與 360 度照片互動：使用自我決定論探討社群媒體使用者的愉悅感和行為動機 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士學位論文 Master’s Thesis. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 與 360 度照片互動：使用自我決定論探討社群媒體使. ‧. 用者的愉悅感和行為動機. Nat. sit. y. Interact with the 360-degree picture: Employ the self-. n. al. er. io. determination theory in explaining social media user’s enjoyment and behavioral intention C h. engchi. i Un. v. Student: Shih-Hsien Sue Lin 林詩賢 Advisor: Dr. Jih-Hsuan Tammy Lin 林日璇博士. 中華民國一零九年一月 January 2020. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(2) Abstract Despite the increasing number of the 360-degree picture appears on social media, the effective use of the technology remained unknown. Applying self-determination theory (SDT), this study examined whether the factors of competence, autonomy, relatedness, and presence were correlated with interactivity, media enjoyment, and behavioral intention. Fifty-six participants participated in the online field experiment on social media-based brand communities to either (1) interact with the 360-degree picture or (2) see the conventional flat picture. The findings indicated that people with the expertise. 政治大 experience with Gogoro had greater autonomy when they interacted with the panoramic 立. of 360-degree technology had greater competence, and people who had traveling. ‧ 國. 學. picture than a flat picture, whereas it had no significant effect on relatedness.. Also,. the positive correlation between autonomy and presence was found; autonomy of the. ‧. 360-degree picture was related to enjoyment, whereas presence was not. Moreover, the. sit. y. Nat. results suggested that social media users had higher media enjoyment on the flat picture. n. al. were influential in the user's behavioral intention.. Ch. er. io. than the 360-degree picture, which, together with customer/other customer relationship,. i Un. v. e、nInteractivity、Self-determination Keywords: 360-degree picture gchi Theory、Autonomy、Presence、Media enjoyment、Brand community. 2 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(3) Table of Contents Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 6 1.1 360-degree picture on social media ............................................................. 6 1.2 Social media-based brand community......................................................... 7 Chapter 2. Literature Review ................................................................................... 9 2.1 Active viewing and passive viewing ........................................................... 9 2.2 Motivations of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) ......................................10 2.3 Interactivity and SDT................................................................................12. 政治大 2.3.2 User-message interaction and autonomy ..........................................14 立 2.3.1 User-machine interaction and competence .......................................13. ‧ 國. 學. 2.3.3 User-message interaction and relatedness ........................................17 2.4 Interactivity of the 360-degree picture, autonomy, presence, and media. ‧. enjoyment ......................................................................................................18. sit. y. Nat. 2.4.1 360-degree picture and presence .....................................................18. n. al. er. io. 2.4.2 Autonomy and spatial presence .......................................................19. i Un. v. 2.4.3 Media enjoyment as the effect of autonomy and presence ................20. Ch. engchi. 2.5 Media enjoyment and behavioral intention .................................................21 Chapter 3. Method .................................................................................................25 3.1 Participants and design .............................................................................25 3.2 Procedures and Stimulus ...........................................................................26 3.3 Measures ..................................................................................................26 3.3.1 Independent variables .....................................................................26 3.3.2 Dependent variables .......................................................................27 3.3.3 Control variables ............................................................................30 Chapter 4. Results ..................................................................................................32 3 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(4) 4.1 Two-way ANOVA for H1a-c ....................................................................32 4.2 Serial mediation for H2-H5 .......................................................................34 4.3 Simple mediation model for H6 .................................................................36 Chapter 5. Discussion ............................................................................................38 5.1 Interactivity and needs satisfaction ............................................................38 5.1.1 Interactivity and competence ..........................................................38 5.1.2 Interactivity and autonomy .............................................................40 5.1.3 Interactivity and relatedness ............................................................40 5.2 Interactivity, autonomy, presence, and media enjoyment ............................41. 政治大. 5.2.1 Autonomy and presence..................................................................41. 立. 5.2.2 Presence and media enjoyment .......................................................42. ‧ 國. 學. 5.2.3 Autonomy and media enjoyment .....................................................43. ‧. 5.2.4 Autonomy and presence as mediator ...............................................44 5.3 Media Enjoyment, behavioral intention, and customer/other customer. sit. y. Nat. io. er. relationship ....................................................................................................47 5.4 Limitations ...............................................................................................48. al. n. iv n C Chapter 6. Conclusion ............................................................................................50 hengchi U References .............................................................................................................54 APPENDIX A: Measurement .................................................................................62 APPENDIX B: Questionnaire (Interactivity) ...........................................................64 APPENDIX C: Questionnaire (No Interactivity) .....................................................70. 4 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(5) List of Figures and Tables. Figure 1 The proposed relationship of interactivity, autonomy, presence, and media enjoyment. .....................................................................................................21 Figure 2 The proposed relationship of interactivity, media enjoyment, behavioral intention, and customer/other customers relationship. ......................................24 Figure 3 Interaction of 360-degree expertise × interactivity on competence. .............33 Figure 4 Interaction of Gogoro travel experience × interactivity on autonomy. .........34. 政治大. Figure 5 Path coefficients and indirect effects for serial mediation model of. 立. interactivity on media enjoyment through needs satisfaction and presence. .......36. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 6 Mediation effect of media enjoyment between the relationship of interactivity and behavioral intention with the covariate of customer/product,. ‧. customer/brand, customer/company, and customer/other customer relationship.. y. Nat. io. sit. ......................................................................................................................37. n. al. er. Figure 7 Final Model .............................................................................................37. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Table 1 Definitions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness ................................12 Table 2 Descriptives of Autonomy, Presence, and Media Enjoyment on three levels of interactivity. ...................................................................................................35. 5 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(6) Chapter 1. Introduction Facebook users spend time browsing through funny images and videos and support their favorite brand by joining some brand communities to be fed with the latest information and viral pictures. Recently, the emergence of the 360-degree picture on Facebook has guided the users to step into the scene, making people feel more immersive than the conventional picture. The 360-degree picture builds the scene surrounding the audience, and the audience can interact with the picture. The users of social media sites have started to embrace the new way of sharing life memories, but. 政治大 Facebook may satisfy the user's psychological needs, determining their usage patterns. 立. there is less discussion about how the feature of the interactive 360-degree picture on. ‧ 國. 