以交叉延宕模型探討良師提供師徒支持與其職涯停滯之關係

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科技部補助專題研究計畫成果報告

期末報告

以交叉延宕模型探討良師提供師徒支持與其職涯停滯之關係

計畫類別：個別型計畫計畫編號： MOST 103-2628-H-004-006-SSS 執行期間： 103年08月01日至104年10月31日執行單位：國立政治大學企業管理學系計畫主持人：胡昌亞報告附件：出席國際會議研究心得報告及發表論文處理方式： 1.公開資訊：本計畫涉及專利或其他智慧財產權，2年後可公開查詢 2.「本研究」是否已有嚴重損及公共利益之發現：否 3.「本報告」是否建議提供政府單位施政參考：否

中　華　民　國　105　年　02　月　26　日

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中文摘要：根據師徒關係研究與職涯停滯的文獻指出，師父提供師徒功能與師父職涯停滯知覺此二變項之間，可能有以下三種關係：(1) 師父提供徒弟的支持能降低其職涯停滯知覺; (2) 師父的職涯停滯知覺能降低師父對徒弟提供的師徒支持; (3) 師父提供徒弟的師徒支持與其職涯停滯知覺兩者相互影響。本研究以縱貫性研究的方式進行資料收集，並採用交叉延宕模型來進行資料分析，以瞭解兩者之間的關係。本計畫也討論此研究在理論與管理實務上之意涵。中文關鍵詞：師徒關係，職涯停滯，交叉延宕模型

英文摘要： A review of the mentoring and career plateau research

literature suggests that the relationship between mentoring others mentors’ career plateau perceptions remains

unclear. Three possible relationships may be derived from the career literature: (a) mentors’ provision of mentoring support to proteges reduces mentors’ career plateauing perceptions; (b) mentors’ career plateauing perceptions reduce their provision of mentoring support to proteges; and (c) mentors’ provision of mentoring support to proteges and mentors’ career plateauing perceptions are reciprocally related. Using a longitudinal research design, the proposed models were tested with cross-lagged models. Theoretical and managerial implications of the potential study findings are discussed.

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科技部專題研究計畫成果報告

以交叉延宕模型探討良師提供師徒支持與其職涯停滯之關係

Examining the Relationship between Mentoring Others and Career Plateauing

Perceptions with Cross-lagged Models

計畫編號：103-2628-H-004 -006 -SSS

執行期限：103 年 08 月 01 日至 104 年 10 月 31 日

主持人：胡昌亞國立政治大學企業管理學系教授

一、中文摘要 根據師徒關係研究與職涯停滯的文獻指出，師父提供師徒功能與師父職涯停滯知覺此二變項之間，可能有以下三種關係：(1) 師父提供徒弟的支持能降低其職涯停滯知覺; (2) 師父的職涯停滯知覺能降低師父對徒弟提供的師徒支持; (3) 師父提供徒弟的師徒支持與其職涯停滯知覺兩者相互影響。本研究以縱貫性研究的方式進行資料收集，並採用交叉延宕模型來進行資料分析，以瞭解兩者之間的關係。本計畫也討論此研究在理論與管理實務上之意涵。關鍵字：師徒關係，職涯停滯，交叉延宕模型 二、英文摘要

A review of the mentoring and career plateau research literature suggests that the relationship between mentoring others mentors’ career plateau perceptions remains unclear. Three possible relationships may be derived from the career literature: (a)

mentors’ provision of mentoring support to protégés reduces mentors’ career plateauing perceptions; (b) mentors’ career plateauing perceptions reduce their provision of mentoring support to protégés; and (c) mentors’ provision of mentoring support to protégés and mentors’ career plateauing

perceptions are reciprocally related. Using a longitudinal research design, the proposed models were tested with cross-lagged models. Theoretical and managerial

implications of the potential study findings are discussed.

