party. ESI. European Association for International Education Essential Science Indicators. ‧. EUA. ‧ 國. EAIE. 學. DICE. European University Association General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. HE. higher education. HEEACT. Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan. HEI(s). Higher education institution(s). KMT. Kuomintang. LDSS. Library and Documentation Support System. MEFSS. Modern Equipment and Facilities Sharing System. MOC. Ministry of Culture. MOE. Ministry of Education. MOFA. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. MOST. Ministry of Science and Technology. MOU. Memorandum of understanding. NSC. National Science Council. OECD. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. QS. Quacquarelli Symonds Ltd. RMB. Renminbi (人民幣). sit. n. Ch. engchi. V. er. io. al. y. Nat. GATT. i n U. v.

(8) SCI. Science Citation Index. SSCI. Social Science Citation Index. WTO. World Trade Organisation. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. VI. i n U. v.

(9) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This piece of writing is my first long piece of academic work. I would never have thought to be able to accomplish a doctoral degree if I had not stayed in the UK for nearly 3 years. 4.5 years of studies and participation in academic research projects have made me understand what a social scientific work is and how I can create one basing on the knowledge that I have gained. This work cannot be done without the love from my family as well as many supports given by my teachers and friends.. 政治大 supervisor as well as mentor during my work of creation. Through the discussions 立 with him, I would be able to come up with ideas in writing as well as make necessary My primary gratitude is due to Professor Yuang Kuang Kao who has been my. ‧ 國. 學. modification to strengthen my arguments. I would like to thank my viva committee members who give insightful opinions and sage advice on my work. My gratitude is. ‧. also extended to those who have helped me during my field studies and those who accepted to be my interviewees in my work. Without them, it is impossible to provide. y. Nat. sit. first-hand data in this study. My friends, Rachel Yang, Erica Yang and Alexandra Lin,. al. er. io. who are all abroad, have been my great encouragement during my studies in Taiwan. v. n. and special thanks also go to Rachel who helped me with the proof reading of my work from time to time.. Ch. engchi. i n U. Last but not least, I am indebted to my beloved families who continuously give me support in life and understand the difficulties that I have encountered and overcome. This work is only the beginning of my studies on higher education in the Asia-Pacific region and I hope this creative work that I have endeavoured to present will be able to bring more fruitful discussions in the near future.. VII.


(11) ABSTRACT. This study aims to understand the relations between state and higher education under the impact of globalisation. By adopting a state-centred approach, this study discovers how state capabilities may affect the internationalisation of higher education. By discovering the numbers of student mobility, academic cooperation, cross-border education and the ranking of world-class university in Taiwan and China, the study suggests that both countries have made a progress in the internationalisation of higher. 政治大 higher education institutions do not have as much autonomy as it looks. The state 立 machine of China, allowing for autonomy in the pursuit of internationalisation in its. education in the past. Even so, in the pursuit of world-class university, Taiwan’s. ‧ 國. 學. top universities, help facilitate its higher education institutions to achieve the goals of internationalisation. The study concludes that state capability plays a pivotal role in. ‧. the internationalisation of higher education confronting globalisation.. y. Nat. sit. Keywords: Higher education, state capability, state preference, internationalisation,. n. al. er. io. world-class university.. Ch. engchi. IX. i n U. v.


(13) CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Internationalisation has been one of the most powerful and pervasive forces at work within higher education around the world during the last two decades. Undoubtedly, internationalisation is a core issue of concern to the higher education enterprise today. Many have believed that the process of globalisation has inevitably brought about the prevalence of internationalisation in higher education, including various cross-border education activities and academic cooperation. As globalisation is characterised by ‘the broad economic, technological, and scientific trends that directly affect higher education and are largely inevitable in the contemporary world’ (Altbach 2006, p.123), the ‘convenience’ brought by globalisation has facilitated higher education institutions to embed the internationalisation elements in their policy. 政治大 When examining the impact of globalisation, discussions in the field of political 立 science centre on issues concerning how state responses to globalisation, whether the agenda.. ‧ 國. 學. state role has been changed or whether the state would diminish under the impact of globalisation. The argument for the importance of state role in the process of. ‧. globalisation is receiving more attention than those believing that the state shall 'wither away' under the impact of globalisation. Most of the state governments have. y. Nat. sit. realised that the state alone cannot meet up the needs of the society in the 21 st century. er. io. and so the state decides to incorporate social forces more than before. The elements of. al. v i n education are gradually embedded under the influence of C hby the state government U i e h n gc neoliberalism ideology. Moreover, the internationalisation of higher education has n. 'decentralisation', 'mercerisation' and 'privatisation' in the development of higher. become an important policy and research agenda, which is regarded as a response to globalisation by the nation-state and higher education institutions. At the national level, different countries have responded differently and some countries becoming more open than others. At the local level, universities have to react to the state policy of internationalisation while some becoming more liberal and innovative under the framework of state policy. On the other hand, in the studies of higher education, often, discussions centre on what internationalisation is, how globalisation is linked with internationalisation of higher education, and how globalisation brings changes in the practices of higher education, such as curriculum design and various newly-developed academic. 1.

(14) cooperation. Indeed, there is a growing trend of internationalisation in higher education in East Asia. Quite a lot of project plans are carried out in East Asian countries by the state government in an attempt to enhance the quality of higher education institutions and to meet up the growing needs of state competitiveness. For instance, there is BK21 (known as Brain Korea 21 Programme for Leading Universities & Students) initiated by the Korean government in the hope to produce the next generation of world class leaders in different fields by upgrading research infrastructure in South Korea's higher education institutions. The city state of Singapore endeavours to build Singapore as a city of ‘Boston of the East’. Measures such as duplicating similar academic and physical environments of Boston to Singapore have been opted and carried out. The government of Japan also proposed. 政治大 The existing literature attempts to explain why individual nation-state adopt 立 strategies in carrying out project towards internationalisation (Mok 2000; 楊巧玲. for building the top-30 world-class universities in 2002 (陳維昭 2007).. ‧ 國. 學. 2004；姜麗娟 2008). However, except for a few examples (de Wit 2002; Mok 2003, Mok and Chan 2008; Salmi 2009), the empirical research on cross-national. ‧. comparative studies are lacking, especially those in developing countries. What is. y. Nat. more, there seems to be in lack of analysis on the triangular relations among. sit. globalisation, state and higher education (institutions), especially when higher. er. io. education institutions view internationalisation as a source of potential revenue other. al. n. v i n Cmust As leaders in higher education themselves to track and understand the h eprepare ngchi U broadest global trends in higher education, they must also pay attention to the unique than relying on state sponsorship.. needs and aspirations of their particular institutions, local communities and regional or national contexts (Rumbley, Altbach and Reisgberg 2012). The policy agenda regarding internationalisation made by the nation-state as well as the implementation of these policies by higher education institutions is thus essential to understand how state and higher education institutions support each other and altogether respond to globalisation. It is also crucial to find out who the ‘real leaders’ are for higher education in different nation-states. In some cases, the chancellor in the university can make quite a lot changes on the university development agenda, such as Cambridge University in the UK, while most other cases, the leaders in higher education institutions must consider the resources input before making the policy agenda of their 2.