學. This study examines the interactivity of the 360-degree feature and explores whether it can prompt users to participate in the brand-related activity in the context of social. ‧. media-based brand community.. sit. y. Nat. 1.1 360-degree picture on social media. n. al. er. io. National Geographic's Facebook Fan Page has published a post of 360-degree video. i Un. v. since 2016: getting closer to the brown bears in the wildlife from the angle of being in. Ch. engchi. the center of the river. The post has gone viral with more than one hundred thousand sharing, twenty-two thousand likes, and ten thousand comments, the users praising the immersive feeling that 360-degree technology has achieved. There is also a Facebook Fan Page, Facebook 360, aiming at discovering 360-degree videos and photos, including the topics of art, nature, sports, travel, and VR game. Even though Facebook has allowed users to upload interactive 360-degree picture and video, the feature is still not as popular as the conventional picture and video when it comes to the user's daily usage habits and marketing. For example, in the campaign of the 360-degree sportive camera, Gopro recommended the users to share user-generated content (UGC). 6 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(7) However, most of the uploaded videos are shot with the 360-degree camera but edited into the flat video, which has framed the audience's viewing angles without any interactivity. The technology of 360-degree images has not convinced the marketers and general users on Facebook due to the cost of taking 360-degree pictures. Taking the 360-degree picture requires either a panoramic camera (e.g., Insta 360, GoPro, Richo Theta, Samsung Gear 360) or holding a mobile device for a longer second to capture the environment. However, with the trend of more immersive advanced technology, from Google cardboard to virtual reality headsets, the users are pursuing the immersive entertainment experience from high pixel fix-angle convention pictures. 政治大. to the interactive 360-degree picture. As a result, it is necessary to conduct an in-depth. 立. analysis to understand whether Facebook user's interactive image viewing engagement. ‧ 國. 學. is related to the nuanced psychological change in the hope of providing insights and. sit. y. Nat. 1.2 Social media-based brand community. ‧. prediction for future 360-degree technology development and application.. io. er. The social media-based brand community constructs consumers' relationships with the. al. iv n C Customers are interested in exposinghthemselves i Ucontents produced by the brand e n g c toh the n. brand, product, company, and other consumers (Habibi, Laroche, & Richard, 2014).. and product usage experiences shared by the other customers. Community engagement refers to the consumer's identification with the brand community, and highly engaged consumers have "intrinsic motivation to interact and cooperate with community members" (Algesheimer, Dholakia, & Herrmann, 2005, p.21). The community members voluntarily interact on social media with the activity of sharing pictures, videos, liking, and commenting on the posts. This study focuses on the Gogoro Fan Club, an electric scooter Facebook club. Most of the members in this online fan club have purchased Gogoro. There is various type of 7 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(8) contents shared on this social media-based brand community, including organizing a face-to-face trip regularly and holding the brand event. The posts can accumulate hundreds of likes, and some of them will go viral on media, triggering the users to generate more contents that keep the community vibrant. What's more, those posts have symbolized a fun brand image, which is co-created by the community members. The users can identify with the product, brand, and other community members throughout their interaction on social media. Their community engagement can differentiate from those who read and like the posts to those who participate in the offline rider's community activity. Even though it is evident that the post’s content has an impact on. 政治大. the user's identification with the brand community, there is a scarce discussion about. 立. the form of content on social media. Therefore, this study investigates how the form of. ‧ 國. 學. the 360-degree picture on social media can enhance the user’s media enjoyment and. ‧. behavioral change.. The results of this study are expected to provide a practical explanation to the current. sit. y. Nat. io. er. phenomenon on Facebook, which the emergence of 360-degree picture features can deem as either interesting or superfluous, depending on how the audiences perceive the. al. n. iv n C content (Gambino, Kim, & Sundar, 2017). paper is organized as follows. First, the h e nThe gchi U interactivity of the 360-degree picture is defined, comparing to the conventional picture. Second, self-determination theory is employed to explicate the online user's psychological mechanisms toward the interactive 360-degree picture in the context of. the social media-based brand community, and the third section shows the proposed method and measures to explore this issue.. 8 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(9) Chapter 2. Literature Review 2.1 Active viewing and passive viewing Drawing from existing theories of audience behavior, the debate of active and passive audiences has occurred since the beginning of the TV watching era. Cultivation theory has seen audiences as passive recipients who invisibly consume the worldview as a daily ritual and shape the reality in the long term (Gerbner et al., 1986). In succession with the prosperity of TV in the 1960s, Hauben & Hauben (1997) discussed the phenomenon of ‘Netizens' which has rapidly created new habits for audiences to get. 政治大 theory in new media and pointed out that the audiences are active participants whose 立 access to news, recreation, and social community. Nevzat (2018) revived cultivation. ‧ 國. 學. everyday reality is constructed by social media with its meaning-making messages. At this point, the emergence of new technology, which was internet by then, had. ‧. challenged the bottom line of communication study’s proposition, abandoning the. Nat. sit. n. al. er. io. content on TV.. y. concept of considering audiences to be purely passive recipients who are fed by the. i Un. v. Bauer (1964) proposed a communication study paradigm shift from analyzing mass. Ch. engchi. society to analyzing the receivers who contain the "obstinate" mindset to defend the messages which are produced by media. That is, Bauer (1964) had seen the audiences as rational and self-determining individuals. Building upon the concept of selfdetermining audience, Levy and Windahl (1984) interpreted a seemingly passive TV watching behavior as the audiences are actually exerting their effort to select, involve, and use the media. To further consolidate the argument of active-passive dichotomy in mass communication theory, Abiocca (1988) suggested that cognitive information processing such as information gain in memory is also a sign to determine the audience's activity or passivity. 9 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(10) Diverging from the discrepancy of active-passive audience debate, this study proposes that the flat picture seeing behavior on social media is relatively passive. That is, conventional photos do not require the user's self-determining mindset to interpret the information. As a result, "passive viewing" represents no interactivity and engagement with the picture itself, whereas "active viewing" means that the users can develop the interactivity with the 360-degree picture. For passive viewing, the users can only look at the picture with the framed angle. In contrast, active viewing requires the users to click and drag or swipe the photo to switch the perspectives in the 360-degree view. With the emergence of the 360-degree picture, the new technology can open up a new. 政治大. discussion in the communication study, as what TV has brought up a half-century ago.. 立. The proposition of active-passive viewing in this study shares the fundamental. ‧ 國. 學. framework of whether the audience is a passive receiver or active individual. An. ‧. interactive 360-degree picture can turn a passive receiver of the picture into an active individual who has to select the perspective and involve in the scenario. Due to the. sit. y. Nat. io. er. interactivity provided by the 360-degree picture, this paper further discusses how active viewing may influence the audience's psychology in the virtual community.. al. n. iv n C 2.2 Motivations of Self-Determination (SDT) h e n gTheory chi U. According to SDT, the human is motivated to satisfy three innate psychological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy, which are essential to maintain an individual's well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When a volitional activity satisfies the three motivational constructs, they can predict people's direction of behavior, such as more likely to continue engaging the activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Wang and Li (2016) examined that the need for relatedness derived from social interaction motivates the users to participate in social network sites (SNSs). Kelley and Alden (2016) studied that the consumers with the satisfaction of the innate needs can highly identify with the 10 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(11) online brand community. Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski (2006) found that autonomy, competence, and relatedness gained from game playing are associated with short term effects of media enjoyment and future playing intention. SDT can be applied to explain the need satisfaction of not only digital media but also traditional media. Even though the reader's only choice is whether to read a book or not, the reader is still able to identify with the character in the book. In the same way, when social media users scroll down the post, their only choice is to look at the picture, but the users can pleasantly identify with the figure in the picture, which further arouses human's fantasy and fulfill people's psychological needs. For example, in the heroic. 政治大. narrative, the reader or player can develop their identification with the hero who accepts. 立. the trial (autonomy), masters their ability to fight (competence), and helps others. ‧ 國. 學. (relatedness) (Rigby & Przybylski, 2009). The readers immerse themselves in the story. ‧. and imagine themselves as the hero. Likewise, the photo in the social media-based brand community offers scenarios in which the users can experience the Gogoro trip.. sit. y. Nat. io. er. For example, the narrative in the picture is showing that the community members traveled freely and happily (autonomy), rode their Gogoro (competence), and hanged. al. n. iv n C out with friends (relatedness). Even h though the narrative e n g c h i U in the non-interactive picture has already provided three intrinsic needs satisfaction, interactive media can be more need-satisfying and compelling than the conventional one (Rigby & Ryan, 2016). Thus, the following literature review will further discuss the interactive 360-degree picture’s connection with one’s autonomy, competence, and relatedness in three specific ways. In sum, Table 1 shown the definitions of competence, relatedness, and autonomy from theoretical definition (Ryan & Deci, 2000), online brand community (Kelley & Alden, 2016), gaming (Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006), and traditional media (Rigby & Przybylski, 2009).. 11 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(12) Competence. Autonomy. Relatedness. A need for challenge and feelings of effectance. A sense of volition or willingness when doing a task. When a person feels connected with others. Theoretical definition (Deci & Ryan, 2000). An individual’s need to adept in exercising and communicating his/her capabilities.. An individual’s need to originate one’s own actions and behaviors.. An individual’s need to have interaction and connectedness to others.. Online brand community Kelley & Alden (2016, p793). Master intuitive controls; ongoing optimal challenging task.. The degree of choice that one has to take the goals.. Interactions between real players within multiplayer games.. Gaming Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski (2006, p349350). Heroes stretch their abilities and overcome and master challenges.. Confident and courageous heroes blaze new trails.. 立. Study. 政治Trustworthy 大 heroes feel needed.. ‧ 國. 學. Traditional media Rigby & Przybylski (2009). Table 1 Definitions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. ‧. 2.3 Interactivity and SDT. sit. y. Nat. The technique of 360-degree visualization dates back to 1787 when an English painter,. io. al. er. Robert Barker, draw 360-degree images in a building, which allowed the viewers to. n. feel as if they are in another landscape (Ellis, 2008). Afterward, panoramic photography is invented in the 1980s but. iv n C withhthe unaffordableUcamera. engchi. In recent years, the. panoramic camera has become affordable in the market to enrich the digital world. The 360-degree image requires viewers in the center to move their head or screen around to look at the picture thoroughly. As 360-degree interactivity is broadly used nowadays in the forms of picture, video, and virtual reality, 360-degree interactivity requires closer examination. Cho and Leckenby (1997) classified interactivity into user-machine interaction and user-message interaction. This chapter firstly discusses how the compatibility of the 360-degree picture on PC and mobile devices, comparing with conventional picture. 12 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(13) scrolling on social media can lead to different degrees of competence in the layer of user-machine interaction. Secondly, this study hypothesizes how the 360-degree interactive content can impact on one’s autonomy and relatedness from a user-massage interaction perspective.. 2.3.1 User-machine interaction and competence The conditions that enhance one’s sense of competence include learning a new skill, being challenged, or experiencing positive feedback after completing a task (Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006). Competence is a driver for the continued media usage and entertainment, and competence is even related to one’s social comparison behavior. 政治大. while the users see the photos (Reinecke, Vorderer, & Knop, 2014). Using social media. 立. to browse through pictures is an ordinary skill for users who have joined the social. ‧ 國. 學. media-based online community. Nevertheless, even though PC and mobile devices. ‧. have become a standard tool for media use, not every user on social media has been. sit. y. Nat. familiarized with the 360-degree picture. Nikou and Economides (2017) investigated. io. er. that one’s performance in mobile-based learning is related to the individual's perceived. al. iv n C h ethe icon, gesture, and technique to swipe n gpanoramic c h i Upicture can be confusing and n. ease of use and perceived usefulness. In the first-time user experience, the instruction. challenging. Alternatively, for people who dip into the 360-degree technology, they can enjoy the positive feedback from interactivity. That is, the 360-degree picture’s usability is determined by the user’s perceived ease of use, influencing their intrinsic motivation and enjoyment. From this point of view, the users on the Gogoro Fan club can have different levels of knowledge regarding the 360-degree picture, which is influenced by their perception of the 360-degree picture’s usefulness. Therefore, among those who have the expertise of the 360-degree picture, they can experience a higher level of competence after interacting with the 360-degree picture. 13 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(14) For those who are not familiar with the 360-degree picture, their original ability to use social media is undermined. As mentioned by Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski (2006, p350), institutive controls are defined as "easily mastered" controls which "do not interfere with one's sense of being in the game." While using the 360-degree picture, the interactivity will turn mobile devices into a less institutive control device. As a result, for those who have not known the 360-degree picture, they will get a lower sense of competence because they cannot exert their will to control the picture’s directions smoothly. This study hypothesizes that people’s expertise of the 360-degree picture will influence how the users on the Gogoro fan club’s level of competence when they. 政治大. interact with the 360-degree picture. Moreover, the competence will be higher among. 立. those who interact with the 360-degree picture when the user has the expertise of the. ‧ 國. 學. 360-degree picture. Otherwise, the competence will be lower among those who interact. ‧. with the 360-degree picture when the user is not familiar with the 360-degree picture, comparing with the conventional picture.. sit. y. Nat. io. er. H1a Interacting with the 360-degree picture will cause a higher perception of competence than seeing the conventional picture for participants with the expertise of. al. n. iv n C the 360-degree picture, but will not h for those subjects without e n g c h i U the expertise of the 360degree picture.. 2.3.2 User-message interaction and autonomy The aspect of user-machine interactivity alone is not adequate to capture the feature of 360-degree technology. With the emerging of user-generated 360-degree pictures and videos on social media, the way that the audiences interpret the embedded message in 360-degree storytelling is worthy of studying. Kwok and Yu (2013) examined that on restaurants’ fan page, showing photos can receive the highest likes and comments 14 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(15) because the message is more straightforward to the audience. Su, Reynolds, & Sun (2015) found that in a hotel’s Facebook fan page, pictures is a controversial approach because it can boost sharing but hinder comment on the post. These content analysis findings can be explained by the study of Schnotz (2005) that picture comprehension is perception-based processing, in which visuospatial patterns is crucial to short-term and long-term memory. This study further explores how the 360-degree picture’s visual comprehension plus interactivity can influence the audience. When it comes to interactive narratives, the readers have to determine the direction of story plots rather than witness the story, and interactive narratives can facilitate the. 