Keywords: Mentoring, Career Plateau, Cross-lagged Model

三、研究動機與目的

Mentoring and career plateauing have been important research topics in the area of career management literature (Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2010). Research and practice of mentoring suggest that mentors can benefit from mentorship such as increasing job performance, developing leadership skills, and higher career success (Allen, Lentz, & Day, 2006; Bozionelos, 2004; Hunt & Michael, 1983; Ragins & Scandura, 1999). On the other hand, career plateauing perceptions are associated with negative consequences for employees such as lower negative job attitudes and outcomes (Elsass & Ralston, 1989; Rotondo & Perrewé, 2000). Based on the career development models, these two topics are particular relevant to seasoned employees (Greenhaus et al., 2010). Surprisingly, there have been very few studies that examined the two constructs together from the perspective of mentors

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(Allen, 2007; Lentz & Allen, 2009; Rotondo & Perrewé, 2000).

Seasoned employees are valuable human resources in any organization because they are the more productive employees who can create and pass on organizational knowledge. Therefore, it is critical to clarify the relationship between mentoring others and career plateauing perceptions. A better understanding of the relationship between those two constructs can provide insights for theoretical

development in the career literature and for better designs of human resources

management practices to retain seasoned employees. The purpose of this study is to address this research gap in the career literature by investigating the relationship between mentoring others and perceptions of career plateauing. Specially, drawing from the mentoring literature and career plateauing literature, different models of the relationship between mentoring others and career plateauing perceptions are proposed and will be examined with a longitudinal research design using a cross-lagged model. 四、文獻探討

Mentoring and Career Plateauing

The mentoring relationship can be defined as an interpersonal exchange in the workplace between a junior and a senior employee, in which the senior employee (mentor) supports, guides, and orients the junior employee (protégé) to the various tasks, functions, and culture within the organization (Kram, 1983, 1985). Previous studies usually focused on the benefit of protégés, but mentoring scholars has called for more research effort on the perspective of mentors (Allen, 2007; Ragins & Kram, 2007). Some documented potential benefits

for mentors includes higher objective and subjective career success, rewarding experience, improving job performance, recognitions by others, leaving the legacy in the organization, loyal support base, and leadership skill development (Allen et al., 2006; Bozionelos, 2004; Hunt & Michael, 1983; Ragins & Scandura, 1999).

Career plateau has been traditionally defined as a point where the likelihood of additional hierarchical promotion is low (Feldman & Weitz, 1988; Ference, Stoner, & Warren, 1977). It is a perception of employee who feels the future upward mobility seems unlikely (Ference et al., 1977). In recent years, scholars generally agree there are two categories of plateaued individuals. Hierarchical plateaus result when an individual’s vertical movement within an organization declines. Job content plateaus refer to the lack of challenge or decrease in responsibilities and overall staleness of the job itself (Allen, Poteet, & Russell, 1998; Allen, Russell, Poteet, & Dobbins, 1999; Milliman, 1992). The negative outcomes associated with career plateauing include: lower job involvement, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and higher level of depression and intentions to quit (Allen et al., 1998; Elsass & Ralston, 1989; Lentz & Allen, 2009; McCleese, Eby, Scharlau, & Hoffman, 2007; Rotondo & Perrewé, 2000).

It is critical to clarify the relationship between mentoring others and career

plateauing for its theoretical and practical implications (Greenhaus et al., 2010). Three conceptual models can be derived from three different bodies of research literature:

mentoring, career plateauing, and

organizational stress. First, the mentoring literature suggests the model that provision of mentoring support to protégés reduces

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mentors’ career plateau perceptions. Second, the career plateauing literature suggests that mentors’ career plateau perceptions reduce their provision of mentoring support to protégés. Finally, the organizational stress perspective suggests that mentoring support and career plateau perceptions are

reciprocally related.

Model 1 (Mentoring Others → Career Plateauing).

