中華大學

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中華大學碩士論文

策略性遠距教育-以甘比亞為例

Strategic Distance Education for The Gambia

系所別：資訊管理學系碩士班

學號姓名：M09810031 Yusupha Gye(葛義) 指導教授：柯宇謙博士

中華民國 100 年7 月

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Abstract

The challenge facing The Gambia today is how to adapt information communications technologies as well as their content to the needs of populations and avail them to the majority.

However, The Gambia‘s education system is still trapped in the traditional face-to-face delivery.

On the African continent where resources are scare and higher education provision is poor, distance learning can provide hope and potential especially for The Gambia to achieve education for all. Therefore, this study proposes a strategic distance education for The Gambia. It can empower The Gambia economically, by creating opportunities for building a highly developed workforce. Having a more holistic concern, the strategic processes comprise setting up proper policies, planning the use of ICT, and integrating distance education with infrastructure, so that all government policies and initiatives can be fully accessible to the whole population and being sustainable.

Keywords; Distance Education, Strategic processes, ICT, Policies and initiatives

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Dedication

This Thesis is dedicated to my parents, Anna and Axi Gye, for their love, support and unwavering faith in me.

Also this Thesis is dedicated to H.E. the President Sheikh Professor Alhaji Dr. Yahya Jammeh, for giving me the opportunity to pursue my dreams of attaining higher education.

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Acknowledgment

I am most grateful to the Almighty Allah, without whose providence, i would not have been able to reach this level in my academic career to produce this work.

I would like to thank my entire family for their unconditional love, understanding support, and steadfast encouragement throughout this process; especially Baby Anna and Papa who had to face life without me these five years.

My sincere gratitude goes to my advisor, Dr. Yu-Chien Ko. His strategic thinking, professional guidance and fatherly advice helped me continue a long journey and survive in the long run. His sage advice, insightful criticisms, and encouragement aided the writing of this Thesis in innumerable way. I was very fortunate to study under his guidance and learn wisdom of life as a person. I also extend thanks to the members of my thesis committee for taking the time interviewing and constructively critiquing my work.

In my daily challenges I have been blessed with Nenneh Ayeisha Jallow‘s constant and never ending encouragement, support, enthusiasm, faith, patience and valuable advice. I can never thank her enough for all the selflessly sound advice she gave me in making certain that I remain aligned and focused towards achieving my ultimate goal, no matter what the challenges I face are.

I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to the Dean, faculty and staff of the graduate school of Information management of Chung Hua University for their support throughout my studies,

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 Strategy Thinking...22

TABLE 2 Social Economic Indicator………... ...27

TABLE A The Gambia General Information……….……….81

TABLE B Human Resource ………..………82

TABLE C ICT Infrastructure……….………83

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 ………...Outline of the Research

FIGURE 2………Coldeway‘s Distance Learning Model

FIGURE 3………….……..…………...Analysis, Formulation and Implementation of Strategy

FIGURE 4………….………..Strategic Planning Process Model

FIGURE 5………..………...Model for strategic management for DE System

FIGURE 6………...Interrelationship between Resources, Capabilities and Competitive Advantage in a DE System

FIGURE 7………..Framework of the Research Study

FIGURE 8……….………Access to Information and Technology in The Gambia

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AISI African Information Society Initiative ALNs Asynchronous Learning Networks CSUN California State University Northbridge COA Course of Action

DE Distance Education GDP Gross Domestic Product

GTTI Gambia Technical Training Institute

ICT Information and communication Technology MDG Millennium Development Goals

MDI Management Development institute NGO Non-Governmental Organizations NSGA Nova-Scotia Gambia

PURA Public Utility Regulatory Agency SBU Single Business Unit

UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UTG University of The Gambia

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Background to the research

The process of globalization, liberalization and competitiveness has changed the economic scenario of the world. This has resulted in number of changes including the changes in the educational system. Due to the rapid changes in the global economy, a situation is developing that brings the learner in direct contact with sources of knowledge and information, eliminating all intermediaries (S.Manjulika and Reddy, 1999). As a consequence, distance education has taken a prominent position in the developing nations.

According to a 2005 mixed method study investigating the perceptions of higher education leaders, researcher, Pamela Cress, found that of the most problematic areas impacting the achievement of institutional benchmarks visioning and strategic planning were highly common (p.112). With respect to these findings, the lack of a holistic vision and strategic plan has a significant and extremely negative impact on an institution‘s future financial and academic plans.

In order for an institution to expand on its mission while meeting market and budgetary demands, there must be a strategic plan in place, one that allows administrators to individually assess important entities of the institution‘s operation while lending a holistic view of current and opportunistic trends.

The problem in higher education is that most colleges have never done a yearly SWOT analysis or never spend time determining their competitive advantage or strategy in the market. Most colleges do not use strategic planning as a means of setting priorities or assessing how resources will be allocated. In today's business environment that changes so quickly and dramatically, Michael Porter argues that the purpose of strategy for the future is not so much that of determining where the organization is headed based on what the organization wants, but is a method of coping with competition in a manner that will allow the organization to overcome obstacles to achieve its goals (Rowley, Lujan and Dolence, 1997). In order to assess competitors'

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strengths as well as the organization's strengths in light of industry conditions and trends, it is necessary for organizations to evaluate more than simply what competitors are doing.

Porter's Five Forces emerged from his analysis of this realization. Competition in any industry, including academia, does not arise from differences between competitors in that single industry.

