體育活動之影響與認知–以台灣學生與非台灣學生為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學應用經濟與社會發展英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Applied Economics and Social Development National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 政治大. 立體育活動之影響與認知–以台灣學生與非台灣學生為例. ‧ 國. 學. Influences and Perceptions of. ‧. sit. y. Nat. Exercise and Physical Activity among n. er. io. Taiwanese and non-Taiwanese Adults al iv n Ch engchi U Student: Kevin McCoy Advisor: Dr. Shiou-Yen Chu. 中華民國 109 年 07 月 July, 2020. 1 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(2) Table of Contents Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 2 List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... 3 List of Charts........................................................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 6 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 7 I.. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 8. II.. Literature Review.......................................................................................................................... 11 2.1. Physical Activity Levels: Globally and Taiwan.................................................................... 11. 2.2. Academic Success Over Physical Activity in Taiwan .......................................................... 14. 2.3. Government Intervention ...................................................................................................... 18. 2.4. Perceived Benefits and Barriers to Exercise ......................................................................... 20. III.. 政治大. Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 22. 立. Instrument ............................................................................................................................. 22. 3.2. Sample................................................................................................................................... 24. 3.3. Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 26. ‧ 國. IV.. 學. 3.1. Results ....................................................................................................................................... 29. ‧. Perceived Benefits to Exercise .............................................................................................. 29. 4.2. Perceived Barriers to Exercise .............................................................................................. 34. 4.3. Early Influences to Exercise ................................................................................................. 44. sit. y. Nat. 4.1. er. io. 4.4 Summary of the Significantly Different Perceptions and Influences for Non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese Adults .............................................................................................................................. 50. al. n. iv n C hengchi U Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 56. 4.5 V.. Differences in Perceptions and Influences Among Men and Women .................................. 53. References ............................................................................................................................................. 61 Appendix: Questionnaire ...................................................................................................................... 65. 2 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(3) List of Tables. Table 1: Sample Demographics ............................................................................................... 24 Table 2: Regression analysis summary for High activity levels on Perceptions of Benefits to Exercise ............................................................................................................................ 27 Table 3: Regression analysis summary for High activity levels on Perceptions of Barriers to Exercise ............................................................................................................................ 27 Table 4: Overall Perceived Benefits to Exercise (Means and Standard Deviations) ............... 30 Table 5: Non-Taiwanese vs Taiwanese Perceived Benefits to Exercise ................................. 31. 政治大. Table 6: Two Sample T-Test for ‘Exercise allows me to connect with others’ ...................... 32. 立. Table 7: Wilcoxon rank-sum test for ‘Exercise allows me to connect with others’ ................ 33. ‧ 國. 學. Table 8: Overall Perceived Barriers to Exercise ...................................................................... 35. ‧. Table 9: Non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese Perceived Barriers to Exercise ................................ 36 Table 10: Two Sample T-Test for All Perceived Barriers to Exercise .................................... 37. sit. y. Nat. io. er. Table 11: Overall Early Influences to Exercise ....................................................................... 44 Table 12: Significantly Different Perceptions and Influences for Non-Taiwanese and. al. n. iv n C Taiwanese Adults ............................................................................................................. 52 hengchi U. 3 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(4) List of Charts Chart 1: Histogram and Distribution Curve for All Perceived Benefits to Exercise ............... 33 Chart 2: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Exercise strengthens my friendship with others’ (non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese) .......................................................................... 34 Chart 3: Histogram and Distribution Curve for All Barriers to Exercise ................................ 39 Chart 4: Histogram and Distribution Curves of Non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese Perceived Barriers to Exercise .......................................................................................................... 39 Chart 5: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Bad weather prevents me from exercising’ . 40. 政治大 Chart 8: Histogram and Distribution 立 Curve for ‘Lack of Motivation prevents me from. Chart 6: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Exercise tires me’ ........................................ 40. ‧ 國. 學. exercising’ ........................................................................................................................ 41 Chart 7: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Injury or health related problems prevent me. ‧. from exercising’................................................................................................................ 41. Nat. sit. y. Chart 9: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘I feel self-conscious when I exercise’ ......... 42. n. al. er. io. Chart 10: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘My friends don’t encourage me to exercise’. i Un. v. .......................................................................................................................................... 42. Ch. engchi. Chart 11: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘My family members don’t encourage me to exercise’ ............................................................................................................................ 43 Chart 12: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up, I had lots of free time to play’ .......................................................................................................................................... 46 Chart 13: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up my parents encouraged me to exercise’ ............................................................................................................................ 46 Chart 14: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up there were many different sports I could try in school’ .............................................................................................. 47. 4 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(5) Chart 15: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up, my schools encouraged playing sport and exercising’ ............................................................................................ 47 Chart 16: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘My parents exercise regularly’ .................. 48 Chart 17: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up, time spent in remedial education classes prevented me from playing and exercising’......................................... 48 Chart 18: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up there were not many places for me to exercise’ .................................................................................................................. 49 Chart 19: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘My parents give academic success priority over exercising’ ................................................................................................................ 49. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 5 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(6) Acknowledgements I’d like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Shiou-Yen Chu, for her incredible patience, guidance, and kindness throughout this process. I want to thank Dr. Lu and Dr. Hu for taking the time to participate in my thesis defence committee, and for their constructive feedback to this paper. I want to thank Alex Yang for her work in translating the questionnaire for this paper from English to Mandarin. I’d like to thank Dr. Wang, Dr. Yang, and Dr. Chu for sharing the questionnaire with their students. I’d like to thank all of the participants in my survey for taking time from their day to help me, and thank you to all of the people who provided feedback. 