第一章 國際法投資爭端之解決方式
第二節 裁判方式
一、司法程序
國際法對解決國際爭端之案件涉及法律事實的認定,傳統上使用常設性 國際機構司法機構與特設司法機構為之84,例如國際法院與國際常設仲裁法 院,特設的法庭多為特定案件而定,解決後即解散。國際投資爭端通常會將
80 參考 Shaw, M. N., International Law, p. 926.
81 參考 Dixon, M., Textbook on International Law, p. 264.
82 參考陳安主編,國際經濟法學專論,高等教育出版社,2002 年,頁 333。
83 同前註。
84 同前註,頁 334~336。
法律訴訟作為爭端解決的最後手段。依爭端主體不同,分為下列三種情形:
(一)國家與國家間
國家與國家間有投資爭端時,可利用聯合國下的國際法院解決。國際法 院取得管轄權的前提是雙方國家自願交由國際法院解決紛爭,國家必須透過 聲明、協議表示自願受國際法院管轄。
國際法院的訴訟管轄權分為對人管轄及對事管轄:
1. 對人管轄
國際法院的訴訟當事人只能為國家,國際法院規章第 34 條有明文規定85
,因此私人與國際組織都無法利用國際法院解決爭端。不過私人如受到他國 侵害其權利,可透過其母國行使外交保護權,由母國政府向國際法院起訴,
不過在私人在請求外交保護權的前提是,他已在侵害國國內用盡所有的司法 救濟程序仍無法獲得賠償時,始得請求外交保護,這是即是國際法的「用盡 當地救濟原則」86。
一旦私人之母國行使外交保護權向國際法院訴訟後,訴訟主體即為其母 國,私人對訴訟的進行無控制權,完全由母國決定訴訟進行的程度,母國有 權隨時終止訴訟、或與他造國家和解,訴訟所得之賠償也屬於母國所有。
2. 對事管轄
根據國際法院規約第 36 條87,受國際法院管轄的案件有三種:1.爭端國
85 Art. 34(1) of The Statute of the International Court of Justice: “Only statesmay bepartiesin cases before the Court.”
參照 ICJ 網站:http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/index.php?p1=4&p2=2&p3=0。最後瀏覽日 : 2008/2/2。
86 參考丘宏達,現代國際法,頁 748。
87 Art. 36 of The Statute of the International Court of Justice: “1.Thejurisdiction oftheCourtcomprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force.
2. The states parties to the present Statute may at any time declare that they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any other state accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court in all legal disputes concerning: a. the interpretation of a treaty; b. any question of international law; c. the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of an international obligation; d. the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an international obligation. …”
參照 ICJ 網站:http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/index.php?p1=4&p2=2&p3=0。最後瀏覽日 : 2008/2/2。
家自願提交的一切案件,不限於法律性質;2.聯合國憲章或現行條約及協定 中所特別規定的一切事件;3.爭端當事國事先聲明受國際法院管轄的法律爭 端,這類爭端包括條約的解釋、國際法的任何問題、任何事實之存在如經確 定即屬違反國際義務者、因違反國際義務而應予賠償的性質及範圍,上述事 項既經國家聲明,國際法院即取得強制管轄權。
對於受理之爭端,國際法院應依條約、國際習慣法、一般法律原則或在 第 59 條規定下的司法判例及國際法權威學者的著作為準據法,加以裁判。
若經過當事國同意,國際法院亦可以公允善意原則裁判88。
(二)外國私人與國家間
外國私人與投資之地主國發生爭端,可以利用內國法院進行訴訟救濟。
1. 地主國法院:外國私人可以就其權利受侵害之性質及投資契約之屬 性,選擇在地主國國內的法院進行民事訴訟或是行政訴訟。
2. 其他國內法院:外國私人可以回到母國或是在有管轄權之第三國國 內的法院起訴,但可能會涉及國家豁免的問題,即使私人獲得勝訴判決,有 可能無法得到賠償。
(三)私人與私人間
私人間的投資爭議為民事訴訟,因為當事人一方為外國人,有涉外因素
,應適用各國之衝突法(Conflict of Laws)/國際私法(Private International Law)
,內國法院遇有涉外案件時,通常面臨的問題有三:1.法院有無管轄權、2.
