課程根據 Sean Brierley, The Advertising Handbook （廣告教科書）, London and New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 293

99 學年度第二學期 全程英文「廣告入門」 (Introduction to Advertising)

廣告系：週四 第 3、4 節　地點：文友

課程根據 Sean Brierley, The Advertising Handbook （廣告教科書）, London and New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 293

*每一個同學（作為報告小組的成員）需準備一份有關課程內容（來自 Sean Brierley 的 The Advertising Handbook /廣告教科書）的英語口頭報告（以 10 分鐘 為標準）；所以先有英文閱讀而後有英語口頭報告的兩個部分。除外，期中和期 末考時，同學用英文考筆試。

Sean Brierley

Sean Brierley's Summary

（http://uk.linkedin.com/pub/sean-brierley/5/28/668）

Group publisher with over 20 years experience in publishing and editorial. Now managing Euromoney's specialist finance division, previously content director for Emap Middle East (EME) managing content across a portfolio of brands and products. I also ran the profit and loss for EME's two leading Middle East business brands.

An ex-editor of The Lawyer, The Engineer, Finance Week, Middle East Economic Digest(MEED) and a former deputy editor and columnist for Marketing Week. Also a former university lecturer at LJMU and author of a student textbook on the advertising industry.

Current

Business Group Manager at Euromoney Institutional Investor

London, United Kingdom

• Content Director at Emap Middle East

• Editorial Director at MEED

• Associate publisher at Centaur Communications

• The University of Manchester

Euromoney Institutional Investor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC Website

www.euromoneyplc.com

Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC (LSE: ERM) is one of Europe's largest business and financial magazine publishers which has interests in financial publishing and event organisation. It is a

constituent of the FTSE 250 Index. It is 70% owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust Group.

Contents

• 1 History

• 2 Operations

• 3 References

• 4 External links History

The company was founded by Patrick Sergeant in 1969 as an

international business-to-business media group focused primarily on

the international finance sector.[2] Patrick Sargeant continued to manage the business until 1985 when he became chairman. He retired as chairman in September 1992 when he was appointed president and non-executive director.[2] The Company was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1986. Recent acquisitions have included Internet Securities in 1999,[3] Hedge Fund

Intelligence in 2003[4] and Metal Bulletin PLC in 2006.[5]

Operations

The Company is currently the market leader on international financial publishing and event organisation. As well as its flagship title Euromoney Magazine, the company owns close to 100

international specialist magazines in finance, energy, aviation, pharmaceuticals and law. Euromoney trains international bankers, lawyers and securities specialists around the world, runs

international conferences, and is very strong in electronic

publishing. With offices worldwide, its shares are listed in London and Luxembourg. Journal and magazine publishers owned by EII include Compliance Reporter[6], Engel Publishing Partners for Med Ad News, LatinFinance and R&D Directions.[7]

It publishes more than 100 magazines, newsletters and journals. It also runs an extensive portfolio of conferences, seminars and training courses and is a leading provider of electronic information and data covering international finance and emerging markets.

References

1. ^ a b c Annual Report 2009

2. ^ a b Euromoney Business Profile, FT.com

3. ^ Euromoney Publications to buy Internet Securities Inc 4. ^ Euromoney buys publisher for £11m

5. ^ Euromoney wins Metal Bulletin battle

6. ^ Compliance Reporter companies information

7. ^ Canon Communications Pharmaceutical Media Group companies information

The Advertising Handbook

Sean Brierley Routledge 2002

£15.99 320pp

ISBN 0415243920

Sean Brierley provides a comprehensive introduction to the practice of advertising. The book includes detailed exploration of how markets are created, the role of the advertising agency, the relationship between

advertisers, their clients and the media, media planning and buying, media research, principles and techniques of persuasion and effectiveness

measurement. It is densely packed with facts, figures, statistics, acronyms, abbreviations, case studies, profiles, illustrations, suggestions for 'workshop' exercises, a glossary and guide to useful websites. There is a summary outlining the main details and argument at the end of each chapter, providing a helpful overview of the not entirely digestible contents.