This model is derived from the mentoring literature that argues mentoring others can benefit mentors in several ways. For example, mentors have a higher level of objective and subjective career success and can apply and develop different job skills by mentoring others. However, mentoring and plateauing have rarely been studied together and the study by Lentz and Allen (2009) provided preliminary support for this idea as they found that mentor employees reported a lower level of career plateauing. It is

possible that mentoring other reduce mentors’ career plateauing perceptions for the following reasons. First, mentoring others could be a means to reduce the sense of career uncertainty experienced by

mentors. That is, mentoring others can lead to individuals’ cognitive and affective responses such as emotional attachment, increased mental energy, and reinforcement of one’s professional identity, which can in turn lead people to feel the meaning of the job (Lentz & Allen, 2009; Ramaswami & Dreher, 2007). Additionally, when mentors perceive mentoring as leadership

development opportunities for career advancement, the sense of uncertainty of future promotion can be lowered. In fact, some organizations consider successful mentoring experience is an important and sometimes required process before

promotion (Hunt & Michael, 1983). Mentors may be rewarded by organizations because they are recognized as good organizational citizens (Allen, 2007). In other words, mentoring others can reduce the sense of hierarchical plateauing perceptions of the mentor. Furthermore, mentoring can be perceived as a kind of job design in that it allows employees to gain informal authority over junior employees and to take on

different job tasks such as coaching junior employees (Brandt, 1990; Firestone & Bader, 1992). Through its ability to add diversity and meaning to work, providing mentoring functions could reduce the impact of plateaus on employees who feel their job has become routine. By mentoring others, mentors may need to demonstrate different skills and engage in different job behavior, which could be helpful for lowering the boredom of job routine and regain a sense of job meaningfulness. Based on the mentoring literature, reducing career plateauing

perceptions is a potential positive outcome of mentoring others (Allen, 2007; Hunt & Michael, 1983; Lentz & Allen, 2009). That is, mentoring others may help mentors to feel that they are on the right track for further career advancement, which can lower mentors’ hierarchal career plateauing perceptions. Furthermore, learning and applying different job skills reduce the monotony of the job content, which can lower mentors’ job content plateauing perceptions.

Model 2 (Career Plateauing → Mentoring Others)

This model is derived from the career plateauing literature. Briefly, this model is based on the idea that career plateaus are associated with numerous negative consequences for individuals. For

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example, previous studies have revealed that career plateaus are negatively related to employees’ job attitudes such as job satisfaction or organizational commitment and positively related o turnover intentions (Allen et al., 1998; Burke, 1989; Chao, 1990; Heilmann, Holt, & Rilovick, 2008; Lentz & Allen, 2009; Tremblay, Roger, & Toulouse, 1995). Findings from the few studies that have empirically examined the relationship between career plateaus and stress have found that both hierarchical plateaus and job content plateau perceptions (Allen et al., 1998; Hurst, Kungu, & Flott, 2012;McCleese et al., 2007) can be positive associated with stress reactions. Because hierarchical and job content plateau perceptions are formed over time, with individuals considering their likelihood of future promotion or growth in their jobs (Milliman, 1992), exposure to both types of career plateaus is also expected lead to employees to feel depressed and job withdraw (McCleese et al., 2007). In this regard, career plateaued individuals have their own demons at work to deal with. Thus, they are less motivated and less resourceful employees who may be unwilling or unable take on extra roles of mentor others. As a result, career plateaued individuals are less likely to provide mentoring support to their protégés.

Model 3 (Mentoring Others ↔ Career Plateauing)

Both Model 1 and Model 2 are theoretically defensible based on different lines of careers literature and have received some empirical support. The sustainability of both model suggests that mentoring others and career plateauing perceptions may be reciprocally related. An

organizational stress perspective may

provide rationale of this reciprocal

relationship. Based on the stress perspective of career plateauing, career plateauing is a stressor to employees that can lead to stress reactions such as lowering positive job attitude and behaviors (Elsass & Ralston, 1989; Rotondo & Perrewé, 2000). However, the role of mentoring others is less clear in this perspective. One of the roles that mentoring others plays is a coping

mechanism that may increase the job content of mentors, which may lower job content plateau perceptions. Being serving as a mentor who guide protégés for career development, mentors have the

opportunities to share their career progress with protégés and reflect on their own career development progress By doing so, mentors may be able to manage their career progress and lower their hierarchical career plateau perception. As mentoring others is a

relationship building process that gradually evolves over time and that career plateau perceptions are form over the course of an employees’ career progress over time, the expectation of a reciprocal relationship between the two constructs is reasonable. This is because at any given time point for a mentor employee who experience career plateauing, it is unlikely to identify which stage of the cycle the person is at. The research models were showed in Figure 1. 五、研究方法