政治大 encouragement and patience over 立the past few months. I couldn’t have completed this project when it was originally being drafted. Finally, I’d like to thank my friends and family for their. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. without your help. I’m grateful to all of you.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 6 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(7) Abstract This paper aims to compare influences and perceptions of exercise and physical activity between Taiwanese and Non-Taiwanese adults. Lack of physical activity and exercise is a major cause of noncommunicable diseases worldwide and declining rates of physical activity are prevalent across most of the developed world, with disconcerting rates. To further understand Taiwanese attitudes and relationships with exercise and physical exercise, a survey questionnaire was designed and administered to Taiwanese and non-Taiwanese adults. The survey measured the perceptions of the benefits and barriers to exercise, as well as early. 政治大 the 立benefits of exercise, especially in. influences to exercise experienced during childhood and adolescence. Findings showed both samples strongly perceived. improving physical. ‧ 國. 學. performance. Perceptions of the barriers to exercise were lower among both groups, especially among Taiwanese adults, despite lower exercise rates. Both groups considered their friends,. ‧. family, schools, and overall environment to be supportive in facilitating their efforts to exercise.. Nat. sit. y. However, Taiwanese adults reported to have less free time to exercise and play growing up;. n. al. er. io. and cited bad weather as the biggest barrier to exercise. This could be an indication of why. i Un. v. exercise rates among many Taiwanese are low, especially among women. Social elements of. Ch. engchi. exercise appear more salient among Taiwanese adults as they perceived the benefit of exercise’s ability to strengthen friendships to a stronger degree than non-Taiwanese adults, as well as profoundly disagreeing that that their friends and family do not encourage them to exercise. It is hoped these findings may be useful in considering future policy development regarding exercise participation in Taiwan.. 7 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(8) I.. Introduction According to the World Health Organization, insufficient physical activity is becoming. one of the leading causes of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes and heart disease; and a major factor in early death (WHO, 2018). As a nations GDP grows, levels of physical activity tend to decrease due to a more sedentary lifestyle. Declining physical activity levels are often attributed to less active leisure time and less physical exertion being required at work and at home. Several studies in Taiwan (James et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2007; Wu & Chang, 2019; Lin et al., 2007) have highlighted the country’s own problems with insufficient. 政治大 be reduced by adequate amounts立 of physical activity and exercise.. levels of physical activity, growing rates of obesity and an increase in many NCDs that could. ‧ 國. 學. Considerable literature has been written about the worrying trends of low physical activity among the Taiwanese. As with the rest of the world (WHO, 2018), a rising GDP in. ‧. Taiwan has led to a decrease in physical activity over recent decades (Wu & Chang, 2019). To. y. Nat. io. sit. ensure future physical exercise practices among adults it is important that people are taught. n. al. er. from an early age how to exercise, to understand its benefits, and to overcome its barriers.. Ch. i Un. v. Numerous studies have found that physical activity decreases among young people as they get. engchi. older (James et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2007). Once adolescents leave school, participation in sports and exercise dramatically declines, so it is vital for parents, students, and teachers to understand that physical education and sport should not be overshadowed by the stress to succeed academically. Several authors (James et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2007; Yu & Bairner, 2011) highlight Taiwanese society’s emphasis on academic success for young people and it is often noted that one of the reasons for such low levels of P.A among children and adolescents in Taiwan is due to the heavy focus placed on success in school exams to the detriment of students’ leisure time,. 8 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(9) which could be spent being physically active. Although these ideas are mentioned in much of the literature there is little empirical evidence to support them. The Taiwanese government has spent billions (in NT Dollars) implementing various policies in order to increase sports participation (Huang & Tan, 2015). Massive facilities including stadiums, sports parks and cycle paths have been put in place across the country. However, there are valid arguments that the sports budget has not been allocated to the most necessary channels. An emphasis on elite sports programs and attempts to gain international recognition as a successful sporting nation, as well as bureaucratic in-fighting, has meant that. 政治大. policies for mass participation in sports has often been neglected or poorly implemented in Taiwan.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. To further our understanding of the relationship that Taiwanese people have to exercise and physical activity, it’s important to investigate the benefits and barriers to exercise that. ‧. Taiwanese people perceive, as well as any other influences that may hinder or help improve its. er. io. sit. y. Nat. participation.. The purpose of this paper is to understand and compare the influences and perceptions. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. of exercise of Taiwanese and Non-Taiwanese adults. It is hoped that the findings of this paper. engchi. may provide a better understanding of Taiwanese people’s relationship with exercise and fitness as well as assist those in the fields of health and fitness to create and foster initiatives that can increase levels of physical activity in Taiwan. The key objectives in this paper are to: •. Understand and compare the benefits to exercise perceived by Taiwanese and non-Taiwanese adults.. •. Understand and compare the barriers to exercise perceived by Taiwanese and non-Taiwanese adults. 9 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(10) •. Observe differences in early influences that may affect current exercise habits, such as parental attitudes and school environment, among Taiwanese and nonTaiwanese adults.. •. Observe differences between male and female, Taiwanese and non-Taiwanese adults with respect to perceived benefits and barriers to exercise as well as early influences of exercise.. A survey was developed based on the exercise benefits barriers scale (Sechrist et al, 1987) as well as items regarding early influences to exercise habits such as parent, schooling. 政治大 non-Taiwanese. The survey was available in English and Mandarin in order to provide clarity 立 and childhood experience. A sample was made up of 223 respondents, 105 Taiwanese and 118. ‧ 國. 學. and understanding to all participants.. It was found that both groups strongly perceived the benefits of exercise, especially in. ‧. improving physical performance. Perceptions of the barriers to exercise were lower among. y. Nat. sit. both groups, especially among Taiwanese adults, in spite of lower exercise rates. Both groups. n. al. er. io. considered their friends, family, schools, and overall environment to be supportive and. Ch. i Un. v. facilitating in their efforts to exercise. However, Taiwanese adults appeared to have less free. engchi. time to exercise and play growing up. The social aspects of exercise appear to be stronger among Taiwanese adults. They perceived the benefit of exercises ability to strengthen friendships to a stronger degree than non-Taiwanese adults and adamantly disagreed that that their friends and family don’t encourage them to exercise. This was especially true of Taiwanese women.. 10 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(11) II.. Literature Review. 2.1 Physical Activity Levels: Globally and Taiwan Due to our increased sedentary lifestyle, lack of physical activity and exercise have progressively become leading causes of declining health and premature death across the globe, especially in the developed world. According to the World Health Organisation “insufficient physical activity is one of the leading risk factors for death worldwide and is a key risk factor for noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes.” Being insufficiently physically active increases the risk of death by up to 30% compared to being. 政治大. sufficiently physically active. Roughly 25% of the world’s adults are not active enough and. 立. over 80% of adolescents are insufficiently physically active. As a nation’s economy becomes. ‧ 國. 學. more developed, levels of physical activity tend to decrease. 