Brierley has brought to this book his experience and understanding as practitioner (he was Deputy Editor of Marketing Week and Editor of The Lawyer and is currently head of new product development at Centaur Communications) and as teacher (he lectured at Liverpool John Moores University in mass communication). He is anxious to stress that although there are a number of academic works on advertising, there are few that write from the advertiser's point of view. However, this book is not an uncritical tribute to the advertising industry by any means. Brierley describes the convoluted world of advertising with all its confusing complexities and alarming simplicities with a cool and objective eye.

This is not an easy read - it is after all a resource and reference handbook -

but it is a fascinating one. I found myself, naive schoolteacher that I am,

repeatedly shouting out loud, 'I didn't know that!' (e.g. Josiah Wedgwood was

one of the first mass advertisers) or, 'I don't believe it!' (Hush Puppies were

the ultimate fashion statement among trendy kids in Manhattan). The description of the disquieting nature of advertising regulation -despite the number of regulatory bodies - provides another jolt to the innocent

pedagogue. Brierley says that he is not claiming, "to provide a 'missing link' in academic analysis" but I have not found a media studies resource that tackles the contemporary marketing issues contained in chapters 1-8 of the book in such an authoritative and informed way.

Later chapters on the principles and techniques of persuasion, formats, style and language are more familiar ground to the students and teachers of media studies. The wealth of information means time and concentration is needed to extract material suitable for presentation to students. As advertising is

affected by all the economic and political factors described in the book it is difficult to decide on the major emphases. As I read it, I found myself

automatically translating the facts, figures, acronyms into flow charts, spider diagrams and crib sheets for classroom use. These could be 'fleshed-out' with the excellent - and sometimes shocking - case studies and examples.

Reading, digesting and reviewing this book was hardly effortless but I'm glad I did it - at least I can now tell my ASA (Advertising Standards Authority) from my ISBA (Institute of Practitioners in Advertising). I would certainly

recommend this book to media teachers who wish broaden their insight into the fact and function of advertising and the way it impinges on so many other aspects of the mass media.

© 2003 Tina R Stockman - PT Guidance, Teacher of Art/Media Studies,Harlaw Academy, Aberdeen

（http://www.mediaed.org.uk/posted_documents/advertising.htm）

Advertising

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

（ Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising ^）

This article is about the form of communication. For the British

musician, see Gaye Advert. For other uses, see Advertiser

(disambiguation).

For content guidelines on the use of advertising in Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Spam. For a proposal on advertising about Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Advertisements.

A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s

Marketing

Key concepts

Product • Pricing

Distribution • Service • Retail Brand management Account-based marketing

Marketing ethics Marketing effectiveness

Market research Market segmentation

Marketing strategy Marketing management

Market dominance

Promotional content

Advertising • Branding • Underwriting

Direct marketing • Personal Sales

Product placement • Publicity Sales promotion • Sex in

advertising Loyalty marketing •

Premiums • Prizes Promotional media Printing • Publication Broadcasting • Out-of-home Internet marketing • Point of

sale

Promotional merchandise Digital marketing • In-game

In-store demonstration Word-of-mouth marketing Brand Ambassador • Drip

Marketing

This box: view · talk · edit

Advertising is a form of communication intended to persuade an

audience (viewers, readers or listeners) to purchase or take some action upon products, ideas, or services. It includes the name of a product or service and how that product or service could benefit the consumer, to persuade a target market to purchase or to consume that particular brand（1）. These messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various media. Advertising can also serve to communicate an idea to a large number of people in an attempt to convince them to take a certain action.

Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased

consumption of their products or services through branding, which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an effort to associate related qualities with the brand in the minds of

consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to

advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and

governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement.

Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mass media can be defined as any media meant to reach a mass amount of people. Different types of media can be used to deliver these messages, including traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor or direct mail; or new media such as websites and text messages.

In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at more than $300 billion in the United States

and $500 billion worldwide

. Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.