It also is dependent on the underlying economics of the industry, as discussed above. Porter's Five Forces provides a practical model that also addresses economic principles. Strategic planning is a tool used to holistically develop an institution. In as much the body needs holistic treatment to cure an illness, organizations needs a holistic approach to curing many of its ills and prevent future occurrences with a very strong prognosis (Gouillart, 1995). Strategic planning provides this cure. It helps to create a progressive organizational culture that many administrators can use to promote teambuilding faculty and staff and a positive work environment. By having a flexible and motivating strategic framework on hand, organizational leaders have a good opportunity to reposition the institution and perhaps maximize its potential.

Distance learning can be the answer to many academic institutions‘ financial issues. It provides colleges and universities an opportunity to not only increase local enrollment, but also increase the overall potential of its product by reaching a more diverse and perhaps higher qualified demographic. Distance learning also gives institutions an opportunity to gain much needed worldwide corporate partnerships by training an increased number of students corporate integrated case studies and training programs with an international focus (O‘Brien and Deans, 1996). This helps build a more global prospective for the institution as well as a better image and brand name.

Institutions must be responsive to demographic shifts that have occurred in higher education by engaging in ongoing strategic planning similar to that which is done in the business world.

Taking such steps will allow schools to be viable in the market in the future and will allow the development of competitive marketing strategies. Strategic planning is not only a tool for the future, but also one of survival. The use of these planning methods are critical to identifying the market segments most likely to assist the organization in achieving its goals and then design programs and schedules that will best meet the needs of those market segments (Hill and Jones,

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1997). Colleges and universities must reposition themselves in order to meet increasing demands. Having a comprehensive strategic plan is the best way to bring about this new positioning.

The days of relying solely on an institution's reputation and word of mouth to recruit students are long gone. The most successful institutions today recognized the importance of strategic planning. They look for clear gains that will increase their chances of academic and financial sustainability. University presidents and university trustees should require strategic plan each year for each academic department and program. The use of these processes must become a vital part of the management and the governance of all colleges and universities. There is value in strategic planning. When used properly, the benefits can be overwhelming.

Furthermore, at the University level distance learning raised the hope of halting the brain drain that most developing countries like The Gambia suffer when their best educated people move abroad for training and some 50 percent of them never return. For the overall educational system of a nation, distance education promises to increase economies of scale and reduce infrastructure costs. Strategic planning would appear to be significant part.

After reviewing extensively several strategic planning models for our analysis, the researcher used a model especially for the specific characteristics of distance education from the models used in education. This model illustrate from the preparatory steps to planning to its implementation stage. A more detailed depiction of the model shall be pursued later.

1.2 Motivation

Distance education is an increasingly common educational alternative as well as a key contributor to the newly competitive landscape in higher education. The distance learning market has become highly competitive, and universities are under growing pressure to develop programs that are not only current, but also relevant and responsive to market needs (Low, 1998;

Marginson, 2002).

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This study is motivated by the fact that, there is an academic digital gap between The Gambia‘s only university and those institutions in other parts of the world; much especially those in the Developed World, which, as well, classifies UTG as one of the aforementioned disadvantaged institutions. It must be noted that UTG is tasked with the responsibility of producing high level workforce; but the institutional pedagogy is shrouded in the traditional face-to-face fashion.

Distance learning can be the answer to many academic institutions‘ financial issues. It provides colleges and universities an opportunity to not only increase local enrollment, but also increase the overall potential of its product by reaching a more diverse and perhaps higher qualified demographic. Distance learning also gives institutions an opportunity to gain much needed worldwide corporate partnerships by training an increased number of students by use of corporate integrated case studies and training programs with an international focus (O‘Brien and Deans, 1996). This helps build a more global prospective for the institution as well as a better image and brand name.

1.3 Importance of research

The importance of this research cannot be over emphasized. It focuses entirely on the strategic agenda for institutions to take advantage of the opportunities in distance education. If this research study is well utilized, it can empower UTG to have greater market share, not only in her student enrollment, but also through the preparation of these students and learners to compete successfully in both local and international labor markets.

Among some of the importance of this study are:

1. It can provide universities/institutions valuable information about the essence of distance education and the benefits that can be derived from.

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2. It will also provide empirical information for institutions investing in distance education to achieve competitive advantage in terms of knowledge delivery, enrolment of students and greater financial stability.

3. Learning institutions implementing distance learning can use this study as a blue print; in quest of sustaining competitive advantage.

1.4 Research objectives

Most of the published studies to date are highly focused on the influence of distance education on the student (consumer), not the higher education institution. The objective of the study is designed to empower UTG economically. It shall create the opportunities for building a highly developed workforce with skills to implement the strategic planning process model. The revelations of this study would also provide the much needed and useful information that will help traditional higher education institutions to formulate strategy to develop a competitive advantage in the distance education system. Furthermore, it intends to find out the major problems/challenges in distance education system and as well as strategies to survive in this highly competitive environment.

1.5 Research methodology

This research is based on an expository (explanatory) study and is descriptive in nature. Every effort has been made to take the best out of the best-known distance education system and formulate a strategy planning, which in general is a critical process in the success, and often survival, of higher education institutions today.

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1.6 Research structure

The research is organized with structure of this thesis is separate into five chapters to get the objectives of this research. Below is the brief summary of each chapter and as depicted in Figure.1

Chapter one is the introductory chapter of the research, it deals with the background, motivation, purpose, and other related issues of the study. In short it provides the basic information about the thesis. Chapter two traces the history of the distance education movement, discusses the definitions and theoretical principles which have marked the development of the field. Its sustainability and some key concept and terms are also defined and discussed. A brief overview of The Gambia‘s Higher Education System and its challenges is also discussed, as well as some key concept and terms are also defined and discussed.