(15) institutions, which apply mostly to the public universities which receive mainly the governmental subsidy. Hence, understanding the phenomena of internationalisation and globalisation in a comparative perspective would contribute to explain why some countries respond in this way and others don’t. There seems to be less empirical research on the cross-national comparative studies in the context of higher education because of the following problems. First, comparative higher education research deals with research which aims to address phenomena of higher education in more than one culture, society and nation systematically (Teichler 1996) which make the research on comparative higher education become interdisciplinary. Second, the growth of comparative research is due to knowledge economy brought by globalisation and so higher education research. 治政大time-span it usually takes comparative higher education is difficult because the 立 (Teichler 2014). Furthermore, it is substantially in complexity as it is cross-cultural. is a relatively small and novel field of social science (Dale 2005). Last, the research in. ‧ 國. 學. As most of the comparative higher education research is in the European-based context, there is a growing need for research in other regions.. ‧. Today, internationalisation is expressed in many and varied ways so is globalisation. While research on state capacity and autonomy seem to come to a halt. y. Nat. sit. after 1990s, this study is, thus, attempted to use state-centred approach to examine the. al. er. io. complex relations among globalisation, state and internationalisation of higher. n. education. How much have the states had its own preference on the higher education. Ch. i n U. v. internationalisation agenda setting? How much has individual university had its own. engchi. preference and autonomy in the internationalisation of higher education? Are the reactions made by states and higher education institutions congruent in the process of globalisation? In this introductory chapter, what a state is and how globalisation influences on the state in the past decades will be looked at first. The much neglected causal relation between state and higher education is then examined. Last, whether internationalisation of higher education institutions contributes to the evaluation of the globalisation and the choices of the two states, state of Taiwan 1 and state of China2, in this study are explained.. 1 2. Here it refers to the Republic of China (ROC.). Here it refers to the People’s Republic of China (RRC).. 3.

(16) 1.1 GLOBALISATION, STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION 1.1.1 The state in essence The state is by far the most dominant and most stable form of societal organisation of modernity. Far back in history, human groups called themselves ‘nations’. The Latin root of nation means ‘birth’. In the 17th century, the definition of nation changed to mean those large, powerful political entities. What follows that is the rise of modern nation, which changed the face of the globe. The 1789 French Revolution came a new force named nationalism. This new force quickly spread around Europe and then unleashed the desire for people to govern themselves as independent nations (Smith 1986). In the early statist theory discussions, there was no clear cut between the term ‘nation’ and ‘state’. Mixed-up usage of ‘state’, ‘nation’ or ‘nation-state’ is usually seen.. 立. 政治大. Nowadays, scholars have a clearer cut among different terms in the studies of state,. ‧ 國. 學. and yet it remains difficult to explain exactly what is meant by the concept of the state in the long lasting debate and in practice the line between the state and the society is difficult to draw. In the development of nation-state, there is a wide range of various. ‧. forms, such as the ancient Greek Polis, the Roman Empire, medieval Italian city states,. sit. y. Nat. and the absolutist regimes of the 17th and 18th century. All could be called states but, at the same time, they constituted quite different forms of societal organization.. io. n. al. er. Moreover, different state forms were always coexisting with each other as well as. i n U. v. with other forms of societal organization (Smith 1986). Even in contemporary social. Ch. engchi. theory there is no consensus what the state exactly is or ought to be. More recent accounts range from traditional Marxism or pluralism over different Neo-Marxist approaches to ‘neo-Weberian statism’. Despite this vast range of theories, none of the literature can draw an entirely convincing picture of the state, its nature and its essential features. Even so, schools of scholars still try to make a definition about what a ‘modern state’ is. A modern state, according to Dunleavy and O’Leary (1987 p. 2), has the following five characters: 1. The state is a recognizably separate institution or set of instructions, so different form the rest of its society as to create identifiable public and private spheres.. 4.

(17) 2. The state is sovereign, or the supreme power, within its territory, and by definition the ultimate authority for all law, i.e. binding rules supported by coercive sanctions. Public law is made by state officials and backed by a formal monopoly of force. 3. The state’s sovereignty extends to all the individuals within a given territory, and applies equally, even to those in formal positions of government or rulemaking. Thus, sovereignty is distinct from the personnel who at any given time occupy state’s personnel role within the state. 4. The modern state’s personnel are mostly recruited and trained for management in a bureaucratic manner. 5. The state has the capacity to extract monetary revenues (taxation) to finance. 治政大 abandoned after the tide of Traditionally, the blurred concept of the state had been 立 behaviourism since World War II and has been replaced by the system theory . In the its activities from its subject population.. 3. ‧ 國. 學. 1980s, the neo-statism came up to re-grasp the idea of ‘state’ as the neostatists movement emphasizing on ‘bringing the state back in’.. ‧. 1.1.2 Globalisation and the state. Nat. sit. y. Globalisation has been defined as ‘the intensification of worldwide social relations. al. er. io. which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events. n. occurring many miles away and vice versa (Held 1991, p. 9). Held suggests that. Ch. i n U. v. globalisation is the product of the emergence of a global economy, expansion of. engchi. transnational linkages between economic units creating new forms of collective decision making, development of intergovernmental and quasi-supranational institutions, intensifications of transnational communications, and the creation of new regional and military order. The process of globalisation, since it has started from the late 1980s, is regarded as blurring the states’ boundaries, shifting solidarities within and between nation-states and also deeply affected the identities of national and interest groups (Torres 1995). Since there has been growing interdependence and interconnectedness among nation-states, together with the liberalisation of national economies, globalisation literally means competition. It’s a process of competition in 3. Systems theory in political science is a highly abstract, partly holistic view of politics, influenced by cybernetics. The adaptation of system theory to political science was first conceived by David Easton in 1953.. 5.