Contents

 1 History

o 1.1 Public service advertising

 2 Marketing mix

 3 Advertising theory

 4 Types of advertising

o 4.1 Digital advertising

o 4.2 Physical advertising

 5 Sales promotions

 6 Media and advertising approaches

 7 Current trends

o 7.1 Rise in new media

o 7.2 Niche marketing

o 7.3 Crowdsourcing

o 7.4 Global advertising

o 7.5 Foreign public messaging

o 7.6 Diversification

o 7.7 New technology

o 7.8 Advertising education

 8 Criticisms

 9 Regulation

 10 Advertising research

 11 See also

 12 References

 13 Bibliography

 14 External links

History

Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan

Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters.

Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been

found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found

advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient

Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.

History tells us that Out-of- home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.

As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers.

As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to appear in weekly

newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became

increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack"

advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.

As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising.

In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include

paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its

readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon

copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established a

predecessor to advertising agencies in Boston.

Around the same

time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his

news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it

the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content.

N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.

An 1895 advertisement for a weight gain product.

At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product.

Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a

couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".

Advertisements of hotels in Pichilemu, Chile from 1935.

In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non- profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups.

When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in

exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show.

A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopædia

Britannica

This practice was carried over to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal

government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the

capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission.

[5]

However, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasters to operate in the "public interest, convenience, and necessity".

Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio.

In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the

modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors.

Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show—up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show.

The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.

The 1960s saw advertising transform into a modern approach in which creativity was allowed to shine, producing unexpected

messages that made advertisements more tempting to consumers' eyes. The Volkswagen ad campaign—featuring such headlines as

"Think Small" and "Lemon" (which were used to describe the

appearance of the car)—ushered in the era of modern advertising by

promoting a "position" or "unique selling proposition" designed to associate each brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer's mind. This period of American advertising is called the Creative Revolution and its archetype was William Bernbach who helped create the revolutionary Volkswagen ads among others. Some of the most creative and long-standing American advertising dates to this period.

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable

television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by- product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.

Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot-com" boom of the 1990s. Entire

corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering

everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the

21st century, a number of websites including the search engine

Google, started a change in online advertising by emphasizing

contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than

inundate, users. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an

increasing trend of interactive advertising.

Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in the Los Angeles Times on May 6, 1930 The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had

become major advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4 percent.

A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involve unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message.Guerrilla

advertising is becoming increasing more popular with a lot of

companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative,

which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an

increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via

product placement, having consumers vote through text messages,

and various innovations utilizing social network services such as

Facebook.

Public service advertising

The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS, political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.

Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences.

"Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest—

it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy.

Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated

advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-

commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.

In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain

amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.

Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The War

Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of

government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear.

Marketing mix（營銷組合）

Main article: Marketing mix

The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing mix consists of four basic elements called the four P’s Product is the first P representing the actual product.

Price represents the process of determining the value of a product.

Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and

movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to go out and buy the product.

The term "marketing mix" was coined in 1953 by Neil Borden in his American Marketing Association presidential address. However, this was actually a reformulation of an earlier idea by his associate, James Culliton, who in 1948 described the role of the marketing manager as a "mixer of ingredients", who sometimes follows recipes prepared by others, sometimes prepares his own recipe as he goes along, sometimes adapts a recipe from immediately available

ingredients, and at other times invents new ingredients no one else has tried.

A prominent marketer, E. Jerome McCarthy, proposed a Four P classification in 1960, which has seen wide use. The Four P's concept is explained in most marketing textbooks and classes.

Contents

[hide]

 1 Four P's

 2 Extended Marketing Mix (3 Ps)

 3 Four Cs (1) in 7Cs compass model

 4 Four Cs (2)

 5 References

 6 External links

Four P's

Elements of the marketing mix are often referred to as the "Four P's":

 Product - It is a tangible object or an intangible service that is mass produced or manufactured on a large scale with a

specific volume of units. Intangible products are service based like the tourism industry & the hotel industry or codes-based products like cellphone load and credits. Typical examples of a mass produced tangible object are the motor car and the disposable razor. A less obvious but ubiquitous mass produced service is a computer operating system. Packaging also needs to be taken into consideration. Every product is subject to a life-cycle including a growth phase followed by an eventual period of decline as the product approaches market

saturation. To retain its competitiveness in the market,

product differentiation is required and is one of the strategies to differentiate a product from its competitors.