Chapter three begins with a review of the current literature on the subject. The challenges and the strategy of a distance education system is also discussed. Chapter four discussions focus on the methodology utilized in the study. Several strategic tools are presented which are useful to the distance education institutions to achieve competitive advantage in the distance learning market.

The last chapter of the research study, the discussions and future works are presented and discussed.

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Figure 1. Outline of the research study

Chapter 1

 Background & Motivations

 Objectives & Methodology

Chapter 2

 History & Definition of Distance Education (DE)

 Background & Theory of DE

 Changing Environment & Challenges of

Chapter 4

 Research Methodology and Design

 ICT and DE in The Gambia

 Strategic planning Applied to DE Chapter 3

 Literature review of the study

 Challenges and Strategy of DE

Chapter 5

 Discussions and Future Works

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Chapter 2 Overview of Distance Education

2.1 Introduction

This chapter traces the history of the distance education movement, discusses the definitions and theoretical principles which have marked the development of the field. Its sustainability and some key concepts and terms are also defined and discussed.

A controversial topic in higher education today revolves around the enormous growth of distance education (Novak, 2002; Meyer, 2002). According to Mehrotra, Hollister, and McGahey (2001),

―distance learning, or distance education, is not a future possibility for which higher education must prepare, it is a current reality creating opportunities and challenges for educational institutions; a reality offering students expanded choices in where, when, how, and from whom they learn; a reality making education accessible to ever larger numbers of persons‖

Interest in the concept of distance education has grabbed the attention of university and college administrators, faculty, and other professionals all over the world (Willis, 1994; Birnbaum, 2001;

Moore, 2003). A myriad of questions, concerns, and opinions from professionals in these university and college settings regarding the topic of distance education has bombarded the literature base. What is distance education? Where is it going? What types of technology should be used? What is the market? What type of support does distance education need from administration/faculty? What types of incentives are needed for faculty to be interested? What are the differences in traditional, on-campus courses versus coursed delivered via distance education? What are student perceptions of distance education?

However, with all the excitement and buzz around the potential applications of interactive computer technology, the one big question that professionals have been asking for years is, how do you ensure that distance education coursework and degrees are of high quality? (Meyer, 2002;

Moore, 2003). The issues surrounding quality of distance education have been discussed and

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debated by many different parties, including: federal government, state governments, accrediting associations, faculty, and even students (Meyer, 2002). Regardless of who is interested in quality of this unique educational environment that distance education establishes, ―all stress the need to have a better understanding of what contributes to quality‖ in distance education courses and programs (Meyer, 2002, p.1). The purpose of this literature review is threefold: (1) to provide an extensive look into the history and new emergence of distance education, (2) to provide an overview of the practice and research regarding distance education, specifically in the area of quality, and (3) to investigate ways in which to assess quality of distance education programs and courses.

2.2 The distance education definition

The terms "distance education" or "distance learning" have been applied interchangeably by many different researchers to a great variety of programs, providers, audiences, and media. Its hallmarks are the separation of teacher and learner in space and/or time (Perraton, 1988), the volitional control of learning by the student rather than the distant instructor (Jonassen, 1992), and noncontiguous communication between student and teacher, mediated by print or some form of technology (Keegan, 1986; Garrison and Shale, 1987).

As a matter of fact, distance education has been defined from a number of perspectives over the years. For example, Rudolf Manfred Delling (1966) said, ―Distance education is a planned and systematic activity which comprises the choice, didactic preparation and presentation of teaching materials as well as the supervision and support of student learning and which is achieved by bridging the physical distance between student and teacher by means of at least one appropriate technical medium‖. For Hilary Perraton (1988), distance education is an educational process in which someone removed in space and/or time from the learner conducts a significant proportion of the teaching.

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For Desmond Keegan (1986), the following four definitions were central to an attempt to identify the elements of a single, unifying definition of distance education:

1. The French government, as part of a law passed in 1971, defined distance education as education which either does not imply the physical presence of the teacher appointed to dispense it in the place where it is received or in which the teacher is present only on occasion or for selected tasks.

2. According to Borje Holmberg, distance education covers the various forms of study at all levels which are not under the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and teaching of a supporting organization.

3. Otto Peters emphasized the role of technology, saying that distance teaching/education (Fernunterricht) is a method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application of division of labor and organizational principles as well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material which makes it possible to instruct great numbers of students at the same time wherever they live. It is an industrialized form of teaching and learning.

4. For Michael Moore, the related concept of ―distance teaching‖ was defined as the family of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviors are executed apart from the learning behaviors, including those that in a contiguous situation would be performed in the learner‘s presence, so that communication between the teacher and the learner must be facilitated by print, electronic, mechanical or other devices.

Keegan identified five main elements of these definitions, using them to compose a comprehensive definition of distance education:

1. The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of the learning process (this distinguishes it from conventional face-to-face education).

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2. The influence of an educational organization both in the planning and preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student support services (this distinguishes it from private study and teach-yourself programs).

3. The use of technical media—print, audio, video or computer—to unite teacher and learner and carry the content of the course.

4. The provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue (this distinguishes it from other uses of technology in education).

5. The quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not in groups, with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purposes.

Garrison and Shale (1987) argued that, in light of advances in distance education delivery technologies, Keegan‘s definition was too narrow and did not correspond to the existing reality as well as to future possibilities. While declining to offer a definition of distance education, Garrison and Shale offered the following three criteria they regarded as essential for characterizing the distance education process:

1. Distance education implies that the majority of educational communication between (among) teacher and student(s) occurs non-contiguously.

2. Distance education must involve two-way communication between (among) teacher and student(s) for the purpose of facilitating and supporting the educational process.

