社會支持對文化智商及社會文化適應間的調節效果:以在台灣的國際學生為例

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(1)Moderating Effect of Social Support on the Relationship between Cultural Intelligence and Socio-cultural Adjustment: A Study of International Students in Taiwan. by Hui-wen Winni Cheng. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINSTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Yi-Chun Jane Lin, Ph. D. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan January, 2013 1.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In these two years of my graduate student life, I would like to show my greatest gratitude sincerely to my dear advisor, Dr. Yi-chun, Lin. Dr. Lin always provided me any kinds of supports to overcome the difficulties I had faced. She encouraged me and let me felt that I am confident to finish all of my assignments. Without her, I could not complete the thesis on time and done it well. Also, I would like to thank the other advisor Dr. Angela Shin-Yi Chen. Dr. Chen always provided me the guidance to complete my research. How fortunate I am. I am glad that I had two advisors. Thank for all professors of IHRD, Dr. Chih-Chien Steven Lai, Dr. Ted Shir-Tau Tsai, Dr. Wei-Wen Chang, Dr. Chu-Chen Rosa Yeh, and Dr. Cheng-Ping Shih. Professors always encouraged me and gave me help during these two years. Thank for the faculties of IHRD, especially Sandra Chen and Lynn Wu. Also, I would like to show appreciation to all of my dear classmates. I am so happy to be classmate with all of you. We always encouraged each other and overcome any difficulties together. Without my classmates, it would be hard during these two years. I would like to show my gratitude to all of people who had ever helped me when I was distributing my questionnaires. Without your help, I could not complete my research. Thank for everyone provided me help kindly. The most important, thank for my family, father, mother, brother, and sister-in-law. My family always encourages me to do what I want to do. They believe me and support me to pursue my dream.. 1.

(3) ABSTRACT The increasing numbers of international students go abroad to seek for high level education. They may face the cultural adjustment problems in a new country. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cultural intelligence on socio-cultural adjustment. Also, examine the moderating effect social support on the relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment. The target sample in this study was international students studying in Taiwan universities. The paper-based questionnaire was used to collect data. The analysis methods included Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and hierarchy regression by running SPSS v 18.0 and AMOS 8.0 software. The results showed that there was a positive relationship between cultural intelligence (CQ) and socio-cultural adjustment. The social support was examined that it positively moderated the relationship between cultural intelligence (CQ) and socio-cultural adjustment. Also, the interaction of each dimensions showed the significant impact on socio-cultural adjustment. The results of this study contribute to increase the evidence in the cross-cultural research field and provide the suggestions to help international students deal with problems in a different country or culture.. Keywords: Cultural intelligence, socio-cultural adjustment, social support. I.

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(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅰ Table of Contents ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅲ List of Tables --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅴ List of Figures ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------III. CHAPTER Ⅰ INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------------1 Background of the Study --------------------------------------------------------------------------1 Problem Statement ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 Study Purpose ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6 Research Questions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------6 Significance of the Study --------------------------------------------------------------------------6 Definitions of Key Terms --------------------------------------------------------------------------7 Research Delimitation -----------------------------------------------------------------------------8 Research Limitation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------8 Research Procedure --------------------------------------------------------------------------------9. CHAPTER Ⅱ LITERATURE REVIEW --------------------------------------------------11 Social Learning and Social Exchange Theory ------------------------------------------------11 Cultural Intelligence (CQ) -----------------------------------------------------------------------12 Socio-cultural Adjustment -----------------------------------------------------------------------13 Cultural Intelligence (CQ) and Socio-cultural Adjustment ----------------------------------14 Social Support -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16 Cultural Intelligence (CQ), Social Support, and Socio-cultural Adjustment--------------18. CHAPTER Ⅲ METHODOLOGY ----------------------------------------------------------23 Research Framework ----------------------------------------------------------------------------23 Hypothesis ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24 Sample ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25 Instrumentation -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------27 Control Variables ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------29 Questionnaire Design ----------------------------------------------------------------------------30. III.

(6) Pilot Test -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31 Back Translation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------31 Data Collection ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32 Data Analysis --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32. CHAPTER Ⅳ FINDING AND DISCUSSIONS ----------------------------------------35 Descriptive Statistics -----------------------------------------------------------------------------35 Correlation Analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------41 Regression Analysis of Variables ---------------------------------------------------------------44. CHAPTER Ⅴ CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ----------------51 Conclusions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------51 Discussion -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------52 Recommendation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------57 Research Limitation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------58 Suggestion for Future Research -----------------------------------------------------------------59. REFERENCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------61 APPENDIX A-RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS 2 ------------------------------------------67 APPENDIX B-NUMBERS OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS -----------------83 APPENDIX C-QUESTIONNAIRE -----------------------------------------------------------89. IV.