 Price – The price is the amount a customer pays for the product. The business may increase or decrease the price of product if other stores have the same product.

 Place – Place represents the location where a product can be purchased. It is often referred to as the distribution channel. It can include any physical store as well as virtual stores on the Internet.

 Promotion represents all of the communications that a

marketer may use in the marketplace. Promotion has four

distinct elements: advertising, public relations, personal

selling and sales promotion. A certain amount of crossover

occurs when promotion uses the four principal elements

together, which is common in film promotion. Advertising

covers any communication that is paid for, from cinema

commercials, radio and Internet adverts through print media

and billboards. Public relations are where the communication

is not directly paid for and includes press releases,

sponsorship deals, exhibitions, conferences, seminars or trade fairs and events. Word of mouth is any apparently informal communication about the product by ordinary individuals, satisfied customers or people specifically engaged to create word of mouth momentum. Sales staff often plays an

important role in word of mouth and Public Relations (see Product above).

Any organization, before introducing its products or services into the market; conducts a market survey. The sequence of all 'P's as above is very much important in every stage of product life cycle

Introduction, Growth, Maturity and Decline.

Extended Marketing Mix (3 Ps)

More recently, three more Ps have been added to the marketing mix namely People, Process and Physical Evidence. This marketing mix is known as Extended Marketing Mix.

 People: All people involved with consumption of a service are important. For example workers, management, consumers etc. It also defines the market segmentation, mainly

demographic segmentation. It addresses particular class of people for whom the product or service is made available.

 Process: Procedure, mechanism and flow of activities by which services are used. Also the 'Procedure' how the product will reach the end user.

 Physical Evidence: The marketing strategy should include effectively communicating their satisfaction to potential customers.

Four Cs (1) in 7Cs compass model

A formal approach to this customer-focused marketing mix is known

as Four Cs (Commodity, Cost, Channel, Communication) in “7Cs

compass model.” Koichi Shimizu proposed a four Cs classification in

1973.

This system is basically the four Ps

renamed and reworded to provide a customer focus. The four Cs Model provides a

demand/customer centric version alternative to the well-known four Ps supply side model (product, price, place, promotion) of marketing management.The Four Cs model is more consumer-oriented and attempts to better fit the movement from mass marketing to symbiotic marketing.

1. Commodity :(Original meaning of Latin:

Commodus=convenient)the product for the consumers or citizens.a commodity can also be described as an raw material such as; oil,metal ores and wheat, the price of these tend to change on a daily basis, due to the demand and supply of these commodities.

2. Cost :(Original meaning of Latin: Constare= It makes

sacrifices)producing cost, selling cost, purchasing cost and social cost.

3. Channel :(Original meaning is a Canal)Flow of commodity : marketing channels.

4. Communication :(Original meaning of

Latin:Communio=sharing of meaning) marketing communication : It doesn't promote the sales.

(Framework of ７ Cs compass model )

 (C1): Corporation and competitor : The core of 4Cs is corporation and organization, while the core of 4Ps is customers who are the targets for attacks or defenses.

 (C2) : Commodity, (C3) : Cost, (C4) : Channel, (C5) : Communication

 (C6) : Consumer (Needle of compass to Consumer) The factors related to customers can be explained by the first character of four directions marked on the compass model: N = Needs, W = Wants, S = Security and E = Education (consumer education).

 (C7) : Circumstances (Needle of compass to Circumstances )

In addition to the customer, there are various uncontrollable

external environmental factors encircling the companies. Here it can also be explained by the first character of the four directions marked on the compass model --- N = National and International C,

W=Weather, S = Social and Cultural C, E = Economic (Circumstances).

Four Cs (2)

Robert F. Lauterborn proposed a four Cs(2) classification in 1993.