3. Distance education uses technology to mediate the necessary two-way communication.

The U.S. Department of Education‘s Office of Educational Research and Improvement defines distance education as ―the application of telecommunications and electronic devices which enable students and learners to receive instruction that originates from some distant location.‖

Typically, the learner may interact with the instructor or program directly, and may meet with the instructor on a periodic basis.

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Grenville Rumble (1989) offered the following four-part definition of distance education: In any distance education process there must be: a teacher; one or more students; a course or curriculum that the teacher is capable of teaching and the student is trying to learn; and a contract, implicit or explicit, between the student and the teacher or the institution employing the teacher, which acknowledges their respective teaching-learning roles.

Distance education is a method of education in which the learner is physically separate from the teacher. It may be used on its own, or in conjunction with other forms of education, including face-to-face. In distance education learners are physically separated from the institution that sponsors the instruction. The teaching/learning contract requires that the student be taught, assessed, given guidance and, where appropriate, prepared for examinations that may or may not be conducted by the institution. This must be accomplished by two way communication.

Learning may be undertaken individually or in groups; in either case it is accomplished in the physical absence of the teacher.

Keegan‘s definition and the definitions preceding it define the traditional view of distance education. Rapid changes in society and technology are challenging these traditional definitions.

2.3 Brief history of distance education

Although there has been a recent explosion of distance education, particularly due to the new technologies available, the origin of distance education can be traced back to over 100 years ago (Hanson et al, 1997; Meyer, 2002; Birnbaum, 2001, Mehrotra et al, 2001). According to Moore (1990), distance education, referred to in Moore‘s writing as correspondence study, began in the late 1800‘s. Correspondence study was developed in Germany by two researchers named Charles Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheidt, who were both language teachers in Berlin (Watkins, 1991). Another pioneer of distance education is Englishman, Isaac Pitman. He taught shorthand via correspondence study in England in the 1840‘s (Verduin & Clark, 1991). The concept of correspondence study made its way to the United States in 1873, when Anna Eliot Ticknor

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founded a Boston based society named The Society to Encourage Studies at Home. Within 24 years, this society had attracted approximately 10,000 students (Watkins, 1991).

This stayed the primary means of distance learning until the middle of this century when instructional radio and television became more popular (Imel, 1996). As technology has changed, so has the definition of distance learning. Videotaped lectures have been a standard in university and professional courses for the last two decades (Moore & Lockee, 1998). Audiotapes and lessons sent through the mail have been used in correspondence courses to teach subjects such as foreign language for quite some time (Teaster & Blieszner, 1999). Today, the Internet and compressed video have taken distance learning in new directions, allowing distance learning to occur in real time. Live video instruction is the most popular and fastest growing delivery mode in the United States (Ostendorf, 1997).

Since the early 1900‘s, distance education has been incorporated into the practices of many institutions, as has the traveling of faculty to meet students off campus to conduct educational instruction (Moore, 1990). According to Meyer (2002), in order to help alleviate the demands of travel for faculty and students, institutions began utilizing available technologies, such as audio connections (i.e. telephones), videotapes, and television, to conduct distance education efforts.

These types of delivery methods and media continued to be used, as distance education began to grow as a form of education.

Beginning in the 1980‘s, satellite telecommunications used to transmit broadcasting of lectures and instruction to off-campus locations became a popular way to conduct distance education.

From the late 1980‘s to the 1990‘s, microwave-based interactive video was utilized, and this method of educational delivery was used until land-based interactive video was developed and used in the late 1990‘s. When the Internet and the World Wide Web became available, ―a growing comprehension that education need not be site; or time-bound‖ began to develop throughout university and college settings.

The original target groups of distance education efforts were adults with occupational, social, and family commitments. This remains the primary target group today. Distance education provided the opportunity to widen intellectual horizons, as well as the chance to improve and

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update professional knowledge. Further, it stressed individuality of learning and flexibility in both the time and place of study.

2.4 Background

Learning, often defined as the bringing about of change in the thinking process, resulting in the acquiring of knowledge or skills, is typically based on the teacher and student interactive processes. Distance education, in which the teacher is removed by time and place from the student (McIsaac, 1993), started out as an alternative to the classic educational process.

Correspondent courses and use of printed matter to provide early distance education were considered inferior to instruction conducted in a classroom setting. Forty years ago audio programs broadcast over the radio where used to reach students in rural areas and in the 1960s instructional television offered courses to the community at large (Douglas, 1993). Even the use of these technologies to provide distance learning failed to raise the status of distance education in the eyes of academia, it might deliver free education to all in The Gambia in the future.

The introduction of videocassette recorders in the 1970s allowed distance educators to reach greater numbers of potential students and removed the requirement for students to observe broadcast schedule to receive distance learning programs. State mandates and shortages of teachers in rural schools produced a climate in the late 1980s conducive to the rapid development of distance learning (McIsaac, 1993). Before 1985 very few states were promoting distance education, but today virtually every state is involved in the distance learning process. The implementation of interactive television, in which the instructor and student are connected interactively, finally promoted the status of distance education in the academic establishments.

The rapid development of educational technologies is changing the way educators view the traditional educational process. These developments are readily adaptable to distance learning and are promoting a convergence of distance and traditional learning into a new educational mainstream.

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2.5 Theory of distance education

Although forms of distance education have been in existence since the 1840s and attempts at theoretical explanations of distance education had been undertaken by leading scholars in the field, the need for a theory base of distance education was still largely unfulfilled in the 1970s.