Participants

Data were collected from employees who have served as mentors in the past six months at the time of survey. I used the online survey website (Surveymonkey) for data collection. Only the potential

participants who agree to participate in the study will have access to the website. The

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questionnaires were completed

anonymously, since the researcher has no access to the user personal information. A second survey request was distributed on Time 2 with a 2 month interval. A matching number was used to match the returned questionnaire. Approximately 400 sets of questionnaires were distributed. After excluding returned surveys that had missing data, the final sample size of matched dyads for analysis was 120.

Measures

Because the established scales of mentoring support (MFQ) and career plateauing perceptions are in English, items will be translated from English into

traditional Chinese. The back-translation approach suggested by Brislin (1980) was used.

Mentoring functions. A modified

six-item Mentoring Functions Questionnaire was used for the current study. Participants indicated the extent of mentoring support they have provided to their protégé by responding to three items on the provision of career support (e.g., “I help my protégé coordinate professional goals”) and three items on the provision of psychosocial support (e.g., “My protégé shares personal problems with me”). Because the role modeling reflects a passive form of

mentoring and is less relevant in the current context, the three items that measuring role modeling were excluded from the survey (e.g., “I try to model my behavior after my mentor.” “I admire my mentor’s ability to motivate others.” “I respect my mentor’s ability to teach others.”). All items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability coefficient

of this scale are .82 (Time 1) and .87 (Time 2).

Mentors’ perceived career plateau.

Participants responded to the career plateau scale developed by Milliman (1992). The scale contains six items concerning hierarchical career plateau and six items measuring job content career plateau. An example item of hierarchical plateauing is, “The likelihood that I will get ahead is limited,” and an example item of job content plateauing is, “I am challenged by my job (revised-coded).” All items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability coefficient of this scale are .79 (Time 1) and .81 (Time 2).

Demographic and control variables.

Previous research suggests that employees’ organizational tenure correlates to career plateauing (Allen et al., 1999), therefore mentor’s tenure in the current organization will be controlled in the hypothesis testing.

Analysis

Structural equation modeling will be used for hypothesis testing. First,

confirmatory factor analyses was conducted to examine the construct validity of the study variables. Second, structural equation modeling was used to examine a cross-lagged panel model. In this model, every outcome variables measured at time 2 is regressed on it’s the variables measured on time 1. For example, career plateauing perceptions measured at time 2 will be regressed on mentoring functions provided at time 1 and career plateauing perceptions measured at time 1. This analytical strategy is wildly used by studies that examined reciprocal relationships (Vandenberg & Scarpello, 1994).

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六、結果與討論

Means, standard deviations and correlations of the study variables were showed in Table 1. Mentoring functions provided were negatively related to mentors’ perceived career plateau (r = -19, -23, -28, p < .01). Before testing for hypotheses, I first examined the construct validity of the variables using the approach suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). I used confirmatory factor analysis to examine a two-factor model (MFQ, CP). The results suggested the model fit was marginally acceptable (χ2_{(134) = 1052.603, p < .01,} CFI = .89, RMSEA = .06) (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). All items had significant factor loadings (p < .01) on the

corresponding factors and none of the confidence interval of the latent correlations included a value of 1 or -1. Based on

Anderson and Gerbing’s (1988) approach, both convergent and discriminant validities were supported.

I used cross-lagged panel model (path analyses) to test the hypotheses. The results suggested the model fit of three research models were acceptable (Model 1: χ2_{(2) = 2.262, p < .01, CFI = .999, NNFI} = .988, RMSEA = .022; Model 2: χ2(2) = 1.659, p < .01, CFI = 1, NNFI = .991, RMSEA = .00; Model 3: χ2(1) = 1.080, p < .01, CFI = 1, NNFI = .994, RMSEA = .017) (Browne & Cudeck, 1993).