The Four Cs model is more consumer-oriented and attempts to better fit the movement from mass marketing to niche marketing.

The Product part of the Four Ps model is replaced by Consumer or Consumer Models, shifting the focus to satisfying the consumer needs. Another C replacement for Product is Capable. By defining offerings as individual capabilities that when combined and focused to a specific industry, creates a custom solution rather than pigeon- holing a customer into a product. Pricing is replaced by Cost

reflecting the total cost of ownership. Many factors affect Cost, including but not limited to the customer's cost to change or implement the new product or service and the customer's cost for not selecting a competitor's product or service. Placement is replaced by Convenience. With the rise of internet and hybrid models of purchasing, Place is becoming less relevant. Convenience takes into account the ease of buying the product, finding the

product, finding information about the product, and several other factors. Finally, the Promotions feature is replaced by

Communication which represents a broader focus than simply

Promotions. Communications can include advertising, public relations, personal selling, viral advertising, and any form of communication between the firm and the consumer.

References

1. ^ Banting, Peter; Ross, Randolph E.. "SpringerLink - Journal of the

Academy of Marketing Science, Volume 1, Number 1". SpringerLink.

http://www.springerlink.com/content/mn58860185200184/.

Retrieved 2010-11-12.

2. ^ [Koichi Shimizu (2009) "Advertising Theory and Strategies,"16th edition, Souseisha Book Company. (Japanese)]

3. ^ [Koichi Shimizu (2003)"Symbiotic Marketing Strategy,"4th edition, Souseisha Book Company.(Japanese)]

4. ^ [ E. Jerome McCarthy (1975)”Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach," fifth edition, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., p.37.]

5. ^ Don E. Schullz, Stanley I. Tannenbaum, Robert F.

Lauterborn(1993)“Integrated Marketing Communications,”NTC Business Books, a division of NTC Publishing Group.

營銷組合（Marketing mix），是市場營銷的基礎概念或模型，指一系列營銷工作 者所能影響和操作的市場營銷變數和就此所擬就和實施的營銷戰略。此模型強調以各種 不同因素的「組合」為途徑來實現公司和消費者的目標。該模型由內爾·波登（Neil Borden）於 1964 年提出，1949 年他第一次使用了「營銷組合」這個詞彙。

目錄

[隱藏]

 1 市場營銷策略

o 1.1 產品 (Product)

o 1.2 價格 (Price)

o 1.3 推廣 (Promotion)

o 1.4 通路 (Place &

Distribution)

o 1.5 新的 3Ps

o 1.6 作為從消費者視角出發的 4Cs

o 1.7 7P

 2 批評評論

 3 參見

市場營銷策略

主條目：營銷組合

營銷組合的四個因素常稱作 4P，即：

 產品 （Product)

 價格 (Price)





這四個因素應用到營銷過程中，就形成了四方面的營銷策略,加上政治(Politics)和公共 關係(Public)，是為 6P。

1981 年布姆斯（Booms）和比特納（Bitner）建議在傳統市場營銷理論 4Ps 的基礎 上增加三個「服務性的 P」，即：人員(People)、流程(Process)、環境(或是實體環境 Physical evidence)。

根據與市場競爭對手對抗的需要而制定富有競爭力的產品、價格、渠道和促銷政策。這 一時期誕生了著名的 4P 理論。當時還是大眾媒體盛行的時代，依靠大眾媒體促進銷售，

無差異化策略成為這一階段的明顯特徵。

產品 (Product)

產品策略主要研究新產品開發，產品生命周期，品牌,包裝，服務營銷等，是價格策略，

促銷策略和分銷策略的基礎。

價格 (Price)

價格策略又稱定價策略，主要研究產品的定價目標和方法以及調價等的市場營銷工具

推廣 (Promotion)

推廣是將組織與產品訊息傳播給目標市場之有計畫性的行銷活動，它主要的焦點在於 與消費者溝通。

推廣的形式(推廣要素)則包括了廣告宣傳、公共關係(PR)、促銷(SP)活動、人員銷售 (PS)、 口碑操作..等，透過推廣，使企業得以讓消費者知曉、瞭解、喜愛進而購買產品，