政治大. user's identification with the characters more than traditional narratives because they. 立. can put themselves in the character's shoes (Green & Jenkins, 2014). With the. ‧ 國. 學. interactivity, the audiences are capable of placing themselves in the story with the. ‧. character, leading to higher media enjoyment, comparing to traditional media (Green, Brock, & Kaufman, 2004). SDT has been applied to explain the needs satisfaction. sit. y. Nat. io. er. derived from the narrative. For example, in a heroic narrative, no matter the medium is a book, video game, or massively multiplayer online games, the readers or players can. al. n. iv n C develop their identification with the and gain aUsense of autonomy (Rigby & h hero eng chi Przybylski, 2009). That is, the audiences enjoy immersing themselves in the story narrative because they imagine that they have the freedom to exert their will as being. the hero. Likewise, this study expects that the users in the social media-based brand community can mirror themselves in other member's pictures of the Gogoro trip. The 360-degree interactivity will trigger the user’s identification because there is more spatial-visual space for imagination than a flat picture. Currently, there is a scarce explanation about how the interactivity of seeing a picture’s different directions can motivate the audience’s identification through autonomy.. 15 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(16) The current study argues that the users who look at the 360-degree picture can decide how much he or she is willing to explore the photographer’s perspectives within the picture. With the freedom to look at different directions, the level of autonomy in media use will get higher. That is, the user gains a sense of choice and volition derived from making decisions and actions to switch the angles in the 360-degree picture. The fulfillment of autonomy will intrinsically motivate people to look for more interesting and enjoyable perspectives in the 360-degree picture. There will be a long second of transportation into the panoramic picture’s scenario, comparing to a flat picture. Specifically, when the users interact with the 360-degree picture, they can feel as if they. 政治大. are standing in the center of the place, which has shared the identification of the figure. 立. in the picture. Thus, the users can identify further with the scooter owner in the Gogoro. ‧ 國. 學. online community and the activity of traveling around Taiwan with Gogoro.. ‧. However, not every community member is considered the same level of identification while looking at the 360-degree picture. According to Shin (2018), in the VR. sit. y. Nat. io. er. environment, only users with high empathy personality traits can strongly feel the character’s emotion and situation. That is, in the context of Gogoro owners, this study. al. n. iv n C should take into account the 360-degree and the aspect of the media user’s h einteractivity ngchi U original identification with the Gogoro trip. For those who have experienced the Gogoro trip, they can gain a higher emotional and cognitive process toward the picture. As a result, this study assumes that the behavior of exploring the 360-degree picture’s different directions will positively related to the user’s autonomy, comparing to those who see the flat picture, among the owner who has experienced Gogoro trip; otherwise, people without Gogoro trip experience will show no difference on the level of autonomy while interacting with the 360-degree picture, comparing to the flat picture.. 16 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(17) H1b Interacting with the 360-degree picture will cause a higher perception of autonomy than seeing the conventional picture for participants with the experience of the Gogoro trip, but will not for those subjects without the experience of the Gogoro trip.. 2.3.3 User-message interaction and relatedness Digital affordance is seen as the interactions between people and technology, especially for the design of digital artifacts on the website (Majchrzak & Markus, 2012). There is a certain extent of interactive objects designed on social media, such as clicking like button, scrolling down endless posts, and commenting on the post. The user's sense of. 政治大. relatedness is connected with these features, instead of interacting face to face with a. 立. person. In Carr, Wohn, & Hayes (2016)'s study, they used the term paralinguistic digital. ‧ 國. 學. affordances to explain how the language has been transferred to click "like" buttons,. ‧. and these "like" cues have more impact on social support as one of the human needs.. sit. y. Nat. While the user interacts with the button, the other user simultaneously receives the. io. er. caring feeling. When social media users receive "likes" on their posts, their need for. al. iv n C h toe the further how the action gives feedback n gindividual c h i Uwho clicks the button. n. relatedness is satisfied (Wang & Li, 2016). However, there remains a need to explore. Lee, Hansen, & Lee (2016) found that Facebook “like” as virtual endorsement is motivated because people with high self-esteem click to express their enjoyment to another user, and people with low self-esteem click to please others. The current study argued that both types of users interact with the click button in order to satisfy the individual’s need for relatedness with others. The feature of the 360-degree picture on social media would have become a digital cue that the users can show concern for the other member in the brand community, corresponding to people’s need to enhance one’s relatedness with others. Even though the person who posted the picture could not 17 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(18) notice who was interacting with the picture, the user who interacted with the picture could intrinsically feel closer to the individual. The way that users click or pan to look around in the 360-degree picture can be deemed as one of the digital affordance features on social media. The developing equivalent paralinguistic relationship of clicking to look around in the 360-degree picture remains to be examined. Therefore, this study proposes that the factor of relatedness is associated with the interactive feature of the 360-degree picture in a social media-based brand community. H1c Interacting with the 360-degree picture will cause a higher perception of relatedness than seeing the conventional picture for participants.. 立. 政治大. 2.4 Interactivity of the 360-degree picture, autonomy, presence, and media. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. enjoyment. 2.4.1 360-degree picture and presence. Nat. sit. y. Scholars from different entertainment media fields (e.g., literature, social media, virtual. n. al. er. io. reality, and game) have used the concept of “presence” to discuss how mediated virtual. i Un. v. experience can bring a sense of being into a human’s real experience. The term presence. Ch. engchi. is defined as “a psychological state in which virtual objects are experienced as actual objects in either sensory or nonsensory ways” (Lee, 2004, p. 27). In other words, presence is a sense of "being located in the mediated environment," which can intensify media enjoyment (Wirth et al., 2007, p. 495). There are two categories of presence applied in understanding virtual communities and mobile communication. When people are using social media, social presence refers to “the degree to which the stimulus conveyed the perceived presence of participants in the communication exchange” (Fortin & Dholakia, 2005, p. 394). For example, in order to increase social presence, mobile instant messaging is designed with emoji and stickers to increase virtual facial 18 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(19) expression and non-verbal cues. What’s more, social presence plays an essential role through clicking “like” on the Facebook brand page, which is used to build online brand communities (Pongpaew, Speece, & Tiangsoongnern, 2017). However, to acknowledge the user’s virtual presence in the 360-degree picture, social presence alone is not adequate for evaluating the user’s perception of interactivity. When it comes to the 360-degree technology, spatial presence refers to the extent to which the audiences “feel transported to another place, as though they are physically located inside the virtual environment” (Tamborini & Skalski, 2006, p.227). Spatial presence can occur when the reader imagines themselves in the text and film (Weibel,. 政治大. Wissmath, & Mast, 2011). In addition to screen size, the form of film, such as HD. 立. image quality, provides the viewers with higher levels of presence (Bracken, 2005).. ‧ 國. 學. That is, the concept of presence has been extended from VR (Schuemie et al., 2001) to. ‧. traditional media (Bracken, 2005).. Even though painting and drawing are not defined as media, which can bring presence. sit. y. Nat. io. er. in the past studies, the visual representation on social media has become more important nowadays, worthy discussing more 360-degree picture’s vividness and interactivity. In. al. n. iv n C contrast to the viewing experience of film, also called motion picture, the h the e npassive gchi U social media users can actively select their viewpoints on a 360-degree picture, in which the technology has endeavored to create a sense of presence for the users so that the user can imagine themselves in the scene.. 