(18) global marketplace, knowledge innovation, technology and information building and so forth. In the 1990s, there has been debates about whether globalisation is weakening the state capacity or not, and if yes, how are states weakened and how much? It is argued that the growing impact of globalisation has weakened the role of nation state especially in managing the public domain so that the state is hollowing out. By the same token, individual states must increase its capabilities in order to accommodate the demands and challenges generated from external environments－ ‘international community’. On the one hand, globalisation has undermined the position of nation-states in the concert of world systems; yet on the other hand, states have to elevate their capacities to face the changes of globalisation. Realizing the state in the era of globalisation alone can never meet the pressing. 政治大 underway in the name of global village. It is argued that the co-arrangement between 立 the state and the society is becoming a far more popular public policy trend (Mok needs from the public in policy provision, the revitalisation process of civil society is. ‧ 國. 學. 2003). Therefore, there is increased demand for higher education in the belief that universities can provide the knowledge base globally, and students who graduate from. 2005).. ‧. universes are more likely to get the necessary training and to get ‘good jobs’4 (Carnoy. sit. y. Nat. io. al. er. 1.1.3 Why state theory matters with higher education development?. n. From the above briefing, it is noted that state can be a key actor in the circle of. Ch. i n U. v. globalisation, state and higher education development. This explains a little why state. engchi. theory matters with higher education development. Traditionally, education was not in the centre of political science while political science was not, either, in the centre of education research. Clearly, there has been a neglect of the two in fact tightened relationships in the study of either political science or educational science. National opinion polls tended to show that education did not rank among the most important perception of manifold problems within institutionalised education although university and academic profession, or generally regarded as higher education, seems to be the exception. In fact, parts of educational science, as Enders puts, can be characterised as multi-disciplinary or it being a field to which researchers from various disciplinary backgrounds contribute (Enders, 2010). Nowadays, in order to 4. According to Carnoy, rising payoffs to higher education in a global, science based, knowledge intensive economy make university training more of a ‘necessity’ to get ‘good’ jobs.. 6.

(19) discuss issues in higher education, it is almost impossible to neglect the factor of the state, let alone the influence of globalisation. As globalisation can be a way to-renationlise a state’s policy agenda, state uses global narratives and international reform agendas to support their own political agendas and increasingly to claim that the role of higher education must be emphasised in the enhancement of national capacities and competitiveness. It is interesting to understand how much the higher education institutions are shaped by state policies, regulations and internationalisation while at the same time some governments attempt to enhance the autonomy and self-steering capacities of universities as corporate actors (de Boer et al. 2007).. 1.2 THE TRENDS OF INTERNATIONALISATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 政治大. Globalisation’s effects on developing countries will lead to experience the bulk of. 立. higher education expansion in the coming decades and will possibly result in a. ‧ 國. 學. realistic projection on paradigm change in higher education (Douglass et al. 2009). As a result of globalisation, the connections between higher education and the world of work are among the key issues of debate when challenges for innovation in higher. ‧. education are at stake (Teichler 1999). The notion of internationalisation is what. institutions. y. especially. in. developing. io. sit. education. Nat. apparently comes after globalisation that acts like a ‘wake-up call’ for the higher countries.. In. terms. of. n. al. er. internationalisation of higher education, research had been fragmented. The primary. i n U. v. academic focus based on American and European experiences are conflated with. Ch. engchi. comparative and international studies in education (Yang R. 2002). Teichler once criticised that that most of the research (in the topic of internationalisation of higher education institutions) seems ‘occasional, coincidental, sporadic or episodic’ (Teichler 1996). In spite of it, the U.S., Canada, Australia or many European countries have a relative long history and tradition in the study of internationalisation of higher education than most of Asian countries. Interestingly, this growing interest among Asian countries has been dramatically vital in the past decade, especially in Taiwan and China. The results of internationalisation has implicated that different countries reflects specific difficulties and challenges existing in the implementation of higher education internationalisation with the great influences from the country’s historical development of its higher education.. 7.

(20) What description can better explain internationalisation of higher education? Knight asserts that the internationalisation of higher education is a process in rapid evolution－both as actor and as reactor to the new realities of globalisation. In fact, internationalisation is interpreted and used in different ways, different countries and by different groups, or say stakeholders (Knight 2008, p.1). Knight and de Wit, being the consultants of OECD suggest that internationalisation of education is a complex set of processes designed to integrate an international dimension into most aspects of the work of universities (Knight and de Wit 1995). They also state that a comprehensive understanding of internationalisation must involve a commitment to the development of new skills, attitudes and knowledge in students, faculty and staff (Rizvi and Lingard 2006). Accordingly, they define that ‘internationalisation of higher. 政治大 research and service of the institution’ (Knight and de Wit 1995). Basically, the 立 rationales for internationalisation fall into two broad overlapping rationales (extract education is the process of international/intercultural dimension into the teaching,. ‧ 國. 學. from Rizvi and Lingard 2006, p.257): 1.. Economic and political rationales, such as economic growth and investment in. ‧. the future economy; to be competitive with the international labour market; to. sit. y. Nat. foster diplomacy through educational cooperation; financial incentives (e.g. contract education, recruitment of foreign students and international education. io. n. al. er. advisory services can generate income); and the national demand for higher. i n U. v. education is so great that nations stimulate study abroad; 2.. Ch. engchi. Cultural and educational rationales, which may either be to export national, cultural and moral values, or to increase intercultural knowledge, skills and research; to expand the social learning and development of individual; to provide an international dimension to research and teaching; to strengthen the core structures and activities of higher learning institutions through international cooperation; and to improve the quality of education and research. To. note. that. internationalisation. is. different. from. globalisation. as. internationalisation involves a series of activities of international linkages, partnerships, international academic programmes, academic mobility among students and teachers. Knight provides these following questions regarding higher education institutions internationalisation (Knight 2008, p.1-2):. 8.