推廣的強度及其計畫是否得宜，足以影響或操縱產品的知名度、形象、銷售量，乃至於 企業的品牌形象。

有了推廣，消費者才可得知產品提供何種利益、 價格多少、可以到什麼地方購買及如何

購買等，而這些消費者反應會進一步協助推動其他行銷組合(產品、價格、通路)做修正

調整。

通路 (Place & Distribution)

又稱渠道策略，是指為了達到產品分銷目的而起用的銷售管道。它代表企業（機構）在 將自身產品送抵最終消費者之前，所制定的與各類分銷商之間的貿易關係、成本分攤和 利益分配方式的綜合體系。這裡的分銷商既包含批發商，也包含零售商，甚至包含物流

直銷人員及其組織架構。

企業制定分銷政策的目的是：讓產品更順暢地到達顧客手中，既要保證分銷成本低廉，

又要保證顧客對送貨期、送貨量、裝配服務、疑難咨詢等方面的要求。

在產品日益豐富的情況下，分銷政策可能變得越來越難制定，因為相對於產品和品牌 的過量，分銷商則顯得稀少，因而後者擁有了大量討價還價的權力，力圖從製造商或 上游企業那裡獲得更大的利益分成比例。

零售商在最近 10 年的表現尤其令人矚目，它們不僅從事零售，也開始插手於產品的上 游生產過程，並以自己的店舖名稱或獨創名稱作為自己所產新品的品牌——即自有品 牌（private brand/label），或叫店舖品牌（store brand/label）。這更深地威脅到 了純粹的製造企業的利潤空間，當然也大大增加了後者制定分銷策略的難度。

新的 3Ps

 人員（Personal Sales)

所有的人都直接或間接地被捲入某種服務的消費過程中，這是 7P 營銷組合很重要的一 個觀點。知識工作者、 白領僱員、管理人員以及部分消費者將額外的價值增加到了既有 的社會總產品或服務的供給中，這部分價值往往非常顯著。

 流程（Process）

服務通過一定的程序、

營銷戰略的一個關鍵要素。

 物質載體（Physical Evidence）

包括服務供給得以順利傳送的服務環境，有形商品承載和表達服務的能力，當前消費 者的無形消費體驗，以及向潛在顧客傳遞消費滿足感的能力。

作為從消費者視角出發的 4Cs

包括：

 顧客 （Customer）：不是將製造的產品售出，而是要將消費者的需求滿足；

 成本 （Cost）：不要依競爭者或者自我的盈利策略定價，而是要通過一系列測

試手段了解消費者為滿足需求願付出的成本；

 溝通（Communication）不是想著如何通過媒體傳播來提升銷量，而要和消 費者互動溝通。

 便利（convenience)。不要以自身為出發點，想著網點怎麼布置，採用什麼樣 的通路策略，而要關注消費者購買產品的便利性；

加上機會(Chance)，市場變化(Change)為 6C。

7P

7P 是 4P 的延續營銷組合，即產品 (Product)、價格 (Price)、區域 (Placement)、促 銷 (Promotion)、人員 (People)、流程 (Process)、環境 (Physical evidence)。

Advertising theory

 Hierarchy of effects model

It clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model suggests that there are six steps a consumer or a business buyer moves through when making a purchase. The steps are:

1. Awareness 2. Knowledge 3. Liking 4. Preference 5. Conviction

6. The actual purchase

 Means-End Theory

This approach suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end state.

 Leverage Points

It is designed to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values.

 Verbal and Visual Images

Types of advertising

Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human billboard pictured above

A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other

vehicles are popular mediums for advertisers.

A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station

Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers,doors of bathroom stalls,stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of

streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.

Digital advertising

Television advertising / Music in advertising

The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television. The average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached US$3 million (as of 2009). The majority of television commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It is typically

inserted into otherwise blank backdrops

or used to replace

local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast

audience.

More controversially, virtual billboards may be

inserted into the background

where none exist in real-life.