26% of men and 35% of women. ‧. are insufficiently physically active in high-income countries compared to 12% of men and 24% of women in low-income countries (WHO, 2018). Lower physical activity is often attributed. sit. y. Nat. io. er. to less physically demanding work combined with inaction during leisure times. It is recommended by WHO that adults aged 18–64 should, weekly, do either 2 hours and 30. al. n. iv n C minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity or U 1 hour and 15 minutes of vigorousheng chi intensity aerobic physical activity or a similar combination of moderate and vigorous-intensity activity (WHO, 2015). Taiwan has followed the trend of much of the rest of the developed world in declining physically activity and increasing obesity rates, especially among young people, as its GDP has increased. In fact, physical activity among young people in Taiwan is comparatively worse than many other developed countries. James et al. (2005) reported that Australian adolescent students were more physically active and enjoyed physical activity much more than Taiwanese students. 86% of Australian students reported that they had exercised for an average of 30 11 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(12) minutes or more at any one time, in comparison to 62% for Taiwanese students. Taiwanese girl’s levels of physical activity were especially poor in the study with only 47% reporting that they had exercised for an average of 30 minutes at any one time compared to 85% for Australian girls. 41% of the Taiwanese girls in the study reported that they were entirely dependent on school-based activities for sport and exercise compared to only 26% for Australian girls. Levels of enjoyment were similarly low for the Taiwanese students with less than half of boys saying they “really enjoyed” physical activity compared to 64% of Australian boys. Only 22.5% of the Taiwanese girls surveyed reported to really enjoy physical activity. Tsai, Chen and Wong (1998) (noted in James et al., 2005) reported that studies of physically. 政治大. activity among Taiwanese in the 1990’s was similarly low when compared to other countries.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. The Chinese Taipei (Taiwan) 2018 Report Card on physical activity for children and youth (Wu & Chang, 2019) provides the most thorough indication of poor levels of physical. ‧. activity among young people in Taiwan. The Report Card contains findings from recent. sit. y. Nat. government reports and studies in Taiwan regarding the state of physical activity and health. n. al. er. io. among young people in Taiwan. According to their findings, physical fitness levels have been. i Un. v. steadily declining among young people in Taiwan over the past two decades with more than. Ch. engchi. 30% of children and adolescents in Taiwan being categorised as overweight or obese. Participation in sports teams is low with only 27.6% of all students from elementary to high school participating in some form of sports club or team in school. On average, only 12.1% of 15 to 18-year olds are achieving the WHO standard of doing at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day with just 5.4% of 13 to 15-year olds meeting the same WHO standard. Not only are elementary students and adolescents lacking physical activity, Lin et al, (2007) reported that 89.8% of Taiwanese preschool children participating in their study did not meet the national recommendations for time spent being physically active. The authors 12 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(13) highlighted the importance that physical activity plays on the acquisition and development of gross motor skills. 48.9% of the children tested had motor difficulty while 13.3% were at risk for motor difficulty and only 37.9% of the children had typically developing motor skills. Children as young as 5 or 6 years old being so inactive, consequentially, with such poor motor skills, will lead to worse problems related to a lack of exercise such as obesity and chronic diseases later in life. Numerous studies have found that physical activity decreases among young people as they get older. Chen et al. (2007) found that high-school students were 60% more likely to. 政治大 to be encouraged to play and be as physically active as possible in their youth so they can 立. engage in physical activity than college or university students. Therefore, it is vital for children. ‧ 國. 學. maintain healthy exercise habits as they get older.. Internet usage and screen time, which is often attributed to declines in physical activity,. ‧. is steadily increasing amongst children and adolescents throughout the world but appears. y. Nat. sit. particularly serious in Taiwan. The Survey of Internet Usage of Students (noted in Wu and. n. al. er. io. Chang, 2019) found that elementary school students spent 57.8 min per day on the Internet for. i Un. v. non-study purposes, while junior and senior high school students spent 115.8 and 147.2 minutes, respectively.. Ch. engchi. As well as time spent looking at screens it is also noted by several researchers that time spent trying to achieve success academically has traditionally been more valued than time spent on exercise and physical activity. Chen et al. (2007) found that 76.7% of Taiwanese adolescents spent over 7 hours per day sitting down while 30% of adolescents sat for over 12 hours per day. The peaks of ‘sedentary over 12 hours’ occurred at age 14 and 17, coinciding with the years Taiwanese junior and senior high school students prepare for national examinations for secondary schools and university entrance. Even when studying preschool children, Lin et al.. 13 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(14) (2007) note that “Taiwanese parents usually emphasise academics and cognitive abilities as crucial for their children’s development, and might be inclined to overlook motor development and physical fitness.” James et al. (2005) partially attributed high rates of obesity amongst boys in Taiwan (compared to girls), to parents “who were more tolerant of boys' excesses: they see academic achievement as much more important for a boy than their looks or their athletic prowess”.. 2.2 Academic Success Over Physical Activity in Taiwan. 政治大. Taiwanese society’s emphasis on schooling and academic achievement as a path to. 立. success has meant that Taiwanese children and adolescents face some of the most gruelling. ‧ 國. 學. classroom schedules in the world. It can be argued that the pressure to achieve academically,. ‧. and the time spent sitting at a desk in a classroom, plays a serious role in reducing the. sit. y. Nat. opportunities for young people to be physically active, exercise, or even play.. al. er. io. Yu and Bairner (2011) trace the emphasis on academic achievement to the neglect of. v. n. physical activity to Confucianism’s role in Taiwanese society. According to the authors, “over. Ch. engchi. i Un. a number of centuries, the Chinese constructed a unique wen-version of manhood, in other words an anti-physical culture.” The Chinese wen and wu paradigm broadly distinguish masculinity into two parts with wen being associated with civil or cultural attainment and generally being referred to learning and the use of the mind, while wu refers to martial or physical valour and generally refers to the use of the body. Confucian education focused on the concept of cultivating the gentleman or exemplary person also known as junzi. One needed to conform to the wen version of masculinity to achieve this status. Confucius (quoted in Yu and Barnier, 2011) stated that “A Gentleman sets his heart on virtue, a petty man sets his heart on. 14 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(15) land” implying that farming and physical labour are not the responsibilities of cultured gentlemen. Furthermore, an integral part of the Confucian education system was the keju imperial civil service examinations, the traditional way of recruiting state officials in China. A meritocratic exam, success in the keju was a rare means of raising your family’s economic and class status in imperial China. An education of rote-learning of classical material, while never needing to create, question or theorize particular issues, was required to pass the exam. Yu and Bairner (2001) note that unlike western or Japanese education which upheld the importance of physical fitness, Chinese culture was led by a “Confucian class possessing exclusively. 政治大 intellectual ability forged in and evaluated through the keju system”; a system that doesn’t 立. ‧ 國. 學. reward creativity or physical fitness, and instead associates intelligence and respect in society with the ability to memorise and repeat. In the 1940’s, the arrival of the KMT, who wanted to. ‧. cultivate what it believed to be traditional Chinese Confucian values, reinstated similar exams,. sit. y. Nat. liankao, or secondary school and university entrance exams. Liankaos were seen as the modern. al. er. io. keju and became another means to social mobility. Along with another important Confucian. v. n. concept, xiaodao, the unquestionable subordination to the will of one’s parents, Taiwanese. Ch. engchi. i Un. children and adolescents became regimented into one of the strictest and most stressful education systems in the world. The daily life of a Taiwanese student is more demanding in terms of schooling compared to countries in the western world. James et al. (2005) estimated that the majority of Taiwanese secondary students had an average of up to 11.5 hours of schooling per day, not including homework. By contrast Australian students would attend school for closer to 7 hours per day. Hsieh (2010) emphasises the over-schooling of Taiwanese students noting that:. 