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Hypothesis of this study --------------------------------------------------------------------24 Table 4.1 Results of first confirmatory factor analyses --------------------------------------------33 Table 4.2 Demographic information ------------------------------------------------------------------36 Table 4.3 Mean, standard deviations, correlations, and reliability -------------------------------43 Table 4.4 Results of regression analysis for CQ and socio-cultural adjustment ----------------45 Table 4.5 Moderating effect of social support on the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment ------------------------------------------------------------------46 Table 4.6 Integration result of regression analysis for moderating effect of CQ sub-dimensions and social support sub-dimensions ------------------------------------49 Table 5.1 The integration result of hypotheses testing ---------------------------------------------51 Table A1 Moderating effect of social emotional support on the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment -------------------------------------67 Table A2 Moderating effect of instrumental support on the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment -------------------------------------69 Table A3 Moderating effect of social emotional support on the relationship between cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment --------------------------------------------71 Table A4 Moderating effect of instrumental support on the relationship between cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment --------------------------------------------73 Table A5 Moderating effect of social emotional support on the relationship between motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment ----------------------------------------75 Table A6 Moderating effect of instrumental support on the relationship between motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment ----------------------------------------77 Table A7 Moderating effect of social emotional support on the relationship between behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment -------------------------------------------79 Table A8 Moderating effect of instrumental support on the relationship between behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment -------------------------------------------81 Table B1 The numbers of international students in each university -----------------------------83. V.

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(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Research procedure -------------------------------------------------------------------------9 Figure 3.1 Research framework ----------------------------------------------------------------------23 Figure 4.1 CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by social support ----------------------------------47 Figure A1 Meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by social emotional support --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------68 Figure A2 Meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by instrumental support --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70 Figure A3 Cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by social emotional support --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72 Figure A4 Cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by instrumental support -------------74 Figure A5 Motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by social emotional support --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------76 Figure A6 Motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by instrumental support --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------78 Figure A7 Behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by social emotional support --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80 Figure A8 Behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment by instrumental support --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------82. VII.

(10) CHAPTER Ⅰ INTRODUCTION In the first chapter, there are several parts to discuss, including background of the study, problem statement, study purpose, research questions, significance of the study, definitions of key terms, delimitation and limitations of this study.. Background of the study The globalization is becoming trend due to the well-developmental technology and intercommunication. The world becomes flat. It encourages people to move across country boundaries and cultures. The increasing numbers of international students and workers go abroad to achieve their overseas assignment (Ang, Van Dyne, Koh, Ng, Templer, Tay, & Chandrasekar, 2007; Hwang, Wang, & Sodanine, 2011; Ischinger, 2008; Templer, Tay, & Chandrasekar, 2006). The more globalization, the more challenges that organizations and individuals face. Although the world became more global, the cultural diverse situations increased the challenges for both organizations and individuals. While living in a diverse and cross-cultural environment, the needs for interacting with people from diverse cultures are increased. The intercultural misunderstanding and conflicts also increased due to the cultural difference (Ang et al., 2007; Ang, Van Dyne, & Koh, 2006; Friedman, 2005; Takeuchi, Yun, & Tesluk, 2002; Templer et al., 2006). In order to reduce the problems cause by cultural diverse environment, it is important that individuals should be aware of cultural differences and their personal abilities of cross-cultural communication. If individuals have the awareness about the cultural diverse difference, they are more easily to accept and adjust the situations and problems and they have better interaction with local nationals (Chen, Lin, & Sawangpattanakul, 2011; Elenkov & Manev, 2009). International students play a vital role in enhancing the knowledge exchange and 1.

(11) the interaction between each culture (Heppner, 2006; Sam, 2001; Wei, Heppner, Mallen, Ku, Liao, & Wu, 2007). International students studying abroad experience the interaction with people from different cultures. They exchange their cultural knowledge and thought during interaction. Therefore, it can facilitate the interaction and knowledge exchange between nationals through the interaction of international students with people from diverse cultures. There have some reasons why Taiwan government does a lot of efforts on recruiting international students to study in Taiwan. First, the Taiwan indicated that in order to gain the competitive advantages in the global setting, Taiwan have to nurture the talents who possess the global vision and cross-cultural competencies. One of the ways that Taiwan’s government does is to recruit international students. Taiwanese students have more opportunities to interact with people from other counties and understand the different cultures. Then, it can improve Taiwanese students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication, obtain the knowledge of different cultures, and possess the global insights. Therefore, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan have promoted a plan since 2011 that government encourages the universities to conduct the English teaching program or the international program to recruit more international students. Second, the major task of International Cooperation Development Foundation (ICDF) in Taiwan is to provide the assistances to the developing countries and our friendship countries. In order to achieve the task, ICDF does the efforts through lending and investment, technical cooperation, humanitarian assistance, and international education and training. One of strategies in international education and training is to recruit the international students from these developing countries. ICDF provides the scholarships to students to study in Taiwan. It can improve the friendship between Taiwan and those countries and provide the assistance to them to improve their economic and life (Ministry of Education, 2011; International Cooperation 2.