In summary, the best research model is Model 2 (Career Plateauing → Mentoring Others). A career plateaued individuals have their own demons at work and job tasks to deal with. Thus, they are less motivated and less resourceful employees who may be unwilling or unable take on extra roles of mentor others. As a result, career plateaued

individuals are less likely to provide mentoring support to their protégés. 七、研究成果效益

I will join 2017 AOM Annual Meeting to present the research findings. 八、參考文獻

Allen, T. D. (2007). Mentoring relationships from the perspective of the mentor. In B. R. Ragins & K. E.

Kram (Eds.), The handbook of mentoring at work: Theory, research and practice (pp. 123-147). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Allen, T. D., Lentz, E., & Day, R. (2006). Career success outcomes associated with mentoring others: A comparison of mentors and nonmentors. Journal of Career Development, 32, 272-285. doi: 10.1177/0894845305282942 Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., & Russell, J. E.

A. (1998). Attitudes of managers who are more or less career plateaued. Career Development Quarterly, 47, 159-172.

Allen, T. D., Russell, J. E. A., Poteet, M. L., & Dobbins, G. H. (1999). Learning and development factors related to perceptions of job content and hierarchical plateauing. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 1113-1137.

Bozionelos, N. (2004). Mentoring provided: Relation to mentor's career success, personality, and mentoring received. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64, 24-46.

Brandt, R. M. (1990). Incentive pay and career ladders for today's teachers: a study of current programs and practices. New York, NY: SUNY Press.

Brislin, R. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. In H. C. Triandis & J. W. Berry

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(Eds.), Handbook of cross-culture psychology (pp. 389-444).

Burke, R. J. (1989). Examining the career plateau: Some preliminary findings. Psychological Reports, 65, 295-306. Chao, G. T. (1990). Exploration of the

conceptualization and measurement of career plateau: A comparative analysis. Journal of Management, 16, 181.

Elsass, P. M., & Ralston, D. A. (1989). Individual responses to the stress of career plateauing. Journal of

Management, 15, 35.

Feldman, D. C., & Weitz, B. A. (1988). Career plateaus reconsidered. Journal of Management, 14, 69-80.

Ference, T. P., Stoner, J. A., & Warren, E. K. (1977). Managing the career plateau. Academy of Management Review, 2, 602-612.

Firestone, W. A., & Bader, B. D. (1992). Redesigning teaching:

professionalism or bureaucracy? New York, NY: SUNY Press. Greenhaus, J. H., Callanan, G. A., &

Godshalk, V. M. (2010). Career management (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

Heilmann, S. G., Holt, D. T., & Rilovick, C. Y. (2008). Effects of career

plateauing on turnover. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15, 59-68.

Hunt, D. M., & Michael, C. (1983). Mentorship: A career training and development tool. Academy of Management Review, 8, 475-485. Kram, K. E. (1983). Phases of the mentor

relationship. Academy of

Management Journal, 26, 608-625. Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work :

Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.

Lentz, E., & Allen, T. D. (2009). The role of mentoring others in the career

plateauing phenomenon. Group & Organization Management, 34, 358-384.

McCleese, C. S., Eby, L. T., Scharlau, E. A., & Hoffman, B. H. (2007).

Hierarchical, job content, and double plateaus: A mixed-method study of stress, depression and coping responses. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 71, 282-299. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2007. 05.001

Milliman, J. F. (1992). Causes,

consequences, and moderating factors of career plateauing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California. Ragins, B. R., & Kram, K. E. (2007). The

handbook of mentoring at work: Theory, research, and practice. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Ragins, B. R., & Scandura, T. A. (1999).

Burden or blessing? Expected costs and benefits of being a mentor. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 493-509.

Ramaswami, A., & Dreher, G. F. (2007). The benefits associated with workplace mentoring relationships. In T. D. Allen & L. T. Eby (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of mentoring: A multiple perspectives approach (pp. 211-231). London: Blackwell. Rotondo, D. M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2000).