2.4.2 Autonomy and spatial presence Since the 360-degree picture is panoramically recorded, its autonomy and interactivity are somewhat limited than VR; however, a sense of spatial presence is expected to be higher when users watch the 360-degree picture on social media than the flat picture because of the form of interactivity. For example, Wu and Lin (2018) found the 36019 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(20) degree advertising videos with different levels of the naturally mapped perceptual interface (i.e., VR headset> tablet > PC) shown significant different levels of spatial presence. Furthermore, this study assumes that under the same user interface, which is using the Facebook fan page with mobile, the added interactivity on the 360-degree picture can lead to a higher presence versus non-interactivity picture. The commonplace about the 360-degree picture and virtual reality experience is that the users have to execute their will to decide which direction to look at and manipulate their intentions to explore different viewpoints. As Zeltzer (1992) pointed out that VR fulfills autonomy, interaction, and presence among media transformation, the scholar. 政治大. had defined the three core factors of VR implementation. This study proposes that the. 立. interactivity of the 360-degree picture can also refer to the combination of autonomy. ‧ 國. 學. and presence. While using VR to see the 360-degree picture is controlled by HMD’s. ‧. direction, the 360-degree picture on social media is controlled by a mobile phone. The level of presence will occur due to an individual’s autonomy to control the picture’s. H2 Autonomy will be positively related to presence.. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. directions.. n. iv n C 2.4.3 Media enjoyment as the effect and presence h e nofgautonomy chi U As for the effect of presence, in the condition of game playing, Tamborini et al. (2004) found that spatial presence can provide a positive mood state for the violent game player, which reduced their thoughts of acting hostility in the real world. Watching a pre-game story video can enhance game evaluation, comparing with non-story video (Park et al., 2010). Therefore, a sense of being in the 360-degree picture is expected to increase media enjoyment positively. This study assumed that using PC and mobile devices to interact with the 360-degree pictures, comparing non-interactive convention pictures, can manifest a higher spatial presence and further have an impact on media enjoyment. 20 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(21) H3 Presence will be positively related to media enjoyment. There is another way that 360-degree picture’s interactivity can positively relate to media enjoyment. According to SDT, the fulfillment of one’s autonomy can lead to media enjoyment (Deci & Ryan, 2000). At the moment, social media users identify Gogoro in the first centered scene. If the users are willing to explore further, they are capable of shifting to different directions, which they can more comprehensively immerse themselves into the mediated environment. Interactivity, which is a physical gesture movement on mobile, psychologically satisfies the user’s autonomy, leading to media enjoyment and continued usage behavior.. 政治大. H4 Autonomy will be positively related to media enjoyment.. 立. While the users intuitively see the picture with different directions, they will find that. ‧ 國. 學. they are in the center of the panoramic scene, so that they feel transported into the. between interactivity and media enjoyment.. Nat. sit. y. ‧. picture. The higher sense of presence developed by the effect of autonomy will mediate. io. er. H5 (Mediation): (a) Autonomy will mediate interactivity on media enjoyment (interactivity  autonomy  media enjoyment). (b) Presence will further mediate the. al. n. iv n C effect of autonomy on media enjoyment  autonomy  presence  h e n(interactivity gchi U media enjoyment).. Figure 1 The proposed relationship of interactivity, autonomy, presence, and media enjoyment.. 2.5 Media enjoyment and behavioral intention. 21 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(22) Reinecke, Vorderer, & Knop (2014) investigated that competence derived from the user’s self-presentation, autonomy derived from easily access the information, and relatedness derived from virtual interaction were positively related to Facebook usage enjoyment. Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski (2006) found that in-game autonomy and ingame competence heightened the game enjoyment and preference for future play. Tamborini et al., (2010) offered evidence that game controls positively predicted competence and autonomy, social play context positive predicted relatedness, and the three needs satisfaction positively predicted media enjoyment. That is, media enjoyment came from individuals intrinsically needs. Based on the interactivity of. 政治大. video game and Facebook usage, this study aimed to extend the current developments. 立. in SDT that the interactivity of the 360-degree picture can also be accounted for. ‧ 國. 學. intrinsic media enjoyment. This study proposes that the interactivity of the 360-degree. 360-degree picture, comparing to seeing the flat picture.. Nat. sit. y. ‧. picture will fulfill individual intrinsic needs, leading to higher enjoyment of using the. io. er. Video and interactive contents on the Facebook brand's fan page can further drive the user's purchase intentions (Martínez-Navarro & Bigné, 2017). Choi, Hickerson, & Lee. al. n. iv n C (2018) investigated that the positiveh affect of panoramic e n g c h i Utravel experience pictures can influence touristsʼ behavioral intention, comparing to still pictures. To further address. the effectiveness of the 360-degree picture’s media enjoyment in the social media-based brand community, this study designed the scenario of the Gogoro trip to motivate the community member’s plan for the Gogoro trip. There were examples that online community members used Facebook as a tool to call for action. Sweeney et al. (2014) examined that an online community that frequently emphasizes energy saving contents influences one's relatedness to the other community members, resulting in one's intention to carry out the behavior. When a social networking site is built to motivate. 22 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(23) users to engage, the social media can meet people's need for the feeling of closeness and a sense of connection, leading to the user's sustainability and loyalty on the site (Krishen et al., 2016). Kim and Drumwright (2016) found that consumers' interest in brand activities on social media is associated with perceived relatedness, resulting in future intention to engage in brand activities. In the context of the social media-based brand community, the relatedness is originated not only from user to user but also consumer's self-image congruity with the brand. Self-image congruity in the study of consumer behavior and social psychology represents that consumers consider their self-concept and favorable brand when they. 政治大. purchase a product (Sirgy, 1985). After the purchase process, the connection between. 立. the consumers and brand community is not linked by one's purchase intention, but a. ‧ 國. 學. long-term commitment and shared value. Christodoulides, Jevons, & Bonhomme (2012). ‧. indicated that consumer's perceptions of self-concept positively affect user-generated content involvement. The Gogoro owners in the online brand community often share. sit. y. Nat. io. er. how they travel with Gogoro in the cities, mountains, and seaside, corresponding to the brand’s fun image. The relationship between consumer's self-concept and brand in the. al. n. iv n C brand community forms a loop of re-emphasizing U Thus, behavioral intention h e n g c heach i other. is supposed to be based on a customer’s long term relationship with the online brand community. In order to manifest the interactivity of the 360-degree picture on media. enjoyment, the current study includes consumers’ relationship with the factors of a brand community based on social media (i.e., brand, product, company, and other consumers) (Habibi, Laroche, & Richard, 2014) as a control condition to investigate how the behavioral intention after interacting with the 360-degree picture can be influenced directly by media enjoyment. The hedonic nature of Gogoro derived from user-generated contents in the social media-based brand community makes the brand. 23 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(24) an ideal context to examine the influence of 360-degree interactivity on media enjoyment and online user’s behavioral intention for offline activity. H6 Interactivity with the 360-degree picture can enhance the user’s enjoyment, resulting in behavioral intention to travel with Gogoro, considering customer/brand relationship, customer/product relationship, customer/company relationship, and customer/other consumers relationship.. Media Enjoyment. Interactivity 360-degree picture/conventional picture. 立. 政治大. Behavioral intention. Product, Brand, Company, Other customer Control Variables. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 2 The proposed relationship of interactivity, media enjoyment, behavioral intention, and customer/other customers relationship.. ‧ sit. y. Nat. To summarize, this study develops and tests SDT for the interactivity of the 360-degree. n. al. er. io. picture on Facebook (H1a-H1c). This study also explores the role of presence within. v. the model of SDT, which is the relationship between autonomy and presence, deriving. Ch. engchi. i Un. from the interactivity of the 360-degree picture (H2). Furthermore, this study establishes that, in terms of the 360-degree picture viewing experience, both (a) a sense of presence and (b) the user’s satisfaction of psychological needs, refer to autonomy, will positively influence the individual’s intrinsic media enjoyment (H3 & H4). This study further proposes the serial mediation model to define the role of autonomy and presence between interactivity and media enjoyment (H5a-H5b). Back to the context of social media based-brand community, customer’s offline behavioral intention will be facilitated by media enjoyment, in terms of the 360-degree picture’s interactive experience, together with the factors of customer and brand relationships on the fan 24 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(25) page (H6). To sum up, this study integrates the factors of SDT and presence to explain the interactivity of the 360-degree picture, aiming to confirm the critical role of SDT in the context of the media field, extending the field of work from traditional media to evolving interactive media.. Chapter 3. Method 3.1 Participants and design This study employed an online experiment on two social media-based brand communities on Facebook in Taiwan. The experimental group with the 360-degree. 政治大 group of no interactivity picture was collected on Gogoro 2 Series Fan Club from 立. picture was recruited on Gogoro Fan Club from December 13 to 16, 2019. The control. ‧ 國. 學. December 14 to 21, 2019. The members of the former clubs are 129,749 people with averagely 56 posts a day, and the latter is 66,868 people with averagely 62 posts a day. ‧. (estimated on January 1, 2020). The club members typically posted user-generated. Nat. sit. y. contents with a variety of images to engage Gogoro members and scooter riding. n. al. er. io. experience sharing. A brief informed consent of the research was agreed before the. i Un. v. survey start. The incentive for participants was the lottery for 6 Gogoro masks.. Ch. engchi. In the post-experiment questionnaire, a set of filter questions were asked to make sure the experimental group did look at the right angles, and the control group did not see the stimulus of the 360-degree picture. Thirty participants were in the experimental group and 26 in the control group. However, three people missed the angle of seeing Gogoro in the picture, resulting in 27 validated participants in the experimental group. Also, there were only 25 validated participants in the control group because one participant did not own a Gogoro. The majority of the participants used mobile devices (N = 46; 88.5%), and other participants used PC (N = 6; 11.5%) to complete the experiment and post-survey. The participants aged 18 to 47, averagely 29-year-old (SD 25 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(26) = 7.29), composed of 27 male (51.9%) and 25 female (48.1%) who lived in Northern Taiwan (N = 28; 53.8%), Central Taiwan (N = 9; 17.3%), and Southern Taiwan (15; 28.8%). The demographic from Gogoro Fan Club and Gogoro 2 Series Fan Club showed no significant difference, validating the samples to be comparable. An independent t-test showed the mean of age had no significant difference between Gogoro Fan Club (M = 30.15, SD = 8.46) and Gogoro 2 Series Fan Club (M = 27.40, SD = 5.59), t (45.381) = 1.392, p = .17.. 3.2 Procedures and Stimulus. 政治大. The stimulus was posted on Gogoro Owners Club on Facebook with a post-experiment. 立. survey self-administered web questionnaire link. The participants were informed that. ‧ 國. 學. the post was with the purpose of communication study. The feature of the 360-degree. ‧. picture on Facebook allowed the participants to interact with the picture. The picture. sit. y. Nat. was taken by the Samsung Gear 360 camera. The camera and tripod were placed in the. io. er. center of the sightseeing spot with the background of beautiful and tranquil scenery.. al. iv n C U they were able to discover h e n with first sight. While the participants interacted h ipicture, g c the n. The front of the camera shot directly at Gogoro, so the participants looked at Gogoro at. the scenery around and found the owners sit on the opposite side of the picture.. 3.3 Measures The questionnaire had two parts, demographic profiles and construct items. The questionnaire was firstly developed in English and then translated into Mandarin, which is the native language for most of the participants in Taiwan. Demographic information about gender, age, income, and region were collected as well as the ownership of Gogoro.. 3.3.1 Independent variables 26 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(27) The independent variable has three groups. In the experimental group, the participants were recoded into 180-degree and 360-degree as two degrees of interactivity. 180degree represented that the users had a limited field of view, so they did not notice the scene in the opposite of Gogoro, where two girls were sitting on a bench. 360-degree represented that the user had found both Gogoro and the girls in the picture. Thirdly, the control group was the participants who saw the conventional picture without interactivity.. 3.3.2 Dependent variables Player Experience of Needs Satisfaction (PENS) scale measures in-game satisfaction. 政治大. of competence, autonomy, relatedness, presence, and intuitive controls (Ryan, Rigby,. 立. & Przybylski, 2006). However, Johnson, Gardner, & Perry (2018) found that intuitive. ‧ 國. 學. controls and competence are statistically single factor construct. Hence, this study. ‧. adapted the PENS into three main factors to measure the user's competence, autonomy,. sit. y. Nat. relatedness. All variables were measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1. io. er. (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). To fit in the context of the current study, the. al. n. description of “interacting with the 360-degree picture” in one group was replaced by. i n C U hengchi “seeing the picture” in the other group.. v. Competence The variable (M = 5.7, SD = 1.37, α = .95) was measured by asking the level of agreement on the following statements: (1) “I feel competent in interacting with the 360-degree picture.” / “I feel competent in seeing the picture.” (2) “I feel very capable when interacting with the 360-degree picture.” / “I feel very capable when seeing the picture.” (3) “I feel effective when interacting with the 360-degree picture.” / “I feel effective when seeing the picture.”, (4) “My ability to interacting with the 360-degree picture is well-matched with the design of 360-degree interactive feature on Facebook.” 27 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(28) / “My ability to seeing the 360-degree picture is well-matched with the feature design on Facebook.” Autonomy The variable (M = 5.54, SD = 1.39, α = .94) was measured with 4 items: (1) “The 360degree picture provides me with interesting options and choices.” / “The picture provides me with interesting options and choices.” (2) “I could always find something interesting in the 360-degree picture.” / “I could always find something interesting in the picture.” (3) “I interacted with the 360-degree picture just for the fun of it.” / “I saw the picture just for the fun of it.” (4) “I experienced a lot of freedom in the 360-degree. 政治大. picture.” / “I experienced a lot of freedom in the picture.”. 立. Relatedness. ‧ 國. 學. The variable (M = 5.5, SD = 1.55, α = .97) was measured with two items: (1) “I find. ‧. the relationship with other community members I formed in the 360-degree picture fulfilling.” / “I find the relationship with other community members I formed in the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. picture fulfilling.” (2) “I find the relationship with other community members I formed in the 360-degree picture important.” / “I find the relationship with other community. al. n. iv n C members I formed in the picture important.” item “I don’t feel close to other h e n gA creversed hi U community members in the 360-degree picture” was removed because it did not pass the reliability test. Presence. The telepresence scale to measure presence was adopted from Klein (2013) with 7 items, consisted of 7-point Likert scales, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The variable (M = 4.90, SD = 1.39, α = .89) was assessed through five items: (1) “After interacting with the 360-degree picture, I felt like I came back to the “real world” after a journey.” / “After seeing the picture, I felt like I came back to the “real. 28 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(29) world” after a journey.”, (2) “The 360-degree picture came to me and created a new world for me, and the world suddenly after interacting with it.” / “The picture came to me and created a new world for me, and the world suddenly after interacting with it.”, (3) “During interacting with the 360-degree picture, I felt I was in the world the 360degree picture created.” / “During seeing the picture, I felt I was in the world the picture created.” (4) “During interacting with the 360-degree picture, my body was on the seat, but my mind was inside the world created by the 360-degree picture.” / “During seeing the picture, my body was on the seat, but my mind was inside the world created by the picture.” (5) “During interacting with the 360-degree picture, the 360-degree-picture-. 