(21) 1.. What is the purpose of internationalisation?. 2.. What are the benefits and risks?. 3.. What values undergird it?. 4.. Who are the main actors, stakeholders, and beneficiaries?. 5.. What are the positive consequences, the unintended results and the negative implications?. 6.. Howe are institutions responding to the competing interests in the domain of internationalisation?. 7.. What are the policy and finding implication of increased emphasis on internationalisation both at national and institutional level?. 8.. How are governments and NGOs addressing the issue and moving forward?. 9.. Is internationalisation a response to or a stimulant for globalisation?. 學. ‧ 國. 10.. 治政大brain drain, What role does internationalisation play in the 立 homogenisation/hybridsation of culture, and international labour mobility?. There has been a rapid economic development of Asia since the Second World War, the growing of Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and more recent China. ‧. and India have in a way altered the balance of power in the global economy. The. y. Nat. rising nation of the China has even more ambitious agenda not only recognising the. io. sit. importance of an educated workforce as a means to economic growth but also seeks to. er. expand the capacity of their systems of higher education (Marginson, Kaur and Sawir. al. n. v i n C Universities (Salmi world-class h e n g c h i U 2009),. 2011). At the same time, all universities involved in research and doctoral education want to become. which made the. internationalisation of higher education institution crucial in the higher education developmental agenda in East Asia. 1.2.1 State and higher education institution The modern university is a product of the nation state. It is generally taken for granted that education services have always been performed by the state. Universities are intuitions that have performed basic functions which results from the particular combination of cultural and ideological, social and economic, educational, and scientific roles that have been assigned to them. Even, some universities are missioned to carry out the state will in the middle 20th century (the case universities in Russia and China after the WW II) in order to bring the society back in order (Min 9.

(22) 2004). Nowadays, modern universities have multiple functions and purposes which contribute to the generation and transmission of ideology, the selection and formation of elites, the social development and educational upgrading of societies and the production and reproduction of knowledge. Most importantly, also mentioned above, modern universities are missioned to play a key function in the training of the highly skilled labour force. What the societies need in industry, the universities helped train the highly skilled labour for those industries. The OECD addressed the transition from higher education to employment in one of its largest projects in the early 1990s (OECD 1992, 1993). The 1994 OECD ‘Jobs Study’ and the 1998 OECD ‘Redefining Tertiary Education’ saliently point out close relationship between higher education and employment (OECD 1994, 1998).. 治政大 the historical period, the with different emphasis depending on the national context, 立 specific sector and indeed the intuition concerned. Universities are heavily involved in The range of functions constitutes the key tasks of higher education systems, albeit. ‧ 國. 學. literally every kind of social and economic activity in the increasingly dynamic societies, and it is therefore reasonable not only taking higher education as a social. ‧. institution to study but a social force in a state’s development (Clark 1986). The study of the relationship among the state-building, state development universities can be. Nat. sit. y. long traced back to the mid-20th century (Coleman 1965).What Wittrock illustrated in. al. n. role in the process of many nation-building.. Ch. er. io. 1993 clearly implies that with the analysis of history, universities are the prominent. i n U. v. [...] universities form part and parcel of the very same process which manifests. engchi. itself in the emergence of an industrial economic order and the nation-state as the most typical and most important form of political organisation. (Wittrock 1993, p. 305) In other words, the contemporary university in western countries was born of the nation state. In the 19th and 20th century, following the establishment of clear national economic interests, that university acquired their identification with science and technology. In the Eastern countries, too, one cannot easily eradicate the contribution of modern universities in the modernisation process (e.g. Japan, South Korea, Mainland China and Taiwan). The 19th to early 20thcentury’s China was a rather disrupted era. In the era of the Republic (1912-1949), the universities had gone through a process of adaptation and indigenization (Yang R. 2002). It seems that these Chinese universities of the Republican era developed into a ‘mature’ intuition, and yet 10.

(23) it is not until the 1990s that China underwent the complete open-door reform at the command of the party-state, which constituted the modern universities of China. Taiwan’s universities were under tight control of the state before the lift of Martial Law. Even after the lift of Martial Law, little efforts were being put in the reform of higher education because it seems that the party was distracted from the political struggles for more political status and power (Kao 2012). Not until 1994, when the protest of the mass appealed for the ‘songbang’ (鬆綁) of HE development, do the state started to ‘empower’ its higher education institutions. State and higher education institutions have a causal relation, and sometimes, they can benefit each other if effective and efficient measures can be adopted. To strike a balance of power between the state and higher education institutions seems to be. 政治大 adopted in the state development. In this study, when the universities (or more 立 broadly speaking, higher education institutions) are carrying out its own agenda on. uneasy particularly in the East Asian region while the state-led measures are usually 5. ‧ 國. 學. internationalisation, they are regarded as a social force which drives the state to become more internationalised and globally competitive through its training of the. ‧. highly skilled labour. At the same time, when the universities are carrying out the state policies, they are regarded as state apparatus. To note that the relative autonomy. y. Nat. sit. of state apparatus from government control derives usually from their own particular. er. io. history (Dale 2005), it is, hence, meaningful to look at the higher education. al. v i n authoritarian/totalitarian regimeC historically. It is interesting to see how more effective hengchi U and efficient institute can not follow the design of the state government in the n. development in the state of Taiwan and state of China who have been an. internationalisation of higher education; while less effective and efficient institute are still in the constraints of state control in many aspects. 1.2.2 Challenges in comparative higher education The main methodological challenge for comparative educationalists is not about levels of analysis, but about ‘the nature of comparative analysis per se’ and ‘whether to do it all’ (Bray 2006, p. 43). In the comparative higher education research, it 5. Higher education institutions (HEIs) is a general term used for education institutions that do not have a university title. In this study, the term of HEIs refer to a broader generalisation of all the higher education institutions while ‘university’ is used mainly referring to those providing courses that lead to qualifications or degrees including undergraduate and postgraduate courses. HEIs is also used when talking about universities and HEIs as a group.. 11.