Coping with a career plateau: An empirical examination of what works and what doesn't. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 2622-2646. Tremblay, M., Roger, A., & Toulouse, J.-M.

(1995). Career plateau and work attitudes: An empirical study of managers. Human Relations, 48, 221-237.

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Vandenberg, R. J., & Scarpello, V. (1994). A longitudinal assessment of the determinant relationship between employee commitments to the occupation and the organization. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 535-547. doi:

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Table 1

Means, standard deviations and correlations of the study variables (N=120)

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Protégés’ gender 1.48 .50 ─ 2. Mentors’ gender 1.42 .50 .54** ─ 3. Formal mentoring 1.33 .47 .04 -.01 ─ 4. Mentors’ age 2.30 .84 -.09 -.24** .16 ─ 5. Mentors’ tenure 2.52 1.58 -.04 -.07 .12 .64** (.93)

6. Mentoring function provided (Time 1) 3.65 .54 -.15 -.19* -.09 .03 .15 ()

7. Mentors’ career plateau (Time 1) 2.89 .66 .11 .21* .02 .06 .10 -.32** (.93)

8. Mentoring function provided (Time 2) 3.60 .64 -.13 -.15 -.13 .07 .28** .66** -.28** (89) 9. Mentors’ career plateau (Time 2) 2.89 .60 -.01 .06 .06 .18* .25** -.19* .73** -.23*

Note. Formal mentoring: 0 = informal; 1= formal; Gender: 1 = Male; 2 = Female

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Figure 1

Research Models

Model 1 (Mentoring Others → Career Plateauing)

Model 2 (Career Plateauing → Mentoring Others) Mentoring function provided (Time 1) Mentors’ career plateau (Time 1) Mentoring function provided (Time 2) Mentors’ career plateau (Time 2) Mentoring function provided (Time 1) Mentors’ career plateau (Time 1) Mentoring function provided (Time 2) Mentors’ career plateau (Time 2)

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Model 3 (Mentoring Others ↔ Career Plateauing)

Mentoring function provided (Time 1) Mentors’ career plateau (Time 1) Mentoring function provided (Time 2) Mentors’ career plateau (Time 2)

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出席國際學術會議心得報告

計畫編號

104-2628-H-004-003-SSS

計畫名稱

以交叉延宕模型探討良師提供師徒支持與職涯停滯之關係

出國人員姓名

服務機關及職稱

胡昌亞國立政治大學企業管理學系

會議時間地點

7 – 11 August 2015, Vancouver, Canada.

會議名稱

Academy of Management 2015 Annual Meeting

發表論文題目

Jiang, D. –Y., Hu, C., Cheng, B. –C., & Wu, H.-C. (2015, August).

Seeing eye to eye in supervisor-subordinate dyads? A Balance Theory perspective of relationships among supervisors’ organizational commitment, subordinates’ organizational commitment, and

subordinates’ Commitment to Supervisor. Symposium presented at the

annual meeting of the Academy of Management,

一、參加會議經過八月七日至八月十一日會議期間，參與其他會議議程或聆聽演講，出席會議論文之發表，與國內外研究學者交流與互動。二、與會心得八月七日至八月十一日期間，除了參與其他會議議程或聆聽演講，也有機會與相關研究的學者交流互動。使本人對於師徒制度、領導領域研究議題以及組織承諾等相關議題之趨勢，對於本人未來的研究規劃有相當的啟發。特別是本論文討論人Dr. Becher對論文內容提出了精闢的意見，能作為未來修改論文的一個重要參考依據。此外，透過參與會議議程與活動，能有機會與國內外優秀的研究學者交流與互動，談論未來可能的合作機會，也使本人受益良多。

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科技部補助計畫衍生研發成果推廣資料表

日期:2015/09/04

科技部補助計畫

計畫名稱: 以交叉延宕模型探討良師提供師徒支持與其職涯停滯之關係計畫主持人: 胡昌亞計畫編號: 103-2628-H-004-006-SSS 學門領域: 人力資源管理

無研發成果推廣資料

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103年度專題研究計畫研究成果彙整表

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科技部補助專題研究計畫成果報告

期末報告