準據法之選擇、3.外國判決之承認89。
88 Art. 38 of The Statute of the International Court of Justice: “1.TheCourt,whosefunction isto decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it, shall apply: a. international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states; b. international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; c. the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations; d. subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.
2. This provision shall not prejudice the power of the Court to decide a case ex aequo et bono, if the partiesagreethereto.”
參照 ICJ 網站:http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/index.php?p1=4&p2=2&p3=0。最後瀏覽日 : 2008/2/2。
89 參考 McClean, J.D., Morris: The Conflict of Laws, 14th edition, Sweet & Maxwell, 1995, p. 1;
Cheshire and North’s Private international Law, 10th edition, Butterworths, 1979, pp. 3-14; 曾陳明
各國對涉外的民事訴訟,普遍承認「當事人意思自主」原則,尊重當事 人約定之法庭地及準據法。欲進行訴訟解決爭端,雙方可先合意選擇法庭地
,否則因為會因為各國國際私法的規定不同,造成各國法院皆有管轄權或皆 無 管 轄 權 , 產 生 了 管 轄 權 的 衝 突 。 2005 年海牙國際私法 會議 (Hague Conference on Private International Law)通過了「選擇法庭地協議公約」(
Convention on Choice of Court Agreement),針對國際民商事契約中,當事 人合意選擇法庭地之協議之事項加以規範,該公約第 3 條90規定:契約當事 人得自由以書面、或是其他可實質肯認當事人合意之協商方式選擇法庭地,
且此選擇法庭地之條款效力獨立於其他契約條款。
有時當事人為了規避對己不利的法律,會選擇對己有利之國家為法庭地
,即所謂的「逛尋法庭(forum shopping)」,因此即使當事人合意選擇訴 訟之法庭地,法院亦應審視當事人與法庭地是否有所關連(最低關連),以 確認其管轄權。若當事國未合意法庭地,通常是採「以原就被」原則,以被 告所在地為法庭地91。
法院在決定判決應適用之準據法時,應先視當事人契約中是否有所約定
,如契約中未明訂準據法,法院應從契約文字、用語探究當事人是否有所默 示欲適用的準據法,而不應直接以內國法作為準據法,以免過份擴大內國法 之適用,反而違反當事人真意及意思自主原則,但當事人選法之自由非無所 限制,其選擇之契約準據法與契約之間應有實質關連92。
至於程序問題方面,各國在涉外民事案件通常以國民待遇等同對之,因 此仍適用法庭地之訴訟程序,但也有國家針對涉外案件另定特別之程序法。
汝,國際私法原理(上集)---總論篇,學林,七版,2003 年,頁 6、7、14、15。
90 Art. 3 of Convention on Choice of Court Agreement: “For the purposes of this Convention -a) "exclusive choice of court agreement" means an agreement concluded by two or more parties that meets the requirements of paragraph c) and designates, for the purpose of deciding disputes which have arisen or may arise in connection with a particular legal relationship, the courts of one Contracting State or one or more specific courts of one Contracting State to the exclusion of the jurisdiction of any other courts; b) a choice of court agreement which designates the courts of one Contracting State or one or more specific courts of one Contracting State shall be deemed to be exclusive unless the parties have expressly provided otherwise; c) an exclusive choice of court agreement must be concluded or documented - i) in writing; or ii) by any other means of communication which renders information accessible so as to be usable for subsequent reference; d) an exclusive choice of court agreement that forms part of a contract shall be treated as an agreement independent of the other terms of the contract. The validity of the exclusive choice of court agreement cannot be contested solely on the ground that the contract is not valid.”