(24) usually deals with ‘research addressing phenomena of higher education in more than one ‘‘culture’’, ‘‘society’’ or ‘‘nation’’ systematically or in a single one in comparative perspective’ (Teichler 1996, p. 448-449) and therefore, it sometimes make the research ‘huge’ and mixed up with concepts in different fields. Also, a comparative study may face the challenge of conducting in a longitudinal process so as to bring good result of a long-term observation. However, the comparative approach is seen as one of the most fruitful in higher education studies and comparative research is supposed to be ‘international comparative research in comparing phenomena across nations’ (Teichler 2014, p. 394). Dale (2005) suggests four levels of analysis and four approaches in making possible comparison in the set of knowledge economy and globalisation. Level 1:. 治政大are the relationship between 4: Outcomes. The four approaches summarised by Dale 立 problems and solutions; the scales at which and from which we may learn; the need to educational practices. Level 2: education politics, Level 3: politics of education. Level. ‧ 國. 學. recognise discourses as well as practices; and the nature of the learning taking place. Dale’s ideas intend to give clear and structural direction when doing higher education. ‧. comparative studies as he puts as follows:. …as a result of KE [knowledge economy], two of the fundamental assumptions. Nat. sit. y. of comparative education, its national base, and its topical focus…if we cannot. al. er. io. assume sufficient stability and coherence in either the topical or the locational base. n. of our activities, how should we go about the work of constructing categories that. Ch. i n U. v. are comparable in the ways that we have assumed heretofore that national systems. engchi. and education sectors are comparable? (Dale 2005, p. 137) This study is not only national (Taiwan and Mainland China) base but topical base (internationalisation of higher education). By examining the process and outcomes of internationalisation in higher education in the chosen countries6, this study aims to understand state capabilities in a comparative viewpoint. By posing figures and charts comparatively on student mobility, SSCI and SCI papers publication and the pursuit of world-class university, the study suggests that without a national identity, the pursuit of internationalist ion in higher education would not be feverish among workers in the academic field. And national identity is usually what a strong state instills to its citizens.. 6. More explanations are made in the later sector on the choices of the two nation-states.. 12.

(25) 1.2.3 Taiwan and China in a comparative perspective Since internationalisation is high on the agendas of national governments, international bodies and institutions of higher education (de Wit 1999), state governments in East Asia do not find internationalism new in its higher education development. Taiwan, an island-state, is part of such ‘internationalised’ phase particularly in the past decade. Following the revision of University Act in 1994, acknowledging that the state alone can never satisfy the pressing demand for higher education in the face of globalisation, the government has renounced several projects in order to make Taiwan’s higher education institutions more ‘competitive’ and enhance the quality of higher education overall. The purpose of Plan to Develop First-class Universities and Top-level Research Centres is to assist universities. 政治大 study of An evaluation of 立 the dynamics of the plan to develop first-class universities through funding allocation to compete for world-class university (MOE 2006a). In the. ‧ 國. 學. and top-level research centers in Taiwan, Chang et al. (2009), assert that all the universities involving in the Plan to Develop First-class Universities and Top-level Research Centres show tremendous increase in the growth rages of the Research and. ‧. Development performances. However, the existing literature does not discover. y. Nat. whether state government or the higher education institutions have the same. io. sit. preference on carrying out those internationalisation activates. Moreover, the. er. modification of the laws from the government state imply that the state has. al. n. v i n C h do have theUautonomy in setting university higher education institutions in Taiwan engchi decentralised its power the higher education institutions, whether those key select. agenda of internationalisation of higher education is not explained profoundly in the current literature, either. The state of China, being a socialist country, cannot be immune from the impact of globalisation. The state government has implemented a series of projects in order to make accomplishment of in the internationalisation of its higher education. In the 1990s, globalisation has become the leading social mantra and it was also about the period when China started to rise after its Open Door policy implementation. It was the ‘ripe’ time period when one could start to see the growth and improvement in many aspects in China. More recently, the Chinese government has attempted to internationalise the country by following the models set out by ‘western’ organisations, such as World Trade Organisation (WTO). In the field of higher 13.

(26) education, China’s government has attempted to maintain and improve the quality of higher education by enhancing faculty development, and increasing higher education’s funds (Min 2004). Not only that, China’s Ministry of Education has formulated policies plans of Project 211 (211 工程)7 and Project 985 (985 工程)8. Both Projects are aimed to push China’s leading universities becoming the locomotives not only to help raise the standards of the higher education system as a whole but also to make them the world-class universities. Although there is confusion or even tension for some of the Chinese higher education institutions why there were increasingly placed importance on internationalisation to them, international programmes are established in the business mantra to increase the income generation in individual university; activities in the name of internationalisation are often. 政治大 importantly, there is the exploration of the international market with a view to sell 立 educational products and services with ‘Chinese characteristics’. developed as a principal means to search out eternal financial resources. More. ‧ 國. 學. Indeed, the local socio-economic development of a region would affect how the people in the region regard and then respond to ‘globalisation’ (Arnove and Torres. ‧. 1999). Still, existing literature does not explain clearly why under the similar influences of globalisation in East Asia, state-nations develop their own ‘characters’. y. Nat. sit. in their higher education systems. In addition, how much the state-led forces have. al. er. io. driven the internationalisation of higher education? How much the higher education. v i n This study selects U. n. institutions can operate autonomously following their own internationalisation agenda. Ch. is still undiscovered in the region of East Asia? Mainland China to delve into. e n g cmaking hi the policy. 7. Taiwan and. of the state and the policy. Project 21/1 is a project of National Key Universities and colleges initiated in 1995 by the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China (China), with the intent of raising the research standards of high-level universities and cultivating strategies for socio-economic development. 211 Project schools take on the responsibility of training four-fifths of doctoral students, two-thirds of graduate students, half of students from abroad and one-third of undergraduates. They offer 85% of the state's key subjects, hold 96 percent of the state's key laboratories, and utilize 70% of scientific research funding.For the universities that are selected in the Project 98/5, one can refer to:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_211 8 Project98/5 is a project that was first announced by CPC General secretary and Chinese President Jiang Zemin at the 100th anniversary of Peking University on May 4, 1998 to promote the development and reputation of the Chinese higher education system .The project involves both national and local governments allocating large amounts of funding to certain universitiesin order to build new research centres, improve facilities, hold international conferences, attract world-renowned faculty and visiting scholars, and help Chinese faculty attend conferences abroad. For the universities that are selected in the Project98/5, one can refer to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_985. 14.