Holmberg (1986) stated that further theoretical considerations would contribute results that will give distance educators a firmly based theory, a touchstone against which decisions can be made with confidence. In 1988, Holmberg continued to recognize the need for theoretical considerations:

One consequence of such understanding and explanation will be that hypotheses can be developed and submitted to falsification attempts. This will lead to insights what in distance education is to be expected under what conditions and circumstances, thus paving the way for corroborated practical methodological application. (p. 3)

Moore (1994) was concerned that the progress of distance education would be hindered by the lack of attention to what he called the ―macro factors.‖ He indicated that in this area of education there was a need to describe and define the field, to discriminate between the various components of the field, and to identify the critical elements of the various forms of learning and teaching.

Keegan (1988) implied the continued need for a theory of distance education when he lamented the lack of it: Lack of accepted theory has weakened distance education: there has been a lack of identity, a sense of belonging to the periphery and the lack of a touchstone resulting which decisions on methods, on media, on financing, on student support, when they have to be made, can be made with confidence. (p. 63)

In 1995 Holmberg gave a more specific definition of the concept of theory. He stated that a theory means a systematic ordering of ideas about the phenomenon of our field of inquiry and an overarching logical structure of reasoned suppositions which can generate inter subjectively testable hypotheses. (p. 4)

Holmberg suggested that distance education has been characterized by a trial and error approach with little consideration in a theoretical basis of decision-making. He suggested that the

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theoretical underpinnings of distance education are fragile. Most efforts in this field have been practical or mechanical and have concentrated on the logistics of the enterprise.

To some, distance education represents a deviation from conventional education. Holmberg claimed it was a distinct form of education. Keegan (1986) concluded that distance education is a distinct field of education, parallel to and a complement of conventional education. Shale (1988) countered that all of what constitutes the process of education when teacher and student are able to meet face-to-face also constitutes the process of education when the teacher and student are physically separated.

2.6 Distance learning framework

The history of distance learning goes back more than a century when correspondence study started (Moore et al., 1996, p.19; Simonson et al., 2000, p.22). Keegan (1986) defined distance learning as a distinct form of education, parallel and complement to traditional face-to-face learning. The American Association of University Professors (1998, p. 32) provided a traditional definition of distance learning: "The process whereby the education of a student occurs in circumstances where the educator and the student are geographically separated and the communication across this distance is accomplished by one or more forms of technology."

The distinction between distance learning and traditional learning had been clear until recently.

However, Internet technologies blur the distinction by enabling the convergence of these two, thus causing confusion in widely-accepted definitions, terminologies, concepts, and theories on distance learning. This paper introduces a theoretical framework of e-education with several reference models in order to reduce the confusion caused by the traditional distance learning framework; to map newly emerging learning modes, and to explore new and innovative education models.

Coldeway (1986) specified time and place as two variables in the learning process. Each of these variables provides two distinct learning modes: adjacent vs. remote in terms of place and synchronous vs. asynchronous in terms of time. Figure 1 shows Coldeway's two-dimensional distance learning model where four distinct learning modes are identified.

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Figure 2. Coldeway's Distance Learning Model

Among the four quadrants in Figure 2, the bottom-left one represents the traditional learning mode which has no barriers in terms of time and place, thus requiring all students to be in a fixed place at a fixed time for face-to-face learning. Pure distance learning occurs in the top-right quadrant where learning is done asynchronous at a remote place. Distance learning is largely selected by non-traditional, adult students who have constraints imposed by time and place due to distance from campus, work schedules, family responsibilities, military duties, disabilities, etc.

There are two additional quadrants where only one of the two constraints exists. The top-left quadrant has the constraint of place, thus synchronous learning can be performed remotely through a broadcasting system, a closed-circuit TV system, or a satellite system. The constraint of time applies in the bottom-right quadrant, where asynchronous learning occurs at a fixed place such as a learning lab. Though two kinds of such hybrid learning are available, the pure mode is dominant in distance learning.

2.7 Changing environment of distance education

Distance education began as a correspondence course in the 1800's. Between the years of 1950 and 1960, it serves as video conferencing. From 1950 to 1980, teleconferencing was used. Since 1990 to present day, web-based instruction have been using in distance education.

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Distance education has continuously evolved as technology improved. From the early 1800's to present day, educators have utilized this method of instruction to reach those unable to interact face to face due to various circumstances (R. A. Yilmaz, 2005).

Higher education in general and distance education in particular are going through a number of changes as a result of advancements in computer technology and changes in the student profile.

Internet has created a new level of competition with the entry of for-profit dot.com companies who pose a credible challenge to the traditional educational institutions especially in the online programs. At the same time, enrollment in higher education is expected to grow at 16% over the next decade (Jones, 2003) with an increasing enrollment in online programs (Allen & Seaman, 2004). Educational institutions are responding to the changes by offering online versions of a number of traditional campus-based programs and in some cases creating a virtual campus (Howell et al, 2003). Institutions are also collaborating to offer joint degree programs.

There is a shift in the composition of student population with a growing proportion of non- traditional students enrolling in both the campus and distance learning programs. Unlike the traditional students whose primary goal is to graduate with a degree, many non-traditional students may already have a degree and may be interested in transfer credits or acquiring skills.

Non-traditional students also enroll at multiple institutions, sometimes simultaneously, (Johnstone, Ewell, & Paulson, 2002), temporarily stop-out, or have had multiple transfers between institutions. Internet has provided students access to tremendous amount of information.

With a simple click of a button they are able to shop for courses and programs that best accommodate their schedules and learning styles.