參照海牙國際私法會議網站:http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php?act=conventions.text&cid=98。最 後瀏覽日:2008/2/2。
91 參考 McClean, J.D., Morris: The Conflict of Laws, p. 99.
92 參考 Cheshire and North’s Private international Law, pp. 195-206; 曾陳明汝,國際私法原理(續集)
---各論篇,學林,改定再版,2003 年,頁 115~120。
涉外案件之判決會面臨他國法院承認與執行的問題,各國通常會加入國 際條約,或是簽訂雙邊的司法互助條約,加以承認與執行外國判決。若未簽 訂任何條約,無論是採取禮讓說、義務說或是一事不再理原則,或是目前大 多數國家採行的互惠原則,外國判決無下列瑕疵時,例如判決法院欠缺管轄 權、外國判決之結果未違反內國之公序良俗、被告未被合理告知而未參與訴 訟過程等,通常內國法院會相互承認與執行外國法院之判決93,「選擇法庭 地協議公約」亦將上述例外不承認外國判決之理由訂入公約第 9 條94,並規 定如當事人訂立契約時欠缺行為能力、法院之判決是受到當事人詐欺所做成 及法院判決與爭端事項無關時,內國法院可拒絕承認該外國判決。
二、仲裁
國際經濟法與國際貿易法架構下的爭端案件一向採調解與仲裁方式解 決之,例如 WTO 所設之爭端解決機制,或適用多邊條約專屬爭端所特設的 機構,例如國際商事仲裁庭。仲裁機制融合了外交途徑與司法途徑的要素,
因為它是基於雙方當事人以誠信合意進行仲裁並組成仲裁庭,並執行仲裁判 斷。仲裁的大部分程序是進行協商,仲裁員須依據法律做出仲裁判斷,雙方 當事人並受最終仲裁判斷之拘束95。
93 參考曾陳明汝,國際私法原理(上集)---總論篇,頁 288~291;Cheshire and North’s Private international Law, pp. 629-632; McClean, J.D., Morris: The Conflict of Laws, pp. 101-107, 112-119;
Westlake,J., A Treatise on Private International Law or The Conflict of Laws, T & J.W. Johnson & Co., 1986, pp. 224-231.
94 Art. 9 of Convention on Choice of Court Agreement: “Recognition orenforcementmay berefused if -a) the agreement was null and void under the law of the State of the chosen court, unless the chosen court has determined that the agreement is valid; b) a party lacked the capacity to conclude the agreement under the law of the requested State; c) the document which instituted the proceedings or an equivalent document, including the essential elements of the claim, ) was not notified to the defendant in sufficient time and in such a way as to enable him to arrange for his defense, unless the defendant entered an appearance and presented his case without contesting notification in the court of origin, provided that the law of the State of origin permitted notification to be contested; or ii) was notified to the defendant in the requested State in a manner that is incompatible with fundamental principles of the requested State concerning service of documents; d) the judgment was obtained by fraud in connection with a matter of procedure; e) recognition or enforcement would be manifestly incompatible with the public policy of the requested State, including situations where the specific proceedings leading to the judgment were incompatible with fundamental principles of procedural fairness of that State; f) the judgment is inconsistent with a judgment given in the requested State in a dispute between the same parties; or g) the judgment is inconsistent with an earlier judgment given in another State between the same parties on the same cause of action, provided that the earlier judgment fulfils the conditions necessary for its recognition in therequested State.”
參照海牙國際私法會議網站:http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php?act=conventions.text&cid=98。最 後瀏覽日:2008/2/2。
95 參考 Shaw, M. N., International Law, p. 958.
(一)國際法下之仲裁
在公元前六百年的希臘城邦已有利用仲裁解決紛爭的紀錄,而現代的國
在公元前六百年的希臘城邦已有利用仲裁解決紛爭的紀錄,而現代的國