15 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(16) In Taiwan, students have eight classes per day five or six days per week, carry a lot of books, go to cram school in the evenings and on weekends and have more homework than they can finish. Each semester is 20 weeks long, and students study during summer and winter breaks. When it comes to test results, there are few mid to high results, and many fail. This is in contrast to most western countries where after-school classes are not as popular. Summer and winter vacations are usually filled with recreational activities, and test results generally follow a normal curve. Hsieh (2010) argues that the Taiwanese education. 政治大 personal growth in students. However, the highly competitive exam-focused environment 立 system must change in order to cultivate a desire to learn and foster a sense of achievement and. ‧ 國. 學. forces students to become overwhelmed by the weight of the curriculum and discouraging test results. Students are left frustrated and their growth and ability to contribute positively to. ‧. society once they have graduated are stifled.. y. Nat. sit. Attending buxiban, or cram school, is one of the most notable differences between. n. al. er. io. childhood and adolescent experience in Taiwan, compared to most Western countries. “Cram. i Un. v. schools consist of the use of outside-school instruction, provided by profit-oriented individuals. Ch. engchi. or school-like organizations, to raise student performance in academic subjects” (Jeng & Liu, 2012). Chou and Yuan (2011) reported that the number of cram schools in Taiwan have been steadily increasing from 5,891 registered schools in 2001 to more than 18,300 in 2011. The authors found that adolescents mostly attend buxiban “due to a mixture of exam anxiety, peergroup pressure, and high parental academic expectation”. Buxiban are seen by parents as a way to improve their children’s chances of higher results in exams and provide education that they feel is insufficient in regular schooling.. 16 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(17) It’s argued that parents and students also overestimate the benefits of cram schooling and follow others in signing up for classes. Jeng and Liu (2012) found that attending cram schools do have a significant positive effect on analytical ability and mathematical performance. However, with almost 70% of students attending cram schools, (84% of which are from elementary and junior high schools) (Jeng & Liu, 2012), many of the positive effects become redundant as most people receive the same amount of supplemented education. To succeed in senior high school or university entrance exam, many students end up staying in school for extra classes as late as 9p.m (Chou, 2014). Parents in Taiwan spend significant sums of money to finance their children’s additional education. To attend buxiban or cram schools, many. 政治大. parents pay approximately NT$ 2,640 (US$ 80) per subject per month, with fees that may run. 立. up to NT $ 7,920 (US$ 240) per month (Chou, 2014). Chou and Yuan (2011) found the higher. ‧ 國. 學. the social and economic status of a family, the higher the education expectations. 67.4% of. ‧. junior-high school students and 78.5% of their parents expect them to complete college or university (Jeng & Liu, 2012).. sit. y. Nat. al. er. io. Credentialism, the idea that obtaining a college degree has high social value, still plays. v. n. a major role in Taiwanese society. Liu (2012) noted the sentiment that “educational background. Ch. engchi. i Un. is the most important standard in evaluating a person’s social level, while occupation and income are not that important”. Despite government reforms in the early 2000’s to diversify subject choices, enhance creativity and reduce exam pressure for students, attendance in buxibans has increased and students have started attending earlier and more specialised programs in reaction to the measures (Chou, 2014). Unfortunately, these reforms seem to have only worsened the problem of students spending what could be free time to play or be physically active, and instead increased sedentary time for students by keeping them indoors, sitting at a desk and studying; long after regular school hours are over.. 17 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(18) Within school hours it has been observed that recreational classes such as music, art and PE, have often been replaced with extra academic study (Yu & Bairner, 2011). Wang et al. (2012) stated that many Taiwanese schools had chosen to sacrifice students’ physical health by abandoning physical education courses in order to improve overall academic achievement. In the same study it was found that that students with better physical fitness had better academic achievement than other groups. It was also found that that regular PE classes in school and frequent exercise, not only improved physical strength among students, but also brought positive and significant influence toward achievement.. 政治大 government was put in place to deal with the negative consequences of an overemphasis on 立. The PE strong-point school (tiyu zhongdian xuexiao) system introduced by the. ‧ 國. 學. education or anti-physical culture (Yu & Bairner, 2011). Although originally designed to help athletes further their education (if they struggled academically), the system has hindered the. ‧. popularisation of sport as regular schools cannot compete with these schools in competition. sit. y. Nat. and therefore mass participation in sports teams suffers. Su et al. (2018) have noted serious. n. al. er. io. problems with schools for elite student athletes as they lack the necessary competition,. i Un. v. encounter training and academic conflicts, insufficient funding and a lack of career planning. Ch. for students towards the end of school.. engchi. 2.3 Government Intervention In recent years, the Taiwanese government has been trying to improve mass participation in sports and exercise throughout the country. However, numerous policies have encountered problems. Many issues have arisen in deciding how the annual budget for sport is spent. Tan et al. (2009) explored the history of Taiwan’s sport policy and found that since 1973 much of the resources for sport have been directed into developing elite sports programs for 18 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(19) Taiwan to be recognised on the world stage by winning medals at the Olympics or other events, after being diplomatically isolated following their expulsion from the UN. The Sports Affairs Council was founded in 1997 to raise the profile of Taiwan globally through their ‘elite sport’ and ‘sport for all’ programs. However, much in-fighting between several sports associations and the SAC has occurred over how the budget is to be spent. Although the government’s official policy is to provide facilities and create an environment to accommodate mass sports participation, most resources are invested in the elite athletics programme. According to an official SAC member (interviewed in Tan et al., 2009) the purpose of the SAC is to fund world class coaches to give the top athletes the best chance of winning medals at international sporting. 政治大. events such as the Olympics, and for these purposes, money has never been an issue.. 立. Furthermore, in attempting to increase the rates of mass sports participation in Taiwan, the. ‧ 國. 學. SAC would hold “sport carnivals during weekend or holidays, rather than encouraging citizens. ‧. to engage in sport in their communities in their daily life”. Much of the budget for sports facilities in Taiwan has been used in the construction of large stadiums to host international. y. Nat. lie idle and are largely useless for the general public.. n. al. Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. events in order to boost Taiwan’s profile on the world stage. However, many of these stadiums. i Un. v. In 2010, the SAC launched the Sports Island Plan, a six-year plan with a budget of 13.26 billion NT dollars, to improve sports facilities and participation across Taiwan (Huang & Tan, 2015). 11.66 billion dollars was set aside for sport facilities and the remaining budget used for “subsidizing sport organizations, holding sport activities, setting up physical ability testing centres and building a website for sharing sport information.” Although the plan allowed for connections to be made between central government and local sports entities, several conflicts arose between the two as non-cooperation and political wrestling by many local sports organisation (often belonging to opposing parties) stifled policy implementation. Local authorities felt the SAC did not understand the difficulty of implementing their policies 19 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(20) as they did not have the staff or resources to achieve the expected goals from central government. They accused the SAC of being ignorant of the sports environment outside of Taipei City, and failing to understand the needs and structures of local sports communities, when creating an administrative plan for the whole country (Huang & Tan, 2015). Statistics for the number of grassroots organisations and members were inflated as a result, limiting the positive influence of the Sports Island Plan. In spite of the shortcomings of government policies, it can be argued that Taiwan has an excellent range of sports facilities, cycling tracks, hiking trails, and riverside parks with. 政治大 modern facilities for physical exercise with over 90% of schools having running tracks and 立. basketball courts or baseball fields available for the general public to enjoy. Most schools have. ‧ 國. 學. basketball courts, 82% of which are free for public use (Wu & Chang, 2019). While according to the Exercise Status Survey (cited in Wu & Chang, 2019), 81% of 13 to 17-year olds said. ‧. their neighbourhoods had sufficient exercise facilities which were highly accessible as it took. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. respondents an average 9.6 min to reach these facilities from their homes.. 2.4 Perceived Benefits and C Barriers to Exercise Un h. engchi. iv. Due to Taiwan’s low rates of physical activity it is necessary to understand the perceived benefits and barriers to exercise among adults in Taiwan. Understanding the benefits and barriers to exercise perceived by adults can help policy makers and physical educators facilitate physical activity programmes that are focused on promoting the benefits of exercise and overcoming the barriers to exercise, thus increasing mass participation in sports and exercise. Sechrist et al’s. (1987) exercise benefits/barriers scale was originally developed from the Health Promotional Model, which outlined two cognitive/perceptual determinants of 20 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(21) health-promoting behaviour as being the perceived benefits of exercise and perceived barriers of exercise. In order to measure the psychosocial processes underlying exercise behaviour, the EBBS was designed as a valid and internally consistent 43-item instrument to test the perceived benefits and barriers to exercise. The EBBS has been deemed to provide validity and reliability in describing exercise perceptions among various populations. In Lovell et al. (2010), for non-exercising female university students, the strongest perceived benefit from exercising was physical performance. Physical exertion, followed by time barriers were found to be the biggest barriers for female university students. In Cheng et. 政治大 perceived benefits of physical health and body image. 立. al. (2003) physical activity among female adolescents was significantly correlated with the. ‧ 國. 學. Brown et al. (2006) found lack of motivation and time constraints to be the largest barriers to American college students. Lack of time was also the largest perceived external. ‧. barrier in a study of Turkish university students’ barriers to exercise (Arzu et al., 2006), while. y. Nat. sit. lack of energy was perceived to be the largest internal barrier. One of the biggest barriers in. n. al. er. io. this study, which is relevant to Taiwan, was that students mostly felt that their parents. i Un. v. prioritised academic success over exercise. Wu and Pender (2002) found that perceived. Ch. engchi. benefits and perceived self-efficacy were more important indicators of physical activity amongst Taiwanese adolescents than intrapersonal influences. Perceived barriers were not seen as significant indicators of physical activity. Many studies show that subjects who exercise regularly perceive greater benefits and fewer barriers than those who don’t (Grubbs & Carter, 2002). Across several studies (Sechristet al., 1987; Grubbs & Carter, 2002; Lovell et al., 2010) benefits to exercise are perceived much higher than barriers, even in samples of adults who do not reach recommended levels of physical activity. Considering there are many people who in spite of knowing and believing in. 21 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(22) the benefits choose not to exercise anyway, this indicates that perceived barriers may have a greater influence over exercise behaviours than perceived benefits.. III. Methodology 3.1 Instrument The 43-item instrument was modelled from Sechrist et al’s (1987) exercise benefits barriers scale as well as items related to early influences such as schooling and experiences in. 政治大. childhood based on this paper’s literature review. Based on similar papers measuring benefits. 立. and barriers to exercise, mostly among university students, pertinent items were added while. ‧ 國. 學. items deemed irrelevant were removed. Questions related to family and schooling experiences. ‧. were added to the questionnaire and categorised as “Early Influences”. In addition, 15 Taiwanese adults were asked their opinions on the main benefits and barriers they perceived to. sit. y. Nat. io. er. exercise. Prominent answers that had not been included were added to the instrument. A 42item instrument was created consisting of:. n. al. •. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 12 demographic questions regarding age, gender, nationality, and relationships with sport and exercise.. •. 10 statements measuring the perceived benefits to exercise developed from the EBBS scale and other studies on perceived benefits and barriers to exercise.. •. 13 statements measuring the perceived barriers to exercise developed from the EBBS scale and other studies on perceived benefits and barriers to exercise.. •. 8 additional statements that look to observe potential influences on exercise habits based on family, school, and childhood experience, categorised as “Early Influences”. 22 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(23) The 31 statements were measured on a 5-point Likert scale rated from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree. The questionnaire was tested on 20 adults, Taiwanese and Non-Taiwanese, to find any issues or difficulty understanding questions. Based on feedback given; wording and answers for demographics were edited. One additional barrier was added to the instrument: ‘Due to my job, I don’t have time for exercise’. After finalising the English version, the questionnaire was translated into Mandarin Chinese by a qualified translator. The final survey contained Mandarin and English questions and answers, side by side. The translation was reviewed by two bilingual native Taiwanese who approved its clarity and coherence. On April 28th the survey was posted online using Google Forms.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 23 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(24) 3.2 Sample Table 1: Sample Demographics n = 223. Nationality. Taiwanese 47.1%. Non-Taiwanese 52.90%. Current Residence. Taiwan 76.23%. Outside Taiwan 23.77%. Male 54.30%. Female 44.40%. 立 31.40%. 48%. 35 and over 20.60%. More than 4 times per week 26%. 3-4 times per week. 1-2 times per week. 26.90%. 33.20%. io. al. n. High Activity Levels 52.90%. ‧. Rarely Don't Exercise Exercise. y. ‧ 國. 25-34. Nat. Exercise Frequency. 18-24. 學. Age. Other 政治 1.30%大. Low Activity Levels. Ch. engchi. sit. Gender. 11.70%. 2.20%. er. Sample. i Un. v. 47.10%. A convenience sample of 223 adults from 33 different countries was carried out through various social media channels such as Facebook, Facebook Messenger and Line. Several professors from NCCU also assisted in dispersing the questionnaire. Hill (1998) contends that sample sizes in behavioural research ought to be at least 30 and no larger than 500. For this paper, a minimum of 100 non-Taiwanese and 100 Taiwanese adults were sought and deemed sufficient to carry out the study.. 24 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(25) Nationality was categorised based on answers to the question “Where did you grow up?” Of the 223 respondents, 105 respondents reported to have grown up in Taiwan and were categorised as Taiwanese, 118 respondents reported to have grown up in (32) other countries from around the world and were categorised as non-Taiwanese. 76.2% of respondents are currently living in Taiwan while 23.7% live outside of Taiwan. 54.3% of respondents were male, 44.4% of respondents were female, 0.4% identified as Queer, and 0.9% preferred not to say. All respondents were above the age of eighteen. 31.4% were from the ages of eighteen. 政治大 respondents were undergraduate立 students, 23.3% were Masters or PhD students, 41.7% were. to twenty-four. 48% were twenty-five to thirty-four. 20.6% were thirty-five and over. 26% of. ‧. ‧ 國. working.. 學. working full-time, 3.6% were working part-time, 0.9% were retired, and 4.5% were not. The average reported frequency of exercise was higher than anticipated. 26% of. y. Nat. io. sit. respondents reported exercising more than 4 times per week, 26.9% reported exercising 3-4. n. al. er. times per week. These respondents were categorised as having “High” levels of physical. Ch. i Un. v. activity. 33.2% reported to exercising once or twice per week, 11.7% reported to rarely exercise. engchi. and 2.2% reported that they did not exercise. These respondents were categorised as having “Low” levels of physical activity. 72.6% said that they played some kind of sport in high school or college and 65.5% said they enjoyed watching live sports.. 25 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(26) 3.3 Data Analysis The statistical software package, STATA, was used for the data analysis. In order to ensure the internal consistency of the perceived benefits and barriers scales, Cronbach’s alpha, α, was tested on both scales. Cronbach’s alpha tests can be used to measure the reliability of multiple-scale Likert question surveys. The test ensures that the questionnaire is accurately measuring the perceived benefits and barriers to exercise. The formula for Cronbach’s alpha is:. 𝛼=. 立. 𝑘 ∑𝑆𝑖2 (1 − 2 ) 𝑘−1 𝑆𝑇. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. k is the number of items on the scale. 𝑆𝑖2 is the variance of the ith item, and 𝑆𝑇2 is the. ‧. variance of the total score formed by summing all of the items (Bland & Altman, 1997). Both the perceived benefits and perceived barriers scales can be interpreted as reliable. According. y. Nat. er. io. sit. to Bland & Altman (1997), an alpha between 0.7 to 0.8 can be seen as satisfactory, although for clinical applications the alpha should be above 0.9 or 0.95. The internal consistency (alpha). n. al. Ch. i Un. v. for the perceived benefits scale was 0.82, while the alpha for the perceived barriers scales was. engchi. 