2.8 Challenges of distance education

(N. Agrawal, 2005), As the preference of education through the distance education mode is gaining popularity, the challenges to DE are increasing thereby increasing the problems. Day by day distance educators are facing challenges and thence have to combat these to survive in the highly competitive world. Some of the problems and challenges faced by distance education system are:

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• Need of technical literacy

• Limitations regarding the language of institution

• Reliability of the assessment procedure

• Faculty challenges

• The quality issue

2.9 Need of technical literacy

Since distance education uses multimedia for imparting education to its learners, it has become necessary for the learners to have know-how of technical skills, like knowledge of computers to have a better access to the study material. In a country where the population is very high and highly diversified, this is one of the major challenges for the distance educators.

2.10 Limitations regarding the language of institution

Most of the things available on the web are usually in a universal language i.e. English, which poses problems for the learners who have severe limitations in their ability to accommodate non- native language of instruction (Spodick, 1995). The basic problem here is that many courses like professional courses are offered on an international basis and have a limitation regarding the language of instruction. Therefore it becomes a major challenge regarding the needs of the learners.

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2.11 Reliability of the assessment procedure

Reliability is one of the most important issues, which needs to be looked into as it poses problems for the students and has become one of the biggest challenges to the distance education. The studies done on the reliability of scores for simple performance (essay exams) have been found to be quite low for distance education because of the non-standardized environment in distance education (Suen and Parkes). This is just a sample where the problem occurs but there can be varied number of assessment procedures depending on the requirement of the institution offering a specific programme.

2.12 Faculty challenges

Many researches have shown that the faculty engaged in distance education is less enthusiastic as compared to its counterparts in the conventional system. One of the reasons to this can be attributed to the absence of direct contact with the students. A study conducted by the 2000 American Faculty Poll confirmed that one of the most important factors for faculty in their decision to pursue an academic career was the passion of working with students (Bower, 2005).

In cases where the faculty has directly come into distance education, this may not be the issue.

To retain the enthusiast of the faculty and enhance the academic output of the faculty is one of the challenges for the distance education.

2.13 The quality issue

This is another issue, which needs to be looked into while planning the strategic framework. This is important, as the course material being prepared is the lifeline of the distance education system. Quality here means the resources available to the learners. Whether they are adequate or not depends on the institutions. It‘s the duty of the organization to look into this matter. This should include student socialization and affective development via student-to-student interaction.

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2.14 Strategy of distance education

Distance education (DE) strategy research has largely focused on three broad topics: goals, barriers, and responses; faculty and administrator attitudes; and planning processes and issues.

(Smith (1998) asked: Why provide Distance education?). He proposed five objectives: improving access, expanding an institution‘s geographic reach, improving educational quality, increasing efficiency for institutions and for students, and achieving customer satisfaction. Shepherd, Martz, Ferguson, and Klein (2002) found that expanding geographic reach was by far the most common reason for getting into DE and that institution primarily measured success in terms of enrollment increases, revenue increases, and improved learning.

Berge and Muilenburg (2001) compared ―barriers to DE‖ with ―stages of organizational maturity.‖ They reported that the three most significant sets of barriers to DE, regardless of organizational stage were: faculty compensation and time, organizational change, and lack of technical expertise and support. Fornaciari, Forte, and Mathews (1999) proposed four DE strategies based on an institution‘s ―size, reputation, and cost‖. They suggested that large regional universities with low reputations adopt cost leadership strategies to attract out-of-state students by charging them in-state tuition rates and that small national institutions with high reputations pursue differentiation strategies by focusing on highly selective distance degree programs.

Schifter (2000) identified factors that motivated and inhibited faculty participation in asynchronous learning networks (ALNs). The top three motivating factors for faculty who participated in ALNs were: (1) personal motivation to use technology, (2) opportunities to develop new ideas, and (3) opportunities to improve teaching. Armstrong (2000) reported on two classes of factors that motivated faculty to become involved with DE. Administrative support, organizational culture, and institutional commitment to access were important institutional factors. Primary personal factors included: curiosity, the opportunity to work with students who were practicing professionals, and personal convenience.

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Chapter 3 Literature Review

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with literature that relates to this study. It is intended to help you understand the concept of strategic planning, the need for strategy in higher education, and the dynamics of the university-based strategic planning. It includes a brief history of strategic planning, emerging challenges in higher education, basic models and steps of a strategic planning process. Adapting strategic planning to unique needs of higher education and, The Gambia‘s higher education system and its challenges is also discussed in this chapter. Distance education has become an important issue for higher education. The distance debate usually focuses on issues related to student learning outcomes and student attitudes as compared to traditional classroom-based settings (Phipps & Merisotis, 2006; Webster & Hackley, 2004; Yellen, 2004-2005).

Miles & Darroch (2004) contend that strategy is rooted in competitive advantage, yet Moody (2007:111) maintains ‗despite competitive advantage‘s wide use, few researchers have attempted to define the concept‘; a view similarly expressed by Freiling (2004). Despite Moody‘s (2004) claim, she praises nonetheless Ansoff‘s (1965) definition for its clarity which subscribes to the notion that competitive advantage lies in ‗the properties of individual products/markets which will give the firm a strong competitive position‘. The underlying premise of competitive advantage is that it provides the firm with a means to out-perform its competitors by more efficiently and effectively delivering products and services to the market.

Competitive advantage does not come from being simply different; it is achieved when an organization exploits and successfully maintains its advantages over its competitors (David 2007; Dess, Lumpkin & Eisner 2007; Thompson & Martin 2005), but ultimately competitive advantage lies with its stakeholders (Klein 2003; Thompson & Martin 2005). The reality though is that competitive advantage is invariably transitory, as competitors seek to mimic an

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organization‘s strengths and undermine its competitive advantage (Barney 1991; Campbell, Stonehouse & Houston 2004; David 2007; Mintzberg, Quinn & Ghoshal 1998). Porter (1985) argued therefore that sustaining this advantage must underpin the firm‘s strategy

Equally important, yet overlooked issues are the economic and competitive aspects of universities using distance education tools. The ease with which most universities can acquire a basic distance education toolkit has placed them in an environment that they historically have not occupied, namely, the opportunity to engage in outright competition with other universities for enrollments

.