政治大. generated world was more real or present for me compared to the “real world.” /. 立. “During seeing the picture, the picture-generated world was more real or present for me. ‧ 國. 學. compared to the ‘real world.’. ‧. After conducting the reliability test, two reversed items were removed, which were “The 360-degree-picture-generated seemed to me only “something I saw” rather than. y. Nat. er. io. sit. “somewhere I visited.” / “The picture-generated seemed to me only “something I saw” rather than “somewhere I visited.” and “During interacting with the 360-degree picture,. al. n. iv n C my mind was in the room, not in the world by the 360-degree picture.” / “During h e ncreated gchi U seeing the picture, my mind was in the room, not in the world created by the picture.” Media enjoyment The variable (M = 5.60, SD = 1.09, α = .83) was assessed with seven items adopted from the scales of Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (McAuley, Duncan, & Tammen, 1989), consisted of seven Likert-style items. (1) “I enjoyed interacting with the 360degree picture very much.” / “I enjoyed seeing the picture very much.” (2) “Interacting with the 360-degree picture was fun to do.” / “Seeing the picture was fun to do.” (3) “I thought interacting with the 360-degree picture was a boring activity.” / “I thought. 29 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(30) seeing the picture was a boring activity.” (reversed), (4) “Interacting with the 360degree picture was a boring activity” / “Seeing the picture was a boring activity.”, (5) “I would describe interacting with the 360-degree picture as very interesting.” / “I would describe seeing the picture as very interesting.” (6) “I thought interacting with the 360-degree picture was quite enjoyable.” / “I thought seeing the picture was quite enjoyable.” (7) “While I was interacting with the 360-degree picture, I was thinking about how much I enjoyed it.” / “While I was seeing the picture, I was thinking about how much I enjoyed it.” Behavioral intention. 政治大. The variable (M = 6.15; SD = 1.11; α = .94) was elicited from seven-point Likert scales. 立. of Ajzen and Driver (1992) and Huang et al. (2016). As riding Gogoro can be deemed. ‧ 國. 學. as daily transportation as well as a recreational activity, the measurement emphasizes. ‧. the latter. Additionally, the questionnaire includes the standing alone traveling plan (1) “I plan to engage in this Gogoro travelling in the next 6 months.”, (2) “I will try to. y. Nat. er. io. sit. engage in this Gogoro travelling in the next 6 months.”, information seeking (3) “I will request more travelling information about how to ride Gogoro to this sightseeing spot.”,. al. n. iv n C and shared traveling plan (4) “I willhsuggest other people e n g c h i U travel with Gogoro.”, (5) “I. will share this Gogoro travelling information with my friend.” (6) “I will invite my friend to visit the place together with Gogoro.”. 3.3.3 Control variables Four factors of the customer’s relationship with the social media-based brand community were measured by the scales developed by McAlexander, Schouten, & Koenig (2002) and Laroche, Habibi, & Richard (2013). All items were modified into a seven-point Likert scale. Customer/product relationship 30 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(31) The variable (M = 6.67; SD = .69; α = .87) was measured using: (1) “I love my Gogoro scooter.”, (2) “I am proud of my Gogoro scooter.”, (3) “My Gogoro scooter is one of my favorite possessions.”, (4) “My Gogoro scooter is fun to ride.” Customer/brand relationship The variable (M = 5.63; SD = 1.37; α = .78) was measured using: (1) “I value the Gogoro heritage.”, (2) “If I were to replace my Gogoro scooter, I would buy another Gogoro.”, (3) “Gogoro is of the highest quality.” Customer/company relationship The variable (M = 4.48; SD = 1.82; α = .96) was measured using: (1) “The Gogoro. 政治大. understands my needs.”, (2) “The Gogoro cares about my opinions.”. 立. Customer/other customers relationship. ‧ 國. 學. The variable (M = 5.95; SD = 1.18; α = .87) was measured using: (1) “I have met. ‧. wonderful people because of the Gogoro community.” (2) “I have a feeling of kinship with the other Gogoro owners.”, (3) “I have an interest in the community because of. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. the other Gogoro owners”.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 31 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(32) Chapter 4. Results 4.1 Two-way ANOVA for H1a-c H1a predicted whether the level of competence differs by interactivity among those who have expertise in the 360-degree technique. To test the hypothesis, a moderation effect of the expertise of the 360-degree picture between the interactivity and competence was found. The moderator variable was “whether the user has the experience of uploading the 360-degree picture/video on social media before”. Individuals’ level of competence was subjected to a two-way ANOVA with two levels. 政治大 expertise (experienced, no experience). The main effect of interactivity was not 立. of interactivity (360-degree, no interactivity) and two levels of the 360-degree picture. ‧ 國. 學. significant, F (1, 48) = 3.94, p = .053, such that picture with interactivity (M = 5.81, SD = 1.50) had no differ levels of competence compared to no interactivity (M = 5.65, SD. ‧. = 1.23). The main effect of expertise was not significant, F (1, 48) = .12, p = .73,. Nat. sit. y. suggesting that the 360-degree expertise (M = 5.97, SD = 1.28) had no differ levels of. n. al. er. io. competence than without 360-degree expertise (M = 5.68, SD = 1.39). However, the. i Un. v. interaction of 360-degree expertise × interactivity was significant, F (1, 48) = 6.52, p. Ch. engchi. < .05. The effect is portrayed in Figure 3. As shown, in the 360-degree picture group, competence was greatest if the user has had uploaded the 360-degree picture on social media before (M = 6.95, SD = 0.11). In contrast, competence was the lowest if the user has had uploaded on social media before but only saw a conventional picture (M = 4.75, SD = 0.89). That is, the user’s expertise of uploading a 360-degree picture differed the user’s competence level while the user responded to the 360-degree picture and conventional picture. Therefore, H1a is supported.. 32 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(33) 7. Competence. 6.5. Interactivity 6. 360-degree picture Conventional picture. 5.5 5 4.5. No expertise. Expertise. Experience of uploading 360-degree picture on social media. Figure 3 Interaction of 360-degree expertise × interactivity on competence.. 政治大 H1b predicted whether the level 立 of autonomy differs by interactivity among those who. ‧ 國. 學. have travelled with Gogoro. To test the hypothesis, a moderation effect of the Gogoro travel experience between the interactivity and autonomy was found. The moderator. ‧. variable was “have you hung out with Gogoro before.” Individuals’ level of autonomy. Nat. sit. y. was subjected to a two-way ANOVA with two levels of interactivity (360-degree, no. n. al. er. io. interactivity) and two levels of the 360-degree picture expertise (experienced, no. i Un. v. experience). The main effect of interactivity was not significant, F (1, 48) = 1.43, p. Ch. engchi. = .24, such that picture with interactivity (M = 5.85, SD = 1.35) had no differ levels of au tonomy compared to no interactivity (M = 5.21, SD = 1.38). The main effect of Gogoro travel experience was not significant, F (1, 48) = 4.59, p = .11, suggesting that Gogoro travel experience (M = 5.79, SD = 1.35) had no differ levels of autonomy than no Gogoro travel experience (M = 5.15, SD = 1.58). However, the interaction effect of Gogoro travel experience × interactivity was significant, F (1, 48) = 4.59, p < .05. The effect is portrayed in Figure 4. As shown, in the 360-degree picture group, autonomy was greatest if the user has had travelled with Gogoro before (M = 6.37, SD = 0.92). In contrast, autonomy was the lowest if the user has had travelled with Gogoro before 33 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(34) but only saw a conventional picture (M = 4.98, SD = 1.54). That is, the user’s Gogoro travel experience differed the user’s autonomy level while the user responded to the 360-degree picture and conventional picture. Therefore, H1b is supported. 7. Autonomy. 6.5 6. Interactivity 360-degree picture. 5.5. Conventional picture 5 4.5. Travel with Gogoro 治政 Gogoro travel experience 大立. No travel with Gogoro. Figure 4 Interaction of Gogoro travel experience × interactivity on autonomy.. ‧ 國. 