(12) Development Foundation, 2012; Tsai, Lai, & Wu, 2009). International students believed they face some changes occurred in their new life, especially they live in the host country. Therefore, researchers considered many different kinds of factors to predict their adjustment in new culture context (Centinkaya-Yildiz, Cakir, & Kondakci, 2011; Lee, Koeske, & Sales, 2004; Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, & Al-Thimimi, 2004). Adjusting to the host country is extremely stressful and difficult. In the previous studies, social support can effectively eliminate the negative influences from stress and contributes to positive adjustment. Social support provides the channel to help international students release their stress and increases their adjustment in a host country (Lee et al., 2004; Manuel Barrera, Sandler, & Ramsay, 1981; Ong & Ward, 2005; Sarason, Levine, Basham, & Sarason, 1983; Yang & Clum, 1995; Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet, & Farley, 1988). The socio-cultural adjustment is focus on the adaption of behaviors and cognitions in a host cultural society. It is related to the process of relearning how to express oneself under a new cultural environment. The people possess the ability to handle the problems in social situation will help them to adapt the socio-cultural environment. When they have good interpersonal relationship with the local nationals, it has the positive effect on socio-cultural adjustment (Aycan, 1997; Swagler & Jome, 2005; Zhang & Goodson, 2011a).. Problem Statement In the recent years, the economy of East Asia grows up quickly. Therefore, the focus of world economy has shift to East Asia. Taiwan becomes one of important economic center. More and more people view Taiwan as an important place to achieve their oversea assignment (Hwang et al., 2011; Swagler & Jome, 2005; Weatwood & Quintrell, 1994). 3.

(13) International students study in Taiwan just like join to a big and diverse family. All of them have different cultural background. They need to cooperate with other students in their school work. Except school life, their social life also need the intelligence to well interact with people (Earley, 2002). International students cannot living in Taiwan without interacting with local nationals. They are usually facing the problems of social interaction because of the cultural difference (Centinkaya-Yildiz et al., 2011; Hwang et al., 2011). Under the challenges of globalization, it is important to understand their global setting for international students. International students study abroad may experience some challenges which cause by the transition from familiar to unfamiliar environment (Ang et al., 2007). In general, most of previous literatures showed that when individual experience the transition between different cultural backgrounds, the adjustment difficulties will emerge. Since the U curve adjustment theory, the following researches also demonstrated J and W curve theory. But the experience process of adjustment has not reached an agreement (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Tsai et al., 2009). The only one can be confirmed is that it is the most challenge and difficult period for individual at the beginning of entering the new environment (Ait Ouarasse & Van De Vijver, 2005; Black & Mendenhall, 1991; McClure, 2007). The beginning three months is an uncertain period for individual entering to a new place. The reasons why cause socio-cultural adjustment difficulties include the acculturative stress, academic stress, life stress, lack of social support, discrimination, and the interact with local peoples (Constantine, Okazaki, & Utsey, 2004; Zhang & Goodson, 2011b; Ying & Liese, 1990; Ying & Liese, 1994). If they fail to cope with these difficulties, it may cause the adjustment problems and affect the success of their oversea assignment (Chen et al., 2011; Frey & Roysircar, 2006; Jung, Hecht, & Wadsworth, 2007; Ward & Kennedy, 1999; Zhang & Goodson, 2011a). If students 4.

(14) tend to possess the good relationship with local peoples and good interaction with people from other cultures in the social place, they are more likely to get the deeper information and understand knowledge about host culture. Therefore, socio-cultural adjustment is important for international students. In the cultural diverse setting, the ability to effectively adapt and interact with new culture is important. International students would face the high stress and difficulties cause by cultural diversity. The ability to well adapt and deal with problems plays an important role. Under the challenges of globalization, it is important to understand the cultural setting international students enroll in. If individuals can stand in others’ shoes, they can understand and dealing with the problems cause by cultural differences. This ability we discussed above called cultural intelligence. Therefore, the cultural intelligence plays a vital role in cross-cultural adjustment (Alon & Higgins, 2005; Earley, 2002; Earley & Ang, 2003; Ang et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2011; Elenkov & Manev, 2009; Ramalu, Rose, Kumar, & Uli, 2010). One of the common problems international students faced in the cross-cultural environment lack of social support (Berry, 1997; Hays & Lin, 1994; Frey & Roysircar, 2006; Kuo & Roysircar, 2006; Pedersen, 1991; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Zhang & Goodson, 2011). Social support can reduce the uncertainly and improve their mastery on socio-cultural adjustment. If there has significant others to provide the social support to international students, it can reduce the psychological stress and also guide them to adjust well in this new culture (Sarason et al., 1983; Ong & Ward, 2005). The lack of social support may affect students both psychological comfort and the assistance for adapting new environment (Adelman, 1988; Constantine et al., 2004; Fontaine, 1986; Kashima & Loh, 2006; Swagler & Jome, 2005). Base on the previous discussion, we believe that the social support is the 5.