3.2 Strategies and distance education 3.2.1 What is strategy?

Strategy like many concepts in the social sciences has no specific definition. Many definitions have been postulated by different scholars for the term strategy. The concept has been borrowed from the military and adopted for use in the business sector. It is claimed that the word comes from the Greek word ―strategos‖ meaning the ―general‘s art‖ and it represents the tactics the general uses to combat an enemy. In an attempt to provide a definition for the term, the following definitions may be considered:

Clausewitz‘ defined strategy as "the art of the employment of battles as a means to gain the object of war" This definition has been strongly criticized by Liddell Hart who said this view of strategy intrudes upon policy and makes battle the only means of achieving strategic ends.

Moltke on his part defined strategy as "the practical adaptation of the means placed at a general‘s disposal to the attainment of the object in view." In his view, military strategy is clearly a means to political ends.

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Liddell Hart in finally concluding his review on wars, policy, strategy and tactics arrives at the following definition; "the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy. ―To easily apply Liddell Hart‘s definition to the business world, it will be more appropriate to delete the word military from the definition.

George Steiner, a professor of management and one of the founders of The California Management Review, is generally considered a key figure in the origins and development of strategic planning. His book, Strategic Planning, is close to being a bible on the subject. In this book, he noted that strategy entered the management literature as a way of referring to what one did to counter a competitor‘s actual or predicted moves. Steiner also points out in his notes that there is very little agreement to the meaning of strategy in the business world.

Some of the definitions in use to which Steiner pointed include the following:

• Strategy is that which top management does that is of great importance to the organization.

• Strategy refers to basic directional decisions, that is, to purposes and missions.

• Strategy consists of the important actions necessary to realize these directions.

• Strategy answers the question: What should the organization be doing?

• Strategy answers the question: What are the ends we seek and how should we achieve them?

Another renowned professor who has written on strategy is Mintzberg (1994). He points out that people use "strategy" in several different ways, among which the most common being the following four:

1. Strategy is a plan, a "how," a means of getting from here to there.

2. Strategy is a pattern in actions over time; for example, a company that regularly markets very expensive products is using a "high end" strategy.

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3. Strategy is position; that is, it reflects decisions to offer particular products or services in particular markets.

4. Strategy is perspective, that is, vision and direction.

He posits that strategy emerges over time as intentions collide with and accommodate a changing reality. Thus, one might start with a perspective and conclude that it calls for a certain position, which is to be achieved by way of a carefully crafted plan, with the eventual outcome and strategy reflected in a pattern evident in decisions and actions over time. This pattern in decisions and actions defines what Mintzberg called "realized" or emergent strategy.

Andrews in his book, The Concept of Corporate Strategy defines strategy as follows;" Corporate strategy is the pattern of decisions in a company that determines and reveals its objectives, purposes, or goals, produces the principal policies and plans for achieving those goals, and defines the range of business the company is to pursue, the kind of economic and human organization it is or intends to be, and the nature of the economic and non-economic contribution it intends to make to its shareholders, employees, customers, and communities. (pp.18-19)."

In a 1996 Harvard Business Review (Nov-Dec 1996) article what is Strategy and in his book Competitive Strategy, Porter argues that competitive strategy is "about being different." He further states that, "It means deliberately choosing a different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value." In short, Porter argues that strategy is about competitive position, about differentiating yourself in the eyes of the customer, about adding value through a mix of activities different from those used by competitors. In his book, Porter defines competitive strategy as "a combination of the ends (goals) for which the firm is striving and the means (policies) by which it is seeking to get there." Thus, Porter seems to embrace strategy as both plan and position. From the above definitions, one may agree with the claim that there is no specific definition and for the purpose of this study, it will be fitting to adopt Porter‘s definition of strategy.

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Johnson, Scholes & Whittington (2005) portrayed strategy as a three stage process: analysis, formulation and implementation (Figure 2.1); a process that is noted elsewhere (Campbell, Stonehouse & Houston 2004; David 2007; Dess, Lumpkin & Eisner 2007; Faulkner & Campbell 2003; Grant 2004; Hill & Jones 2003; McGee, Thomas & Wilson 2005). Figure 2.1 demonstrates the inter-relationship between these three components and the iterative nature of this process, because of changing environmental factors.

Figure 3. Source: adapted Johnson, Whittington & Scholes 2005:16

The model highlights the role that resources and competences play in understanding an organization‘s strategic position and in determining its choice and strategic implementation. The strength or weaknesses inherent in these resources and competences provide the organization with a source of competitive advantage, or disadvantage. The ability to attain and retain a source of competitive advantage enables an organization to achieve superior performance (Campbell, Stonehouse & Houston 2004; David 2007; Dess, Lumpkin & Eisner 2007; Faulkner & Campbell 2003; Grant 2004; Hill & Jones 2003; Johnson, Scholes & Whittington 2005; McGee, Thomas &

Wilson 2005).

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3.3 Definition of strategic planning

Strategic planning is a complex and ongoing process of organizational change. The following attributes, when combined, effectively define a successful and comprehensive strategic planning process.

Strategic planning:

· Is oriented towards the future, and focuses on the anticipated future. It looks at how the world could be different 5-10 years from now. It is aimed at creating the organization‘s future based on what this future is likely to look like.

· Is based on thorough analysis of foreseen or predicted trends and scenarios of the possible alternative futures, as well as the analysis of internal and external data.