0.8. Therefore, the scales can be deemed as reliable.. For this study, it is expected that adults who exercise more than 3 times per week – categorized as having High activity levels – should perceive higher benefits and lower barriers to exercise, compared to those who exercise less than 3 times per week – categorized as having Low activity levels. To further ensure the validity of the study, a simple linear regression was run on perceptions of the overall benefits and barriers to exercise relative to participants activity levels. The formula is as follows: 𝑦 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝜖 26 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(27) Where 𝑦 is the overall perceived benefits, or overall perceived barriers; and x corresponding to participants who reported to have High activity levels. The results of the regressions are as follows:. Table 2: Regression analysis summary for High activity levels on Perceptions of Benefits to Exercise. High Activity Level Constant. Coefficient. Standard Error. 0.385 4.142. 0.069 0.050. 立. T - Value. PValue. [95% Confidence Interval]. 5.59*** 治 82.61*** 政大. 0.000 0.000. 0.249 4.043. 0.521 4.241. One asterisk indicates a significance level of 5%, two asterisks indicate a significance level of 1%, three asterisks indicate a significance level of 0.1% (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001). ‧ 國. 學. Exercise. n. al. -0.520 2.772. TValue. i n C 0.078 U h e n g c h-6.69*** i 0.057. 48.99***. PValue. [95% Confidence Interval]. 0.000 0000. -0.674 2.660. er. io. High Activity Level Constant. Standard Error. sit. y. Nat Coefficient. ‧. Table 3: Regression analysis summary for High activity levels on Perceptions of Barriers to. v. -0.367 2.883. One asterisk indicates a significance level of 5%, two asterisks indicate a significance level of 1%, three asterisks indicate a significance level of 0.1% (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001). As the results of the regression in Table 2 shows, participants who reported to exercise 3 times or more per week perceived the benefits of exercise significantly higher than participants exercising less than 3 times per week. Highly active participants were likely to score an average 0.39 higher on the likert scale than Low activity level participants for the perceived benefits of exercise. As well as this, participants categorized as having High activity levels perceived the barriers to exercise significantly lower than participants who exercised less 27 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(28) than 3 times per week. Highly active participants were likely to score an average 0.52 lower on the likert scale than Low activity level participants for the perceived barriers of exercise. In order to compare and observe significant differences between the two independent groups, non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese adults, with regards to perceived benefits, perceived barriers and early influences to exercise, two-sample independent t-tests were run on individual perceived benefit items, individual perceived barrier items, individual early influences items, as well as overall means scores for the benefits scale and overall mean scores for the barriers scale. In order to obtain the t-value, the formula for the two-sample t-test is: 𝑥̅ 政 𝑥̅ 1−治 1 √𝑠 ( + ) 大 𝑛 𝑛 1. 𝑡=. 立. 2. 2. 1. 2. ‧ 國. 學. Where 𝑥̅1 is the mean of non-Taiwanese adults and 𝑥̅2 is the mean of Taiwanese. ‧. adults. The denominator is the standard error of difference, which is the combined standard. y. Nat. er. io. sit. error of the non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese adults (Mendenhall and Beaver, 2012, p. 397). As well as the two-sample t-tests, Wilcoxon rank-sum tests, equivalent to the Mann. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. Whitney U-Test, were run on individual items as well as the overall benefits and barriers scales,. engchi. in order to observe differences in the ranked positions of answers between non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese adults. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test is an alternative nonparametric test to the t-test. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test is used when the data is ordinal and the distribution is non-normal. As the data is Likert scale data (with 1 equating to Strongly Disagree up to 5 equating to Strongly Agree) it can be treated as ranked ordinal data. The distribution of answers on our Likert scale were non-normal for most items. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test calculates the rank of each value on the Likert scale. The null hypothesis of the test is that the two samples (nonTaiwanese and Taiwanese adults) should have the same median. The test statistic for the the Wilcoxon rank-sum test is the z-statistic. The formula is as follows:. 28 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(29) 𝑛1 (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 1) 2 𝑧= √𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 1) 12 𝑇1 −. Where n is the sample size for non-Taiwanese adults or Taiwanese adults, and 𝑇1 is the sum of the ranks for sample 1; non-Taiwanese adults (Mendenhall and Beaver, 2012, p. 639). Although the Wilcoxon rank-sum test is recommended for when the distribution is nonnormal and the data is ordinal, De Winter and Dodou (2010) stated either test can work in cases with two independent samples and five-point Likert data, as both tests will have nearly. 政治大. equivalent type I error rates and power. In the case of this study, any statistically significant. 立. differences between non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese adults observed by the two-sample t-test. ‧ 國. 學. when measuring for differences in means of the benefits, barriers or early influences to exercise were also perceived to be significantly different when using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test.. ‧. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. significant differences occurred from the Wilcoxon rank-sum tests.. IV. Results. y. Similarly, when there were no significant differences observed from the two-sample t-test, no. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 4.1 Perceived Benefits to Exercise Table 4 describes the means and standard deviations of the perceived benefits to exercise among all participants of the questionnaire. Answers were given on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The reported internal consistency (alpha) for the benefits scale was 0.82. Almost all participants had high perceptions of the benefits of exercise. The perceived benefits of exercise can be divided into three categories: physical, psychological and social. Participants in the study perceived the physical benefits of 29 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(30) exercise as the highest as ‘Exercise increases my strength’ and ‘Exercise increases my physical fitness’ were the first and second most highly perceived overall benefits with means of 4.67 and 4.64, respectively. 95% of respondents agreed (answering 4 or 5 on the Likert scale) that exercise increases their physical fitness, while 95% people also agreed that exercise improves their strength. The psychological benefits of exercise were generally highly perceived across both groups as ‘Exercise improves my mental health’, ‘Exercise relieves my stress’, ‘Exercise improves the way my body looks’ (which can be seen as both a physical and psychological benefit), ‘Exercising gives me a sense of personal accomplishment’, ‘Exercise improves my focus and clears my mind’, and ‘I enjoy exercising’ followed with means of 4.47, 4.41, 4.34,. 政治大. 4.29, and 4.29, respectively. The social benefits to exercise, ‘Exercise strengthens my. 立. friendship with others’ (4.02), and ‘Exercising allows me to meet new people’ (3.82), were. ‧ 國. 學. perceived lastly by both groups. The combined mean score of overall benefits to exercise was. ‧. 4.35 with a standard deviation of 0.55.. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. n. iv n C Table 4: Overall Perceived Benefits (Means and Standard Deviations) h toe Exercise ngchi U Overall Perceived Benefits to Exercise (Means and Standard Deviations) Mean Standard Deviation Exercise increases my strength 4.67 0.58 Exercise increases my physical fitness 4.64 0.68 Exercise improves my mental health 4.51 0.67 Exercise relieves my stress 4.47 0.78 Exercise improves the way my body looks 4.41 0.78 Exercising gives me a sense of personal accomplishment 4.34 0.82 Exercise improves my focus and clears my mind 4.29 0.88 I enjoy exercising 4.29 0.87 Exercise strengthens my friendship with others 4.02 1.00 Exercising allows me to meet new people 3.82 1.10 All Perceived Benefits to Exercise. 4.35. 0.55. 30 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(31) Table 5 shows the means and standard deviations of the perceived benefits to exercise between the non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese respondents. As previously mentioned the benefits are highly perceived by both groups. Physical benefits are perceived highest by both groups, followed by psychological and social benefits. The overall mean score for benefits to exercise among non-Taiwanese adults was 4.32 with a standard deviation of 0.56 while the mean score for Taiwanese adults was slightly higher at 4.37 with a standard deviation of 0.53. After running a two-sample t-test (t = -0.62, p = 0.54) and Wilcoxon rank-sum test (z = -0.65 and p. 政治大 perceptions of benefits to exercise, there was found to be no statistically significant difference 立 = 0.52) measuring for differences in means and medians between the two samples overall. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. between the non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese sample.. Table 5: Non-Taiwanese vs Taiwanese Perceived Benefits to Exercise. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. Overall Perceived Benefits to Exercise Not Taiwanese Variables Mean Standard Deviation Mean Strength 4.65 0.56 4.69 Physical Fitness 4.64 0.72 4.64 Mental Health 4.58 0.67 4.44 Stress Relief 4.47 0.86 4.47 Enjoyment 4.36 0.88 4.21 Personal Accomplishment 4.34 0.84 4.33 Appearance 4.34 0.84 4.50 Focus 4.29 0.99 4.30 Friendship 3.85 1.11 4.21 Meet New People 3.73 1.16 3.92 All Perceived Benefits. 4.32. Ch. engchi. 0.56. i Un. v. 4.37. Taiwanese Standard Deviation 0.59 0.62 0.66 0.67 0.85 0.80 0.71 0.73 0.83 1.03 0.53. 31 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(32) After running two-sample t-tests and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests on individual perceived benefit items between non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese groups, one perceived benefit showed a significant difference between the two samples. Taiwanese participants perceived the social benefit ‘Exercise allows me to connect with others’ to a higher degree than non-Taiwanese participants with a t-value of -2.74 (p = 0.007) and z-score of -2.27 (p = 0.02). 81% of Taiwanese people agreed that exercise allows them to connect with others compared to 68% of non-Taiwanese.. 政治大. Table 6: Two Sample T-Test for ‘Exercise allows me to connect with others’. 立. Mean. Standard Error. 118 105. 3.85 4.21. 0.10 0.08. 1.11 0.83. y. 3.65 4.05. 4.05 4.37. 223. 4.02. 0.07. sit. 3.89. 4.15. 0.62. 0.10. 1.00. er. al. n. Difference. Standard Deviation. ‧. io. Combined. Nat. Non-Taiwanese Taiwanese. Observations. 學. Group. ‧ 國. Exercise allows me to connect with others. i 0.13 n C-0.36 U hengchi. v. [95% Confidence Interval). t = -2.74 p-value = 0.007 Degrees of freedom = 221. 32 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(33) Table 7: Wilcoxon rank-sum test for ‘Exercise allows me to connect with others’ Two-sample Wilcoxon rank-sum (Mann-Whitney) test Ho: Exercise allows me to connect with others (Non-Taiwanese) = Exercise allows me to connect with others (Taiwanese). Observations. Rank Sum. Expected. Non-Taiwanese Taiwanese. 118 105. 12183 12793. 13216 11760. Combined. 223. 24976. 24976. 政治大. Unadjusted Variance Adjustment For Ties. 231280 -24865.09. 立 206414.91. 學. ‧ 國. Adjusted Variance. z = -2.274 Prob > z = 0.02. ‧ y. sit. n. er. io. 1.5. Nat. al. engchi. i Un. v. 0. .5. Density. 1. Ch. 2. 3. 4. 5. All Perceived Benefits to Exercise. Chart 1: Histogram and Distribution Curve for All Perceived Benefits to Exercise. 33 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(34) Not Taiwanese. 0. Density. .5. Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. Exercise strengthens my friendships with others.. 政治大. Chart 2: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Exercise strengthens my friendship. 立. with others’ (non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese). ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 4.2 Perceived Barriers to Exercise. Nat. sit. y. Table 8 describes the means and standard deviations of the perceived barriers to. n. al. er. io. exercise among all participants of the questionnaire. The reported internal consistency (alpha). i Un. v. for the barriers scale was 0.8. Overall both groups had low to moderate perceptions of the. Ch. engchi. barriers to exercise. ‘Bad weather prevents me from exercising’ was perceived as the highest barrier to exercise among the combined sample groups with a mean of 3.51. ‘Exercise is not fun’ was perceived to be the lowest barrier amongst both groups with a mean of 1.74. The combined mean score of overall barriers to exercise was 2.5 with a standard deviation of 0.63.. 34 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(35) Table 8: Overall Perceived Barriers to Exercise Overall Perceived Barriers to Exercise (Means and Standard Deviations) Standard Mean Deviation Bad weather prevents me from exercising. 3.51 1.19 Exercise tires me 3.22 1.16 Lack of motivation prevents me from exercising. 3.19 1.29 Due to my school work, I don’t have time for exercise 3.02 1.32 Injury or health related problems prevent me from exercising. 2.97 1.34 Due to my job, I don’t have time for exercise 2.68 1.37 Exercise I am interested in is too time consuming. 2.37 1.12 There aren’t many places for me to exercise. 2.30 1.20 I feel self-conscious when I exercise. 2.28 1.32 Exercise I'm interested in is too expensive. 2.17 1.19 Due to social and family responsibilities, I don’t have time for exercise. 2.11 1.14 My friends don’t encourage me to exercise. 1.87 1.07 My family members don’t encourage me to exercise 1.83 1.02 Exercise is not fun 1.74 0.98. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. All Barriers to Exercise. 2.5. 0.63. ‧ y. Nat. er. io. sit. Table 9 shows the means and standard deviations of the perceived barriers to exercise between the non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese respondents. Barriers to exercise are not highly. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. perceived by either group. The highest perceived barrier among non-Taiwanese adults was. engchi. ‘Exercise tires me’ with a mean of 3.43. For Taiwanese adults ‘Bad weather prevents me from exercising’ was the highest perceived barrier with a mean score of 3.74. The lowest perceived barrier to exercise among non-Taiwanese adults was ‘Exercise is not fun’ with a mean score of 1.8, while the lowest perceived barrier among Taiwanese adults was ‘My friends don’t encourage me to exercise’ with a mean score of 1.31. Overall Taiwanese adults mean score for perceptions of barriers to exercise were 2.35 with a standard deviation of 0.57, while nonTaiwanese adults were 2.63 with a standard deviation of 0.67. A two-sample t-test (t = 3.32, p = 0.001) and Wilcoxon rank-sum test (z = 2.94 and p = 0.03) measuring for differences in. 35 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(36) means between the two groups overall perceptions of barriers to exercise, highlight the significant difference between the non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese sample. Although the Taiwanese group self-reported to exercise less than their non-Taiwanese counterparts, Taiwanese perceptions of barriers to exercise were significantly lower than those of nonTaiwanese adults.. Table 9: Non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese Perceived Barriers to Exercise. 政治大. Perceived Barriers to Exercise Not Taiwanese Variables Mean Standard Deviation Tiring 3.43 1.14 Low Motivation 3.37 1.26 Bad Weather 3.30 1.14 School Work 3.23 1.21 Self-Conscious 2.83 1.42 Injury or Health Related Problems 2.78 1.38 Job 2.76 1.42 Time Constraints 2.44 1.22 Lack of Peer Encouragement 2.37 1.15 Social and Family Responsibilities 2.23 1.25 Few Facilities 2.22 1.20 Expensive 2.21 1.29 Lack of Family Encouragement 2.18 1.11 Unenjoyable 1.80 1.06. 立. Taiwanese Standard Deviation 1.16 1.30 1.20 1.41 0.86 1.27 1.29 0.99 0.63 0.98 1.20 1.07 0.76 0.88. 2.35. 0.57. n. al. er. io. sit. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. All Barriers to Exercise. Mean 2.99 2.98 3.74 2.83 1.66 3.18 2.57 2.30 1.31 1.98 2.39 2.11 1.45 1.69. Ch. engchi. 2.63. i Un. 0.67. v. 36 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(37) Table 10: Two Sample T-Test for All Perceived Barriers to Exercise All Perceived Barriers to Exercise Group. Observations. Mean. Standard Error. Standard Deviation. [95% Confidence Interval). Non-Taiwanese Taiwanese. 118 105. 2.63 2.35. 0.06 0.06. 0.67 0.57. 2.51 2.24. 2.75 2.46. Combined. 223. 2.50. 0.04. 0.63. 2.41. 2.58. 0.28. 0.08. 0.11. 0.44. Difference. t = 3.32 p-value = 0.001 Degrees of freedom = 221. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Two-sample t-tests and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests on individual perceived barrier items between non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese groups found that there were several perceived barriers. Nat. sit. y. ‧. that were significantly different between the two samples.. io. er. Taiwanese participants perceived the barrier ‘Bad weather prevents me from exercising’. al. to a higher degree than their non-Taiwanese participants with a t-value of -2.84 (p = 0.005) and. n. iv n C z-score of -3.05 (p = 0.002). 33% of hTaiwanese e n g cadults h i Ustrongly agreed that bad weather prevented them from exercising while only 15% of non-Taiwanese adults felt the same way.. The largest barrier to exercise among non-Taiwanese ‘Exercise tires me’ was perceived as significantly higher than the Taiwanese group with a t-value of 2.87 (p = 0.004) and z-score of 2.74 (p = 0.006). 21% of non-Taiwanese adults strongly agreed that they found exercise to be tiring compared to 11% for Taiwanese adults. The second largest barrier to exercise among non-Taiwanese ‘lack of motivation prevents me from exercising was perceived as significantly higher than the Taiwanese group with a t-value of 2.28 (p = 0.02) and z-score of 2.34 (p = 0.02). On the Likert scale, 53% of 37 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(38) non-Taiwanese adults agreed (answering 4 or 5) that lack of motivation prevented them for exercising. Only 31% of Taiwanese agreed (answering 4 or 5) with this statement. Non-Taiwanese participants perceived the barrier ‘Injury or health related problems prevent me from exercising’ at a much lower rate than Taiwanese with a t-value of -2.25 (p = 0.03) and z-score of -2.16 (p = 0.03). 