(15) moderator to affect the relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment.. Study Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of cultural intelligence on socio-cultural adjustment, and also, examine the moderating effect of social support on the relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment. In this research, CQ consists of four dimensions and social support consists of two dimensions. Further, we also considered to examine the effect of each dimensions on the variables.. Research Questions In this present study, there are four research questions proposed. The questions are shown as follows: 1. Does cultural intelligence have a positive relationship with socio-cultural adjustment? And how the four sub-dimensions of cultural intelligence affect the socio-cultural adjustment? 2. Does social support can positively moderate the relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment?. Significance of the Study This study contributes to both theoretical and practical parts. For the theoretical part, the concept of CQ is still in the developing stage. In the previous literatures, it did not have researchers to investigate the linkage of CQ and social support in the cross-cultural research field. This research examined the moderating effect of social support on the relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment. 6.

(16) It provided the evidence to fill in the literatures of cross-cultural research field. For the practical area, the results of this research can help international students deal with socio-cultural adjustment problems in Taiwan. For the schools or institutes, they can consider cultural intelligence as the indicator when they select students. Second, it can increase the awareness about the important of cross-cultural adjustment and they can consider that how to provide the social support to international students to assist them in adjusting in Taiwan. For the international students, the results can increase their awareness about the cultural difference compared to their home country. International students through oversea experience obtain the accurate knowledge of different cultures and interact with people from different cultures. It can help them reduce the stress and enjoy involving in the Taiwanese local culture.. Definitions of Key Terms There are three key terms in this research, cultural intelligence (CQ), socio-cultural adjustment, and social support.. Cultural Intelligence (CQ) In the cross-cultural environment, it is important that individual should possess the ability to get along with people from other cultures and deal with their daily life in an unfamiliar cultural background. This kind of ability we called cultural intelligence (CQ). Shortly speaking, cultural intelligence was defined as an individual’s ability to effectively adjust in the cultural diverse setting (Earley & Ang, 2003).. Socio-cultural Adjustment Socio-cultural adjustment is one of cross-cultural adjustment. Cross-cultural adjustment defined as the degree of psychological comfort in the cross-cultural setting. Sociocultural adjustment is external psychological outcomes. It was defined as a behavioral competence which affect by cultural knowledge, degree of contact, and 7.

(17) intergroup attitudes (Ward & Kennedy, 1999).. Social Support Social support referred to the social resources individual received from significant others, individual knows that there has somebody I can rely on and they care about me (Hays & Dimatteo, 1987; Ong & Ward, 2005; Sarason et al., 1983). In this research, it was consisted of two dimensions, social emotional support and instrumental support. The social emotional support referred to affection, understanding, and empathy. The person feels that there has somebody can listen to me and understand me. The instrumental support referred to some information of suggestions, advices, and realities (Cutrona & Russell, 1990).. International Students International students included degree-seeking foreign students, exchange students, oversea Chinese students, and the students who learn Mandarin Chinese as the second language in Taiwan (Ministry of Education, 2011).. Research Delimitation This research focused on the relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment as well as the moderating effect of social support on the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. First, the sample in this study was international students in Taiwan. It was a general sample represents the international students. We did not investigate the differences between different countries. Therefore, the nationality of each survey respondent only represented the general international students. Second, socio-cultural adjustment is one kinds of cross-cultural adjustment. The focus in this study was socio-cultural adjustment. Other dimensions of cross-cultural adjustment were not in our investigation. Finally, in the research field of social support, it was separated to several dimensions. In our 8.

(18) research, we focused on the dimensions of socio-emotional support and instrumental support. Other dimensions of social support were not covered.. Research Procedure The procedure of this study was shown below. Please see the Figure 1.1. Research background and purpose. Literature review. Hypotheses formation. Research framework construction. Questionnaire selection. Data collection. Questionnaire selection. Hypotheses testing. Results and conclusions. Figure 1.1 Research procedure. 9.

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(20) CHAPTERⅡ LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides the important review for variables. First, two related theories were discussed and then discussed the major variables in this study. It includes the literature reviews related to cultural intelligence (CQ), socio-cultural adjustment, and social support. Then, we reviewed the relationships among variables. Finally, it discussed about the moderating effect of social support on the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Social Learning and Social Exchange Theory Before discussing the main variables of this research, two theories were discussed social learning theory and social exchange theory. Social Learning Theory Social learning theory was first introduced by Rotter (1960). Bandura (1968) expanded the theory and developed the concrete concept. Social learning theory is the interaction of individual’s cognitions, behaviors, and environments. Individual’s knowledge and cognitions are perceived from both their direct and indirect experiences. Individual will observes others’ behaviors and also learning the results from the behaviors. Social learning is resulted from both person and social situations. Under a specific situation, individual will observes that one person’s specific behaviors will cause some rewards or punishments. Then, the learning is occurred during this situation (Bandura, 1968; Crittenden, 2005). In this study, international students learned the host culture and appropriate behaviors by observations in social places. Their socio-cultural adjustment is related to social learning theory.. 11.