· Is flexible and oriented towards the big picture. It aligns an organization with its environment, establishing a context for accomplishing goals, and providing a framework and direction to achieve organization‘s desired future.

· Creates a framework for achieving competitive advantage by thoroughly analyzing the organization, its internal and external environment, and its potential. This enables organizations to respond to the emerging trends, events, challenges, and opportunities within the framework of its vision and mission, developed through the strategic planning process.

· Is a qualitative, idea driven process. It integrates ―soft‖ data, not always supported quantitatively, such as experiences, intuition, and ideas, involves the organization in the ongoing dialogue, and aims to provide a clear organizational vision and focus.

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· ―Allows organizations to focus, because it is a process of dynamic, continuous activities of self-analysis‖ (Doerle, 1991, in Rowley, 1997, p.37).

· Is an ongoing, continuous learning process, an organizational dialogue, which extends beyond attaining a set of predetermined goals. It aims to change the way an organization thinks and operates, and create a learning organization.

· When successful, it influences all areas of operations, becoming a part of the organization‘s philosophy and culture.

·

3.4 Differences between conventional planning and strategic planning

One of the major differences between conventional planning and strategic planning is that

―conventional planning tends to be oriented toward looking at problems based on current understanding, or an inside-out mind set. Strategic planning requires an understanding of the nature of the issue, and then finding of an appropriate response, or an outside-in mind set‖

(Rowley, 1997, p. 36).

―Long-range planning is a projection from the present or an extrapolation from the past. Strategic planning builds on anticipated future trends, data, and competitive assumptions. Long range planning tends to be numbers driven. Strategic planning tends to be idea driven, more qualitative;

it seeks to provide a clear organizational vision/focus.‖ (CSUN strategic planning retreat booklet, April 1997).

3.5 Strategic planning applied to distance education

Strategic planning is based on a theory and a preparation for the future separate from long-term planning (McCune, 1986). This approach is based on the belief that the future can be influenced and developed by present actions instead of taking it for granted that current trends will continue

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linearly into the future (Kaufman & Herman, 1991). An organization that plans strategically is not therefore preparing for the future, but preparing the future itself. This future while never a fait accompli can be not only anticipated but also designed according to the desires of the individuals and the organization. Current actions become guarantees of the evolution of what is planned to be implemented and are accomplished by the perception of the future according to the methods the organization uses to realize that perception.

In such a perspective, strategic planning consists of all the means that an organization uses to constantly redefine itself to realize a set plan. Consequently, strategic planning is not defined by methodology, process or system but first of all by the context from which the action plans are drawn (Cook, 1990). It could be considered a concerted effort to achieve an ensemble of

decisions and actions which form and guide an organization to be what it is, to do what it does and to know why it does it (Bean, 1993). By utilizing a future-looking approach, strategic planning emphasizes the future implications of decisions made in the present.

The process requires a clear vision of the intention and the future of the organization, the development of a mission filled with corresponding objectives, the gathering of extensive information, the analysis and diagnosis of internal and external environments, the study of alternatives, the development of strategies and action plans as well as the evaluation and control of implementation. Thus, the process allows diverse interests and values to be accommodated by the participation of different stakeholders to achieve consensus and thus an effective decision (Bryson, 1990). In this way, a distance network in an open system is considered a continuously evolving, dynamic organization that integrates and digests the information of an external environment that is constantly changing. For its part, the analysis of the network's internal environment offers a diagnosis of the strengths and weaknesses of the organization while the analysis of the external environment provides an overview of the possible difficulties and potential opportunities. This interface between the organization and its environment often leads to the development of a new paradigm, in other words, a metamorphosis of the organization and the determination of its own future (Cook, 1990).

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This radical and profound transformation is translated by the insertion of changes that are reflected in the organizational structure, by the allocation of resources required at various levels of the institution, and by the development of pertinent programs and courses that vary according to need. In this framework, the leadership needs profound vision and understanding of social trends and changes as well as a familiarity with the dynamics of the education sector. The necessary leadership during strategic planning requires consensus by the variety of stakeholders who, at the outset, do not necessarily share the same values, aspirations or expectations. Their participation in the process also demands a strong commitment on their part for a long period of time. Stakeholders are also called upon to share the responsibilities, to participate in decisions and to exert their leadership during planning (Apps, 1994).

Strong leadership is necessary in order to favor changes generated by strategic planning and to ensure the necessary tenacity and perseverance to get the desired results. The wait may be long before final results are obtained and before a new organizational climate is accepted in the institution. The institutionalization of the entire process requires not only determination and consistency on the part of the administration but also the support of all the personnel. Planning becomes an integral part of the institutional leadership and organizational climate (Murgatroyd &

Woudstra, 1990). This institutional trend is well illustrated by Simerly and Associates (1987):

Today's successful continuing education leader is a behavioral scientist who continually looks for new and effective ways to study the health and productivity of the organization. This, in turn, leads to appropriate action steps for achieving organizational goals. Thus, strategic planning becomes an integral part of our never ending struggle to find newer and more effective ways to strengthen leadership (p.11).

Currently there exists a multitude of strategic planning models that apply to business (Bean, 1993; Goodstein, Nolan & Pfeiffer, 1992; Jauch & Glueck, 1988; Porter, 1982; Rowe, Mason, Dickel, & Snyder, 1989), to public and parapublic sector organizations, to non-profit organizations (Bryson, 1990; Burkhart & Reuss, 1993; United Way of America, 1988;) and to education (Cafferella, 1994; Candoli, 1991; Cook, 1990; Kaufman, 1991; McCune, 1986;

Simerly and Associates, 1987; Valentine, 1991). The majority of the models adapted to

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