(27) implementation of the higher education institutions in the hope to understand more of the state-led forces in the internationalisation of higher education in East Asia. Studies in the comparison of Mainland China and Taiwan in the context of internationalisation of higher education are growing. Mok and Chan (2008) suggest that both governments in China and Taiwan have adopted more pragmatic approach to address the issue of internationalisation and the benchmarking in higher education. Deeper and critical reflections are still needed during the on-going ‘work-class university’ movement in Asia. Indeed, some trends and challenges brought by the impact of globalisation are quite similar in the region of Greater China. For instance, the major challenges common to Chinese societies include (Mok 2003 p.120): 1.. the ever-increasing rate of human progress;. 2.. the rise of the knowledge economy and the changing university;. 3.. 政治大 the growing significance 立 of information technology in education delivery; the massification of higher education and the need for quality control;. 5.. the East Asian financial crisis and the post-crisis adjustments; and. 6.. social and political changes and the need to change higher education. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 4.. In order to understand how the state continues to shape its society and how the. y. Nat. sit. state control has changed in the evaluation of globalisation, it is worthy of analysing. al. er. io. countries in Greater China and discover similar characteristics, perhaps, by deducting. n. from the discoveries of individual state-nations. Therefore, understand the state. Ch. i n U. v. policies in the internationalisation in higher education as well as the measure adopted. engchi. by those higher education institutions become crucial in a qualitative analysis research. Also, interviewing some of the key actors in helping shape state policies and those participate in the process of internationalisation in the higher education reforms would provide insightful views of ‘what is exactly happening in the education arena’. Researches that particularly emphasise on higher education reform are plenty (See Law 2003; Ngok and Kwong 2003; Hayhoe and Zha 2006; Mok 2007; Chan 2011; Pimpa, 2011) Most of the literature suggest that not only Taiwan but also China are not immune from higher education reform, particularly towards opening up more opportunities in education for foreigners by conducting rules set by the framework of GATT made by WTO. However, literature does not explain the different degrees of ‘door-opening’ between Taiwan and China and how these differences might have been induced by political culture, structures or other political factors. To note that, the 15.

(28) Chinese Communist Party (CCP) still claims that China is a communist and socialist country with Chinese characteristics. Taiwan, clearly, has shifted from an authoritarian to democratic regime from the early 1990s with full political participation, and citizens’ rights. Indisputably, the CCP is still the absolute power holder in the Chinese politics. Taiwan’s government is more open to political participation after the lift of Martial Law in 1987. Also the society are given more decision making power in public affairs through democratic means, such as voting and open debates. Taiwan’s society is more democratic, flexible, well-informed, informationalised, high-tech, competitive and marketised (Weng 1999) comparing to mainland China.. 1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY. 政治大. This study is hoped to provide an interdisciplinary as well as a comparative. 立. perspectives to understand more the states where each individual live through the. ‧ 國. 學. examination on the outcomes of internationalisation in Asia’s higher education institutions. Through an in-depth study of state policy and higher education international activities at the education area, this study has attempted to reveal the. ‧. accomplishments and limitations on the contribution of theory of state. As mentioned. sit. y. Nat. in the previous part, most of the current literature focus on the structural changes in educational governance confronting the impact of globalisation, and yet they fail to. io. n. al. er. explain why certain countries’ changes have turned the system into a better shape,. i n U. v. while some other don’t and still other are more ‘indifferent’ to the impact of. Ch. engchi. globalisation. In addition, it is hard to tell from the current studies whether the internationalisation of higher education is more driven by the state or higher education institutions themselves or it is uneasy to tell in some cases. Particularly, the current European-based studies’ framework of analysis cannot explain well the cases in East Asian countries (Teichler 2014). The limitations of the study might be too less cases being examined in the region of East Asia. Also, it is not easy to make a definite argument whether it is the state’s force or the society’s force to help accomplish Asia’s higher education institutions’ internationalisation outcomes. The study, however, is hoped to reveal the importance of the state’s act in higher education development, especially in the promotion of internationalisation. Thus, the significance of the study lies in the following aspects: (1) An interdisciplinary analysis which adopts a state-centred approach to understand higher 16.

(29) education development in East Asia (2) To regard Asia’s higher education institutions as a state apparatus and to understand to what degree that a state, such as Taiwan and Mainland China can drive its state apparatus to accomplish the state’s will. To note that viewing higher education as a tool in such an analysis is not widely seen in the precedent studies and yet it does draw more attention in recent studies. 9 (3) The discussion posits the state as a ‘real’ entity in opposition to civil society and it is hoped to understand the changing relations of the state to the educational arena. Chapter two is designed for literature review. Basing on the current theories and research findings, the chapter points out the issues that are not dealt with yet or are not insightfully understood. Chapter three is the methodological considerations of the study. It lays out the framework of analysis in this study and explains the process of. 治政大higher education in Taiwan some key policies regarding the internationalisation of 立 and China are identified. Also, each chapter addresses some core problems relating to selections of the interviewees and the conduct of interviews. In chapter four and five,. ‧ 國. 學. the internationalisation of Taiwan (in chapter four) and China (in chapter five) summarised from the interview findings. These problems and issues identified in the. ‧. study are compared and analysed in chapter six, which provides a preliminary analysis of the relations between state capacity and university autonomy of Taiwan and China.. y. Nat. sit. The final chapter (seven) offers some concluding comments and addresses issues that. al. er. io. need to be further explored for in future studies.. n. The study wishes to cast light on the more detailed situations of higher education. Ch. i n U. v. studies in East Asia and perhaps helps to understand more of how East Asia’s higher. engchi. education institutions face globalisation effects, no matter what that will be in the future. The study wishes to promote further reflection and research into critical analysis of the state-centred perspective in the studies of higher education internationalisation in the face of globalisation, and perhaps acts as a locomotive to discover the truth, where the pursuit of truth is the nature of social science in the human society.. 9. More details on how an interdisciplinary background of knowledge is needed in study of higher education can refer to A, P. Jakobi, K. Martens and K.D. Wolf’s edited book, Education in Political Science.. 17.

(30) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 18. i n U. v.