(21) Social Exchange Theory The concept of social exchange theory was first introduced by Homans (1958). Homans depicted an important concept of social behavior as exchange. He demonstrated that individuals repeat some behaviors due to previous experience. Individuals found that they got some rewards from some specific behaviors. In the process of building relationships with other peoples, individuals will notice the costs and benefits of this relationship. They feel satisfied in this relationship or not through comparison. The comparison standards are subjective (Blau, 1964; Ward & Berno, 2011). In this study, international students and local peoples interact in the social place. They will notice the costs and benefits in this relationship. The cognition of social exchange will affect their behaviors and the perception of social support.. Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Earley (2002) first described the concept of cultural intelligence (CQ). The complete concept and theory was developed by Earley and Ang (2003). The person with cultural intelligence (CQ) can deal with some unexpected situations effectively during the cross-cultural setting (Ang et al., 2007; Brislin, Worthley, & MacNab, 2006). The cultural intelligence (CQ) was defined as the personal capability to deal with and adapt multiple situations effectively in the cross-cultural setting. It consists of four facets, meta-cognitive CQ, cognitive CQ, motivational CQ, and behavioral CQ (Ang et al., 2006; Ang et al., 2007; Earley & Ang, 2003). Meta-cognitive CQ was defined as the mental processes individual perceive the awareness of cross-cultural setting and understand the cultural knowledge in appropriate ways (Ang et al., 2006; Earley & Ang, 2003). The individuals with higher meta-cognitive CQ have higher awareness on the preference of other cultures (Ang et 12.

(22) al., 2007). Cognitive CQ was referred to cultural knowledge of norms, values, and practices of different cultures. It can acquire from education and personal experience (Ang et al., 2006; Ang et al., 2007, Earley & Ang, 2003). The individuals with higher cognitive CQ have better understanding on the similarities and differences of different cultures (Ang et al., 2007; Brislin et al., 2006). Motivational CQ referred to an individual’s interest and energy to adapt to new cultural environment and receive new cultural knowledge. It requires the person’s self-efficacy and motivation to do the things best (Ang et al., 2006; Templer et al., 2006). The person with higher motivational CQ has more motivation and energy during the cross-cultural setting and confident on cross-cultural effectiveness (Ang et al., 2007; Bandura, 2002; Earley, 2002). Behavioral CQ is defined as the personal capability perform appropriate verbal and nonverbal behaviors when interact with people from different countries. The person with higher behavioral CQ tends to have the capability to appropriately use their tone, words, and gestures to interact with different cultures and have better interpersonal relationships with people from different countries (Ang et al., 2006; Ang et al., 2007).. Socio-cultural Adjustment Socio-cultural adjustment is one kind of cross-cultural adjustment. Cross-cultural adjustment referred to how well their fit in the host culture and feelings of acceptance and managing daily life (Aycan, 1997; Anderson, 1994; Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kenney, 1999; Zhang & Goodson, 2011b). Socio-cultural adjustment is external psychological outcomes. It was defined as a behavioral competence that individuals can manage daily life and fit with new cultural context, which affect by cultural knowledge, degree of contact, and intergroup attitudes (Berry, 2005; Searle & Ward, 1990; Swagler & Jome, 2005; Ward & Kennedy, 1999; Zhang & Goodson, 2011b). In 13.

(23) the cross-cultural environment, the persons who can appropriately use their cultural knowledge and actions when they interact with local nationals will tend to have higher sociocultural adjustment (Swami, Arteche, Chamorro-Premuzic, & Furnham, 2010; Zhang & Goodson, 2011b). Kashima and Loh (2006) found that the person who has good social relationships with local nationals will have better sociocultural adjustment than those who have bad social relationships with other international students. Socio-cultural adjustment can be predicted by their cultural knowledge, the degree of interact with host culture nationals, and the attitude of interact with people from other cultures (Berry, 2005). Many scholars demonstrated that the length of stay affect individuals’ socio-cultural adjustment (Berry, 2005; Furnham & Bochner, 1982; Swami et al., 2010; Ward & Kennedy, 1993; Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999; Zhang & Goodson, 2011b). They believed that when individuals staying in host culture longer, the experiences and degree of interact with host nationals will increase. The familiarity of host culture also increases with the length of stay. There has some variables may affect the socio-cultural adjustment of individuals in an unfamiliar new culture: proficiency of host language (Constantine et al., 2004; Jiali Ye, 2005; Poyrali et al., 2004; Zhang & Goodson, 2011b), age (Zhang & Goodson, 2011b), attitude toward host country (Anderson, 1994; Eshel & Rosenthal-Sokolov, 2000; Frey & Roysircar, 2006), and culture distance (Swami et al., 2010).. Cultural Intelligence (CQ) and Socio-cultural Adjustment International students study in a country which is totally a new environment and culture to them. They must face some adjustment problem when dealing with new culture. Socio-cultural adjustment is referred to the ability to fit in and interact with new culture. 14.