學. H1c predicted whether the level of relatedness differs by interactivity. An independent-. ‧. samples t-test was conducted to compare relatedness between the group of interacting. y. Nat. sit. with the 360-degree picture and the group of seeing no interactivity picture. The. n. al. er. io. Levene’s test indicated equal variances (F = 2.50, p = .12). There was no significant. Ch. i Un. v. difference in relatedness between the group of interacting with the 360-degree picture. engchi. (M = 5.74, SD = 1.33) and the group of seeing conventional picture (M = 5.3, SD = 1.76); t (50) = 1.02, p = .31. The result indicated that H1c is not supported. People who interacted with the 360-degree picture did not have a higher level of relatedness compared to people who did not interact with the picture.. 4.2 Serial mediation for H2-H5 To test the indirect effect of whether the impact of interacting with the 360-degree picture was driven by autonomy to positively anticipate presence, which in turn leads to increased media enjoyment, this study employed Model 6 in the PROCESS macro. 34 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(35) developed by Hayes (2017). The independent variable of interacting with the 360degree picture was categorized as two levels of interactivity, which were people who had saw the picture within 180-degree direction and people who had fully seen the 360degree direction. The categorized standard was whether the participant had seen the object in the opposite of the scooter. Next, this study used dummy codes, setting no interactivity group versus 180-degree group and no interactivity group versus 360degree group. The mediation model was run with 5,000 bootstraps resamples. The descriptive mean is showed in Table 2.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. Table 2 Descriptives of Autonomy, Presence, and Media Enjoyment on three levels of interactivity.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. H2-H4 As Figure 5 shows, the results indicated that (i) interactivity (1 = 360-degree, 0 = No interactivity) significantly affected autonomy (b = .49, SE = .23, p < .05); (ii) as an additional check, interactivity (1 = 180-degree, 0 = No interactivity) had a nonsignificant effect on autonomy (b = .26, SE = .17, p = .33); (iii) interactivity (1 = 360-degree, 0 = No interactivity) significantly but negatively impacted media enjoyment (b = -.63, SE = .25, p <.001); (iv) autonomy is significantly positive on presence (b = .79, SE = .21, p < .001). H2 is supported. (v) presence is insignificantly negative on media enjoyment (b = -.08, SE = .10, p = .43). H3 is not supported. (vi) autonomy is significantly positive on media enjoyment (b = .36, SE = .17, p < .05). H4 35 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(36) is supported. H5a proposed the mediation model in which interactivity leads to media enjoyment via autonomy. However, the indirect effect was not statistically significant through autonomy (b = .03, SE = .06, 95% CI [-.0691, .1751]). These results do not support H5a H5b tested the role of presence in the serial mediation model. Nonetheless, the results showed insignificant indirect effect of interactivity through autonomy and presence (b = -.03, SE = .05, 95% CI [-.1635, .0514]). The result failed to support a mediating role for presence in the effect of interactivity and autonomy.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. Figure 5 Path coefficients and indirect effects for serial mediation model of interactivity on media enjoyment through needs satisfaction and presence.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 4.3 Simple mediation model for H6. H6 tested whether participants' media enjoyment will positively mediate the. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. relationship between interactivity and their behavioral intention toward travelling with. engchi. Gogoro. A simple mediation analysis was performed using PROCESS Model 4 in the PROCESS macro developed by Hayes (2017). The result fails to support a mediating role for media enjoyment in the effect of the 360-degree (versus conventional) picture on behavioral intention. The result shown that media enjoyment mediated the effect of interactivity on behavioral intention (b = -.23, SE = .14, 95% CI [-.5475, -.0019]) but in a significantly negative way. As shown in Figure 6, note that even though media enjoyment has effect on behavioral intention (b = .39, t(45) = 3.04, p < .01), interactivity negatively predicts media enjoyment (b = -.60, t(46) = -2.18, p < .05).. 36 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(37) Meanwhile, the control variables in the simple mediation model include customer/product relationship (b = .05, t (45) = .27, p = .79 ), customer/brand (b = .04, t (45) = .30, p = .76), customer/company relationship (b = .03, t (45) = .36, p = .72), and customer/other customer relationship (b = .37, t (45) = 2.87, p < .01). The four variables were used to control the user’s Gogoro social media attitude which was assumed to influence one’s behavioral intention. However, only customer/other customer relationship had shown significantly related with behavioral intention. All in all, H3 is not supported. Figure 7 is the final model founded in the result.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. Figure 6 Mediation effect of media enjoyment between the relationship of interactivity and behavioral intention with the covariate of customer/product, customer/brand, customer/company, and customer/other customer relationship.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Figure 7 Final Model. 37 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(38) Chapter 5. Discussion The combination of social media and the panoramic photo is an endeavor to represent real-world objects in a computer simulation. Regarding the needs satisfaction and presence, most of these studies have paid attention to virtual reality, MMORPG, and social media interaction (Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006; Tamborini et al., 2010; Reinecke, Vorderer, & Knop, 2014). Rarely did they look into the topic with one further step of the 360-degree picture on social media, which is getting more popular on SNS. As photo sharing has become a common strategy on social media, it is essential to. 政治大 interactivity, other than a conventional picture. In addition to this, nowadays, marketers 立 understand how a 360-degree picture can trigger the psychological factors due to its. ‧ 國. 學. rely on Facebook to build its brand community, the effectiveness of the 360-degree picture on the customer's behavioral intention is thus worth discussing. Hence, this. ‧. study applied the mediation model and serial mediation model to understand how the. sit. y. Nat. relationships among interactivity, media enjoyment, and behavioral intention are coped. n. a l satisfaction 5.1 Interactivity and needs Ch. engchi. er. io. with people's psychological mechanisms.. i Un. v. Hypothesis1 a-c explored the difference between interactivity group versus no interactivity group on needs satisfaction. The results showed that there is no direct effect of the interactivity on competence, autonomy, and relatedness. However, there are crossover effect of competence and the 360-degree picture expertise and crossover effect of autonomy and the Gogoro travel experience. The experiment provides a new insight that developing 360-degree technology depends on an individual’s acceptance and attention.. 5.1.1 Interactivity and competence The findings suggest strong support for the H1a that the level of competence among 38 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.

(39) people who have interacted with 360-degree picture was much more positive for those who had the expertise of the 360-degree picture. In other words, when the users have experience of uploading or seeing the 360-degree picture, they will pay more attention to the application of 360-degree technology. According to Rogers (1995) innovation diffusion theory, the technology needs to offer improvements over available tools, consistent with the user’s social practices, and ease of use. That is, among those who have uploaded the 360-degree picture before, they have experienced the flow from taking a panoramic picture, stitching the image, save it, and publish it on social media. They might found a panoramic picture’s advantage. 政治大. of representing the moment with free directions, which has surpassed a flat picture that. 立. has framed angle limitation. Also, they are more curious and not bothered by having to. ‧ 國. 學. move the devices in order to see the whole 360-degree picture. Thus, for this group of. ‧. people, they’re satisfied with exerting their new skill to interact with the 360-degree picture. In contrast, for those who are not familiar with the 360-degree picture, they. sit. y. Nat. io. er. showed lower competence than those who saw the conventional picture. It is likely that they have satisfied with seeing the flat pictures on social media, which has provided. al. n. iv n C enough visual information to comprehend, are not desperate to learn how to use h e nsogthey chi U the 360-degree picture. Another possible explanation is that the perceived usefulness is higher among those. who have 360-degree expertise. According to Nikou and Economides (2017), they found that the perceived usefulness of mobile learning will influence the learner’s competence. In other words, for the group who has had uploaded 360-degree pictures before, it means that they have had believed that 360-degree pictures could bring some benefit toward their life. As a result, while they are using the 360-degree picture, they. 39 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001721.