(31) CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic. In this chapter, literature which discusses the aspects of globalisation, state and higher education (HE) are reviewed so as to help readers understand the current trends and issues in these fields.. 2.1THE ADVENT OF GLOBALISATION AND INTERNATIONALISATION No universally accepted conceptualisation of globalisation is mapped and yet globalisation influences our everyday life as much as it does to events happening on the world scale (Giddens 1999). Globalisation is restructuring the ways in which we live profoundly and thus it is not merely a practice in the economic sphere but also in. 政治大. political and cultural domains (Sklair 1999). The term globalisation is used to refer to a complicated set of economic, political and cultural factors. New communication. 立. technologies that facilitate expanded world trade as well as cultural interactions are. ‧ 國. 學. viewed the leading factors to attribute to the emergence of globalisation. Held (1991) defines globalisation as:. ‧. …the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away. Nat. sit. y. and vice versa (p.9).. Waters (1995) sees globalisation as:. io. n. al. er. …a social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural. i n U. v. arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding (p.3).. Ch. engchi. Gray (1999) speaks of globalisation as follows: Globalisation can mean many things. On the one hand, it is the worldwide spread of modern technologies of industrial production and communication of all kinds across frontiers – in trade, capital, production and information… Globalisation also implies that nearly all economics are networked with other economics throughout the world (p. 55). Larsson (2001) regards globalisation as: …the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world (p.9). 19.

(32) Al-Rodhan and Stoudmann (2006) summarise the literature arising from the debate on globalisation and define that: Globalisation is a process that encompasses the causes, course, and consequences of transnational and transcultural integration of human and non-human activities (p.5). Moreover, both Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have tried to explain what globalisation is and to what extent it has covered. The IMF (IMF 2000) identified four basic aspects of globalisation: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge. OECD documented in its Handbook on Economic Globalisation Indicators that ‘the term globalisation has. 治政大 above all to a dynamic and and of markets for goods and services. Globalisation refers 立 multidimensional process of economic integration whereby national resources become been widely used to describe the increasing internationalisation of financial markets. ‧ 國. 學. more and more internationally mobile while national economies become increasingly interdependent’(OECD 2005, p.11).. ‧. Globalisation has strong influences mostly to economic effects. It surely is a product of the emergence of a global economy. These economic effects can be. Nat. sit. y. observed from the practices of ‘marketisation’, ‘privatisation’, and ‘corporatisation’ in. al. er. io. public sectors in the past decades (Mok and Welch 2003). Held et al. (1999) believes. n. that under the reinforcement of globalisation, the authoritative actors in the global. Ch. i n U. v. financial system poses serious questions about the nature of ‘state power’ and. engchi. ‘economic sovereignty’. The process of globalisation is blurring national boundaries, shifting solidarities within and among nation-states and in a sense, it can affect the constitution of national and interest group identities (Torres and Morrow 2000). Cerny (1997) points out that when discussing the political aspect of globalisation it means that: …the shaping of the playing field of politics itself is increasing determined within insulated units. i.e. relatively autonomous and hierarchically organized structures called states; rather it derives from a complex congeries of multilevel game on multi-layered institutional playing fields, above and across, as well as within, state boundaries (p.253). Globalisation seems to drive a revolutionary change in the organisation of work, the production of goods and services, relations among nations and even local culture 20.

(33) (Pang 2006) and yet some scholars are against seeing globalisation as ‘prevailing’ as it can be. For instance, Held (2004) notes that globalisation generated increasing interconnectedness and yet it does not automatically generate a common set of experiences, views and values. He lists out ten countering myths about globalisation while these are the main arguments generally accepted and characterised in recent research: 1. Globalisation does not equal Americanisation. 2. There has been no simple race to the bottom in welfare and labour standards. 3. There has not been a simple collapse of environmental standards. 4. Globalisation is not associated with the end of nation-state.. 政治大 Globalisation has立 not merely compounded global inequities.. 5. Globalisation does not merely threaten national cultures. 6.. ‧ 國. 學. 7. Globalisation has not simply reinforced corporate power. 8. Developing countries as a whole are not losing out in world trade. 9. Economic globalisation and the current structure of international. ‧. governance do not exclude the ‘voice’ and influence of developing. y. Nat. countries.. io. sit. 10. Popular opposition to dominant political and economic interests is not. n. al. er. doomed to fail because it lacks the kinds of resources that the most states. i n U. and multinational companies can command.. Ch. engchi. v. Burbules and Torres summarise well the crucial characteristics of globalisation in the following three perspectives although they emphasise that it could be extremely risky to advance a description of the characteristics in light of those many debates (Burbules and Torres 2000, p. 14): 1.. In economic terms, globalisation may mean a transition from Fordist to postFordist forms of workplace organisation; a rise in internationalised advertising and consumption patterns; a reduction in barriers to the free flow of goods, workers and investments across national borders; and, correspondingly, new pressures on the roles of worker and consumer in society.. 2.. In political terms, globalisation may mean a certain loss of nation-state sovereignty, or at least the erosion of national autonomy, and, correspondingly, a 21.

(34) weakening of the notion of the ‘citizen’ as a unified and unifying concept, a concept that can be characterised by precise roles, rights, obligations and status. 3.. In cultural terms, globalisation may mean a tension between the ways in which globalisation brings forth more standardisation and cultural homogeneity while also bringing more fragmentation through the rise of locally oriented movements. A third theoretical alternative, nonetheless, identifies a more conflicted and dialectical situation, with both cultural homogeneity and cultural heterogeneity appearing simultaneously in the cultural landscape.. 2.1.1Globalisation and educational change Globalisation is transforming the political, economic and cultural lives of people. 治政 revolutionary change in the organisation of work, 大 the production of goods and 立 and even local culture (Pang 2006). Under this kind services, relations among nations. whether dwelling in both developed and developing countries. It is driving a. ‧ 國. 學. of impact, globalisation also has profound impact on education among nation states since the bases of globalisation are knowledge intensive information and innovation. ‧. (Carnoy 2002). It is believed that the effects of globalisation on education are not only far-reaching, due to the scale and nature, these effects also change the way education. y. Nat. sit. is governed. Educational policies and practices have been restructuring drastically due. al. er. io. to the impact of globalisation on education. A paradigm shift in educational policies. n. and administration is already taking place in many countries including the changes. Ch. i n U. v. from old-fashioned value of wisdom, trust, empathy, compassion, grace and honesty. engchi. to the so-called values of contracts, markets, choice, and competition in educational administration (Pang 2006). Such changes are believed due to the effects of neoliberalism to education markets and they become the central ideas in education reform for globalisation in many states. Carnoy (1999) summarises the direct and indirect effects from globalisation to education systems which brings recently major changes in education (p.15-17): 1. Globalisation has had an impact on the organisation of work and on the work people do. Usually this work demands a high level of skill. 2. Such demands push governments to expand their higher education, and to increase the number of secondary school graduates prepared to attend postsecondary education. 22.