(24) The socio-cultural adjustment is some kinds of psychological comfort in the social place. The psychological symptoms will go alone with the adjustment problems. The fail on dealing with the cross-cultural situation in the social place will affect the socio-cultural adjustment. The capacity to adapt the cross-cultural setting plays a vital role in their oversea assignment like CQ. The person with cultural capacities can improve the effective of intercultural communication and adjustment (Chen et al., 2011). According to the literatures, many researches stated that CQ has significant impact on cultural adjustment and CQ plays a vital role in cross-cultural setting. The person with higher CQ tends to has better cultural adjustment. The high CQ person has the confidence and more easily performs the appropriate and effective behaviors when they facing the new cultural environment (Chen et al., 2011; Ramalu et al., 2010). Each facet of cultural intelligence also has the effect on cultural adjustment. Meta-cognitive CQ related to awareness of individual to acquire the cultural knowledge. Individual with higher meta-cognitive CQ can easily and effective to perceived the cultural preference of other cultural before and in the interaction with people from diverse cultures. They are sensitive toward the cultural diversity if individual with higher meta-cognitive CQ (Ang et al., 2007). Therefore, the high sensitivity and observation can help international students adjust to the environment and social situations. Cognitive CQ referred to the knowledge toward the culture. The person with higher cognitive CQ received more concrete knowledge about the cultural value, norm, and practices. They have the sense on what the differences between cultures and what the same between cultures. High cognitive CQ person possess flexibility of self-concept. They easily integrate the new situations base on the cross-cultural setting. It can help individual eliminate the adjustment problems (Ang et al., 2007; Earley, 2002). 15.

(25) Many previous researches demonstrated that motivational CQ is the most important facet of cultural intelligence across cultures. If individuals do not have motivation, they do not have the reasons to interact with local peoples and get knowledge about host culture. Therefore, motivational CQ is important (Anderson, 1994). The person with higher motivational CQ will have the confidence and willingness to interact with new environment and received the new knowledge. They have more consideration and desire to explore and experience the cultural diversity. Hence, researchers said that the person with higher motivational CQ will have better cultural adjustment (Ang et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2011; Earley, 2002; Earley & Ang, 2003; Templer et al., 2006). The behavioral CQ related to the person can perform appropriate and effective verbal and nonverbal behaviors when they interact with people from diverse cultures. Individuals cannot avoid interacting with people in their daily life. If they have better capacities to perform the behaviors, they can build the good social relationships with people from different cultures. It also can improve their adjustment in a host country (Ang et al., 2006; Ang et al., 2007). Based on the above discussion, individual with high cultural intelligence has better socio-cultural adjustment. We proposed the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 1. There is a positive relationship between cultural intelligence (CQ) and socio-cultural adjustment. Specifically, individuals who have higher CQ will have higher socio-cultural adjustment.. Social Support The biggest challenge for international students is lack of social support. The lack of social support may cause adjustment problems, psychological symptoms, losing self-efficacy and self-esteem (Adelman, 1988; Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2002; Hays & Lin, 1994; Sarason et al., 1983; Poyrazli et al., 2004). Social support plays a vital role for international students. Social support referred to the social resources 16.

(26) individual received from significant others, individual know that there has somebody I can rely on and they care about me (Hays & DiMatteo, 1987; Ong & Ward, 2005; Sarason et al., 1983). Generally, there have five types of social support. First type is informational support which is related to the information of suggestions, advices, and realities. Second type is tangible support which referred to substances like somebody give me money, food, or clothes. It also includes tangible service like somebody takes care of me or drives for me. Third type is esteem support which is related to that somebody give me affirmation and make me feel I am valuable person. Forth type is network support which is related to accompany and belonging. The individual feels that someone accompany with me and I am belong to a group. The last type is emotional support which is referred to affection, understanding, and empathy. The person feels that there has somebody can listen to me and understand me, I feel that I am loved (Cutrona & Russell, 1990). Individuals can receive emotional support from the interaction with others. It is helpful for them to deal with negative emotion and improving the adjustment. The effect of emotional support is extremely effective at the beginning period of entering into new environment. It can help individuals to build the self-efficacy and self-esteem in a new cultural background (Allen, McManus, & Russell, 1999; Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2002) Social support can moderate the effect of stress and it is effective under cross-cultural setting. Many literatures described that social support can effectively mitigate the stress caused by the changes of life and it has positive effect on psychological outcomes. Social support also can increase the confidence in their social relationships (Constantine et al., 2004; Ong & Ward, 2005; Sarason et al., 1983). The significant others provide a good channel to international students to release their stress. They will feel comfort to live in a new environment. When an individual 17.