25% of non-Taiwanese adults strongly disagreed that injury or health related problems prevented them from exercise while only 13% of Taiwanese adults strongly disagreed. Taiwanese adults report to feel far less self-conscious than non-Taiwanese adults. 52%. 政治大 comparison to 22% of non-Taiwanese 立 adults. The t-value between the two groups was t = 7.35. of Taiwanese adults strongly disagreed to feeling self-conscious when they exercise in. ‧ 國. 學. (p = 0.000), from the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, z = 6.42 (p = 0.000).. ‧. Taiwanese were much more likely to disagree with the statement ‘My friends don’t encourage me to exercise’. 75% of Taiwanese adults strongly disagreed with this statement in. y. Nat. er. io. sit. comparison to 22% of non-Taiwanese adults. The t-value between the two groups was t = 8.42 (p = 0.000), from the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, z = 7.77 (p = 0.000).. al. n. iv n C Similarly, Taiwanese were muchhmore i U with the statement ‘My family e nlikely g c toh disagree. members don’t encourage me to exercise’. 69% of Taiwanese adults strongly disagreed with this statement in comparison to 34% of non-Taiwanese adults. The t-value between the two groups was t = 5.68 (p = 0.000), from the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, z = 5.49 (p = 0.000).. 38 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(39) .8 .6 0. .2. .4. Density. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All Barriers to Exercise. 政治大. 立. Chart 3: Histogram and Distribution curve for All Barriers to Exercise. sit. io. engchi. i Un. v. .5. Ch. 0. Density. n. al. er. 1. Taiwanese. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. Not Taiwanese. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All Barriers to Exercise. Chart 4: Histogram and Distribution Curves of Non-Taiwanese and Taiwanese Perceived Barriers to Exercise 39 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(40) Not Taiwanese. 0. .2. Density. .4. Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 政治大. 6. Bad weather prevents me from exercising.. 立. 學. ‧ 國. Chart 5: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Bad weather prevents me from exercising’. sit. engchi. i Un. v. .2. Ch. 0. Density. n. er. .4. io. al. Taiwanese. y. ‧. Nat. Not Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. Exercise tires me.. Chart 6: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Exercise tires me’. 40 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(41) Not Taiwanese. 0. .2. Density. .4. Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. 政治大. Lack of motivation prevents me from exercising.. 立. 學. ‧ 國. Chart 8: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Lack of Motivation prevents me from exercising’. sit. io. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 0. .1. Density. .2. n. al. er. .3. Taiwanese. y. ‧. Nat. Not Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. Injury or health related problems prevent me from exercising.. Chart 7: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Injury or health related problems prevent me from exercising’. 41 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(42) Not Taiwanese. 0. .2. Density. .4. .6. Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 政治大 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. I feel self-conscious when I exercise.. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Chart 9: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘I feel self-conscious when I exercise’. y. sit er. al. n. .6. io. .4. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 0. .2. Density. Taiwanese. Nat. .8. Not Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. My friends don’t encourage me to exercise.. Chart 10: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘My friends don’t encourage me to exercise’. 42 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(43) Not Taiwanese. .4 0. .2. Density. .6. Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. My family members don’t encourage me to exercise.. 立. 政治大. Chart 11: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘My family members don’t encourage. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. me to exercise’. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 43 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(44) 4.3 Early Influences to Exercise Table 11 shows the means and standard deviations of other early influences affecting exercise in Taiwanese and Non-Taiwanese Adults. Both of these groups were generally positive about their influences regarding exercising.. Table 11: Overall Early Influences to Exercise Overall Early Influences to Exercise (Means and Standard Deviations) Mean Growing up, I had lots of free time to play. Growing up, my parents encouraged me to exercise Growing up, there were many different sports I could try in school Growing up, my schools encouraged playing sport and exercising My parents give academic success priority over exercise. My parents exercise regularly. Growing up, time spent in remedial education classes prevented me from playing and exercising.. 3.89 3.80 3.71 3.75 3.34 2.58 2.29. Standard Deviation 1.10 1.17 1.22 1.11 1.13 1.25 1.23. Growing up, there were not many places for me to exercise.. 2.26. 1.17. 立. 政治大. er. io. sit. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. Overall, more non-Taiwanese adults strongly agreed with the statement that ‘Growing. al. n. iv n C up, I had lots of free time to play’ (Charth12). 46% of non-Taiwanese adults strongly agreed to engchi U this sentiment compared to 27% of Taiwanese adults. T-tests reported significant difference. between the two groups with a t-value of 3.15 (p = 0.001), and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test z = 3.4 (p = 0.001). Taiwanese were more likely to agree with the statement ‘Growing up my parents encourage me to exercise’. 41% of Taiwanese adults strongly agreed with this statement in comparison to 28% of non-Taiwanese adults. However, two sample t-tests and Wilcoxon ranksum tests showed there was no significant difference between the two groups.. 44 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(45) Both groups felt that they had plenty of opportunities to play various sports in school. Mean scores for ‘Growing up, there were many different sports I could try in school were 3.67 for non-Taiwanese and 3.74 for Taiwanese adults with no statistically significant difference between them. Similarly, both groups agreed that ‘Growing up my school encouraged playing sport and exercising’ with an average score of 3.86 for non-Taiwanese and 3.62 for non-Taiwanese. There was no statistically significant difference between these groups for this variable either. Neither group strongly agreed with the statement ‘My parents exercise regularly’ and. 政治大. there was no significant difference between either group.. 立. Non-Taiwanese adults were far more likely to disagree with the statement that. ‧ 國. 學. ‘Growing up, time spent in remedial education classes prevented me from playing and. ‧. exercising’ than Taiwanese adults. The mean score was 1.92 for non-Taiwanese and 2.7 for Taiwanese. 72% of non-Taiwanese disagreed with this statement (answering 1 or 2 on the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Likert scale) while 41% of Taiwanese disagreed. T-tests resulted in t = -5 (p = 0.000) and Mann Whitney tests recorded z = -4.79 (p = 0.000). n. al. Non-Taiwanese adults. Ch were also. emore n glikely chi. iv n toUdisagree. with the statement that. ‘Growing up, there were not many places for me to exercise’ than Taiwanese adults. The mean score was 2.05 for non-Taiwanese and 2.5 for Taiwanese. 46% of non-Taiwanese strongly with this statement while 19% of Taiwanese strongly disagreed. T-tests resulted in t = -2.94 (p = 0.003) and Mann Whitney tests recorded z = -3.26 (p = 0.001). Both groups were generally in agreement with the statement ‘My parents prioritise academic success over exercise’. Mean scores were 3.26 for non-Taiwanese and slightly higher at 3.42 for Taiwanese, with no significant difference between either group.. 45 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(46) Not Taiwanese. 0. Density. .5. Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 政治大. 6. Growing up, I had lots of free time to play.. 立. Chart 12: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up, I had lots of free time to. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. play’. y. sit. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 0. .1. .2. .3. n. al. er. .4. io. Density. Taiwanese. Nat. Not Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. Growing up, my parents encouraged me to exercise.. Chart 13: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up my parents encouraged me to exercise’. 46 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.

(47) Taiwanese. 0. .1. Density. .2. .3. Not Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. Growing up, there were many different sports I could try in school.. Chart 14: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up there were many. 政治大. different sports I could try in school’. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 sit. y. Nat. engchi. i Un. v. .2. Ch. 0. Density. n. al. Taiwanese. er. io. .4. Not Taiwanese. 0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 2. 4. 6. Growing up, my schools encouraged playing sport and exercising.. Chart 15: Histogram and Distribution Curve for ‘Growing up, my schools encouraged playing sport and exercising’ 47 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001140.