(35) 3. Most governments are under greater pressure to increase spending on education to produce a more educated labour force. 4. The quality of education is increasingly being compared internationally. The TIMSS and PISA10 studies are cases in this aspect. 5. There have been greater emphases on mathematics and science curricula, English as a foreign language and communication skills, in school education. 6. Use of information technology, such as, the use of the internet and computer assisted instruction are becoming more common in classroom. As shown above, globalisation has profound effect on education at many different levels, both macro and micro. As a result, a trend that incorporates the ideas of market. 政治大 getting more and more prominent. 立 Bates (2002) argues that the development of the. into education is evident. Competition, a newly emerged value, in education is also. ‧ 國. 學. knowledge economy through the enhancement of skills and abilities has become an important agenda in many countries’ educational policy. Daun (2002) also points that global competition leads to an increasing demands of higher skills in the population as. ‧. a whole. Lingard (2000) argue that in order to enhance a nation’s productivity and. y. Nat. competitiveness in the global situation, decentralisation and the creation of ‘market’. al. 2.1.2The impact of globalisation on higher education. er. io. sit. in education have been the two major strategies employed to restructure education.. n. v i n Cbeen Due to globalisation, there has expansion of a global higher education h eanrapid gchi U. market, based on the discourse of global competition. It is believed that the process. has been greatly fuelled by the neo-liberalism. The neoliberalists’ point of view no longer regard that the provision of education as a ‘public good’ paid for through taxation should be justified. Instead, they believe that the factor of market should be imbedded in higher education and higher education institutes can be run like an enterprise. As Yang R. (2002) rightly puts: Despite some positive aspects, the globalisation of higher education is ultimately based on market-driven fundamentals of globalisation. Thus, it creates more challenges than opportunities, particularly for the non-western developing. 10. TIMSS stands for ‘Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study’; PISA stands for the ‘Programme for International Student Assessment;.. 23.

(36) countries. The most prominent challenges include quality control, information management, its fitness for local societies and costs and benefits. When all of these aspects accompany each other, it raises the danger of a total lack of the genuine educational values, quality control and regulation (p. 61). Therefore, governments in developing countries such as Mainland China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Singapore and Malaysia have started to review their education systems in order to enhance the gaols of global competence in the global market place in recent years. Different reform measures have been introduced to those governments so that the states can improve the overall education quality in the globalising economy context (Mok 2006, 2010; Olds 2007; Morshidi 2010). Overall changes in higher education in the past decades are summarised by Altbach. 治政大approaches (p. 2-4): (Part One)’ point out these changes through comparative 立. and Foster (2006) in their edited book of ‘International handbook of higher education. ‧ 國. 學. 1. There is a shift in governmental approaches to access. Governments play a less prominent role in formulation policies. Instead, individual institutions are free to determine their own selection and enrolment policies.. ‧. 2. As the growth of enrolment throughout much of the world, academic. y. Nat. systems have become complex and differentiated.. io. sit. 3. The private sector has expanded dramatically in many countries over the. n. al. er. past several decades while public support for higher education has declined. i n U. v. substantially because higher education is more seen as a ‘private good’. Ch. engchi. rather than a ‘public good’.. 4. Global links among academic institutions are becoming increasingly important, in which it encourages, in a way, the spread of an assessment and quality assurance movement in higher education. 5. An increasingly globalised marketplace has created enormous demand for international competencies throughout the workforce, leading to public policies meant to encourage the internationalisation of a nation’s educational programmes and scientific research. 6. The evolution of technology has reshaped the landscape of higher education, which has made distance education possible. Distance education will very possibly play a key role in framing the worldwide evolution of higher education. 24.

(37) Changes in higher education are believed led by the changes in the socialeconomic context resulting from the globalised economy. Whether these changes are ‘good’ in terms of the development of higher education are discussed among scholars. For instance, Welch and Mok (2003) raise issues such as ‘is globalisation beneficial to economic growth, equality and justice, or is it harmful?’; ‘has globalisation led to development of division in education, and to what extent?’. Carnoy (2005) argues that globalisation increases the demand for education and for educational quality. However, paradoxically, globalisation may pose a threat to decreasing the quality of education because globalisation weakens the power of the national state or regional government which attribute to decentralisation and decentralisation would contribute to greater inequality in the quality of schooling.. 政治大 As Morrow and Torres 立 note, the most visible impact of globalisation on education, 2.1.2.1 Reforms and Structural Adjustment in Higher Education. ‧ 國. 學. especially in developing societies, stems from the imposition of structural adjustment policies (Torres and Morrow 2000). They believe that those structural adjustment policies are directly links to globalisation to the extent that ‘all strategies of. ‧. development are now linked to the imperatives of creating stability for foreign capital’. y. Nat. (Morrow and Torres 2000, p.43). Those structural adjustments in higher education are. io. sit. eminent in many Asian countries, such as Malaysia, Singaproe, Taiwan and Mainland. er. China, in the past decade (see Mok 2002, 2003; Law 2003; Chang et al.2009).. al. n. v i n Ch governance from the impact of globalisation recent i Uyears. As Enders (2004) states, e n g inc h. A number of critical analyses also review the challenges imposed on educational. globalisation has changed the way higher education institutions (HEIs) are governed and this is particularly true in European integration in recent years. Enders (2004) explains what ‘governance’ means nowadays: [f]or one thing, governance is now often used to indicate a new mode of governing that is distinct from the hierarchical control model, a more cooperative mode where state and non-state actors participate in mixed networks. The second new meaning of the term governance is much more general, here governance means the different modes of coordinating individual actions, or basic forms of social order (p. 379). Fukuyama defines governance as ‘a government’s ability to make and enforce rules, and to services, regardless of whether that government is democratic or not’ (Fukuyama 2013, p. 350). When it comes to the arena of (higher) education, 25.