(27) feels that he get the supports from others, he can more concentrate on his main task. International students also tend to have better cross-cultural adjustment because they have somebody turn to when they feel difficulties during cross-cultural adjustment. Therefore, the relationship between social support and cross-cultural adjustment is discussed in next section.. Cultural Intelligence (CQ), Social Support, and Socio-cultural Adjustment So far, this research discussed that there is a positive relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment. In other words, international students with higher CQ have better capacity to deal with the things on the cross-cultural and social setting and they will tend to have better socio-cultural adjustment in Taiwan. We also discussed the moderating effect of social support on the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. The international students will face more adjustment problems and lack of the resources to deal with problems. They more need the support from others than those students who study in their home country (Centinkaya-Yildiz et al., 2011; Hwang et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Tsai et al., 2009; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). The social support from significant others will make international students feel better and confident when they face some difficulties. It can eliminate the uncertainty from unfamiliar environment and help international students master the capacities in dealing with problems across cultures. It can enhance international students’ abilities to control the environment (Aycan, 1997; Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2002; Ong & Ward, 2005). The social support has positive effect on international students’ daily life and it can effectively moderate the impact of stresses and uncertainly situation (Manuel Barrera et al., 1981; Sarason et al., 1983; Tsai et al., 2009; Ward et al., 2001). Social 18.

(28) support can reduce the uncertainty when individual face an unfamiliar environment. Then, it can improve the mastery or control over the new environment (Ong & Ward, 2005). Fontaine (1986) demonstrated that social support is an important resource for dealing with difficulties in a cross-cultural environment and it has the significant impact under the cross-cultural setting. Under a cross-cultural situation, the social support and social interaction are important to cultural adjustment and the effectiveness of oversea assignment (Adelman, 1988; Aycan, 1997; Black, 1990; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2002; Church, 1982; Fontaine, 1986; Furnham & Bochner, 1982; Searle & Ward, 1993). The person with difficulties in making friends and lack of social support will tend to have worse cultural adjustment. Social interaction and social support are important for both work and non-work situation (Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2002). International students have to interact with people from other cultures not only in the school but also in the social place or their daily life. If they have good relationship with local nationals, they can understand more knowledge and appropriate behaviors from the feedback and the observation (Aycan, 1997). When people have more experience to interact with different cultures, they will have more positive attitude toward different cultures. The more interaction with local nationals not only help international students accept the host culture, but also can improve them to accepted by local nationals (Aycan, 1997; Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2002; Church, 1982). The previous researches indicated that social support may have the moderating effect on the cultural adjustment. Social support plays an important role in moderating the effect of negative outcomes occurred in a new and unfamiliar environment (Manuel Barrera et al., 1981; Lee et al., 2004; Searle & Ward, 1990; Yang & Clum, 1995; Zimet et al., 1988). Therefore, this research discussed that based on the different level of social 19.

(29) support individual perceived will effect on the relationship between cultural intelligence and socio-cultural adjustment. In the other words, when international students with high CQ, the socio-cultural adjustment of high social support receiver will better than low social support receiver. Equally, international students with low CQ, the socio-cultural adjustment of high social support receiver will better than low social support receiver. Therefore, the second hypotheses are below: Hypothesis 2. Social support positively moderates the relationship between cultural intelligence (CQ) and socio-cultural adjustment. In another words, when individuals with higher social support, the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment will be strengthen. Equally, individuals with lower social support, the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment will be weakened. Hypothesis 2a. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. Hypothesis 2b. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. Hypothesis 2c. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship between cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. Hypothesis 2d.. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between. cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. Hypothesis 2e. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship between motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. Hypothesis 2f.. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between. motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. Hypothesis 2g.. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship. between behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment. Hypothesis 2g.. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between 20.

(30) behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. 21.

(31) 22.

(32) CHAPTER Ⅲ METHODOLOGY In this chapter, it described the methodology of this research. It included the framework, hypotheses, target population, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis. This research adopts the quantitative research process to investigate the relationships among cultural intelligence (CQ), socio-cultural adjustment, and social support.. Research Framework The independent variable is cultural intelligence (CQ) which initially described by Earley and Ang (2003). Cultural intelligence consists of four dimensions, meta-cognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral CQs. The socio-cultural adjustment is the dependent variable. Social support is the moderator and consists of two dimensions: socio-emotional support and instrumental support. The social support served as moderator to examine the relationship between cultural intelligence (CQ) and socio-cultural adjustment. The research framework was shown below, see Figure 3.1. Cultural Intelligence (CQ) -Meta-cognitive CQ -Cognitive CQ -Motivational CQ -Behavioral CQ. H1. Socio-cultural Adjustment H2. Social Support -Socio-emotional Support -Instrumental Support. Figure 3.1 Research framework. 23. Controls -Gender -Age -Oversea Experience -English Ability -Chinese Ability.