This technique is especially used in televised sporting

events

Virtual product placement is also possible.;

Infomercials: An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word

"infomercial" combining the words "information" &

"commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the

presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website.

Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate

products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals.

Radio advertising

Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the obvious limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage.

Online advertising

Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers.

Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.

Product placements

Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is

when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and

media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an

item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority

Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a

phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or

his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of

advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.

Physical advertising Press advertising

Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This

encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service.

Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an article

section of a newspaper.

Billboard advertising: Billboards are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing

pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and

pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location

with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit

vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.

The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan.

Mobile billboard advertising

Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by

clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day, and long-term

campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies.

In-store advertising

In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail

store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in

a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near

checkout counters, eye-catching displays promoting a specific

product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.

Coffee cup advertising

Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed out of an office, café, or drive- through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first

popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India, and parts of the Middle East.

needed]

Street advertising

This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products such as Reverse Graffiti and 3d pavement advertising, the media became an affordable and effective tool for getting brand messages out into public spaces.

Celebrity branding

This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand.

For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.

Sales promotions

Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions

are double purposed because they are used to gather information

about what type of customers you draw in and where they are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.

Media and advertising approaches

Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional"

media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.

Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance"

of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.

Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach larger audiences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the target audience where they are reached by the medium. Technological advances have also made it possible to control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the advertising. Digital signage is being successfully employed in supermarkets.

Another successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.

and malls.

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E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for email users for many years.

Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate

logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space

Station. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal

advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda).

Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at minimal cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" =

"photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly,

"Hoover" = vacuum cleaner, "Nintendo" (often used by those exposed to many video games) = video games, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a

common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized

trademark - turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.

As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile advertising

followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads.

More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of

modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83

percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.

A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market, but it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the

demographic information the user has provided to the social

networking site. Friendertising is a more precise advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others

directly using social network service.

From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short

programming breaks called "Content Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota.

Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, "ARvertising", advertising on Augmented Reality technology.

Current trends

Rise in new media

With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising

opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner, Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining"

advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising

community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009 mobile and internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2% respectively. Older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8%

(magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers ).

Niche marketing

Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the

growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads.

Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific

audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message

was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However,

usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.

Crowdsourcing

Main article: Crowdsourcing

The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user- generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial.

Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.

Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most- liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".

This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user- generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company.

Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands

such as Google, Nike, Hershey’s, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC

Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth.

However, it remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.

Global advertising

Advertising has gone through five major stages of development:

domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business

objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice,

developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions:

exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.

Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its success is how economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any

country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.

Foreign public messaging

Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable

commercial products or services, often promote their interests and

positions through the advertising of those goods because the target

audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as vehicle for

foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a

mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during

television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the

destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective

governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light,

countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions. See: Soft Power

 See also: International Travel Advertising

Diversification

In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry

diversification has seen observers note that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”.

This is reflected by the

growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".

New technology

The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo)

allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them

to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons

of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs;

fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor.

Advertising education

Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis.

A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.

Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established companies with students to create these campaigns.

Criticisms

Main article: Criticism of advertising

While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. Unsolicited Commercial Email and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers.

Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.

In addition, advertising frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of inadequacy) on the intended consumer, which may be harmful.

Regulation

Main article: Advertising regulation

In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm.

As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside.

Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban

with London also having specific legislation to control

unlawful displays.

There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some

examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries or via satellite. Greece’s regulations are of a similar nature, “banning advertisements for children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys".

In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser Family

Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States.

In New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry operates a system of self-

regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree

on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The

general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal,

decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are

funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of

upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards

Authority in the UK.

In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system.

Currently the display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offence. All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature.

Naturally, many advertisers view governmental regulation or even self-regulation as intrusion of their freedom of speech or a necessary evil. Therefore, they employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English in French advertising).

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The advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation in many

countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such

requirements.

Advertising research

Main article: Advertising research

Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies.

Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns—pre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post- testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.

See also