(33) Hypotheses Based on the previous literatures, the research purpose, research questions, and the hypotheses were described. Table 3.1 Hypotheses of this Study Hypotheses. Explanation. Hypothesis 1.. There is a positive relationship between cultural intelligence (CQ) and socio-cultural adjustment. Specifically, individuals who have higher CQ will have higher socio-cultural adjustment.. Hypothesis 2.. Social support positively moderates the relationship between cultural intelligence (CQ) and socio-cultural adjustment. In another words, when individuals with higher social support, the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment will be strengthen. Equally, individuals with lower social support, the relationship between CQ and socio-cultural adjustment will be weakened.. Hypothesis 2a.. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Hypothesis 2b.. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Hypothesis 2c.. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship between cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. (continued) 24.

(34) Table 3.1 (continued) Hypothesis. Explanation. Hypothesis 2d.. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between cognitive CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Hypothesis 2e.. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship between motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Hypothesis 2f.. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between motivational CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Hypothesis 2g.. Socio-emotional support positively moderates the relationship between behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Hypothesis 2h.. Instrumental support positively moderates the relationship between behavioral CQ and socio-cultural adjustment.. Sample The sample of this research was the international students who studied in Taiwan universities. According to the definition of international students who were defined by the. Taiwan’s. Ministry. of. Education,. the. international. students. included. degree-seeking foreign students, exchange students, oversea Chinese students, and the students who learn Mandarin Chinese as the second language in Taiwan. More and more international students study in Taiwan. Based on the numbers of international students from Taiwan’s Ministry of Education, it is around 37,000 international students studied in Taiwan. When they stay in a country which culture is different with their host country, they experience some problems about cultural adjustment. That is the reason why the international students were the sample in this study. 25.

(35) In the previous chapter, it was discussed that in the beginning three months is the most uncertainly period. Therefore, the criterion of respondents is that international students lived in Taiwan over three months. This criterion could help us to avoid that our respondents were in an uncertainly period and provide the wrong information to this study. Based on the information provided by Taiwan’s Ministry of Education, 80 % of international students are study in the north and central of Taiwan. The detail information about the number of international students in each university, please refer to Appendix B. Therefore, the questionnaire distributed to the school located in north and central of Taiwan. We set a sample criterion that the respondents should stay in Taiwan over three months. The major channels to contact with international students included the offices of international affair of each university, the Mandarin training centers, and the program for international students in each school. Each international student received an eight page of the questionnaire and filled out it within twenty minutes. For the contacts of international affair and international program in school, firstly, the researcher contacted with the persons in charge of international students or the teachers in international program. They permitted to help us to distribute the questionnaires to their students. After one to two weeks, the researcher went to collect the questionnaires. Each student received a pen as bonus of filling out questionnaires. For the contact of Mandarin training centers, the researcher contacted with the office first. After researcher got the permission, researcher stayed in the training centers and found the students who were willing to fill out questionnaires. After students filled out it, they returned it to the researcher. The researcher did not stay beside them when they were filling it. All the questionnaires distributed to Mandarin training center were returned to researcher directly. The students received a McDonald’s sweet card or a 26.

(36) pen as the bonus of filling it. It was an anonymous study. The questionnaire did not ask respondents to fill in their private information. In this study, a total of 620 questionnaires were distributed to international students who studying in Taiwan and 486 questionnaires were responded. Finally, 236 questionnaires were valid. The response rate was 38.1%.. Instrumentation Measures Cultural intelligence (CQ) Cultural intelligence (CQ) refers to an individual’s capability to deal with the situation of cultural diversity (Earley, 2002). This research adopted the cultural intelligence scale (CQS) which developed by Ang and her colleagues (2007). The scale contained total 20 items which separated to four dimensions: meta-cognitive CQ, cognitive CQ, motivational CQ, and behavioral CQ. The CQ scale consisted of 20 items. There had four items on meta-cognitive CQ which included “I am conscious of the cultural knowledge I use when interacting with people from different cultural background”; six items on cognitive CQ, the items included “I know the legal and economic systems of other cultures.”; five items on motivational CQ, the items included “I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures.”; five items on behavioral CQ, the items included “I change my verbal behavior (e.g., accent, tone) when a cross-cultural interaction requires it.” The questionnaire asked participants self-report the real situation while they live in a host country. The 7-point Likert scale was used in the questionnaire. It rates from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The high score of scale indicated that the person can adjust to new culture well, understand the local value, and can express appropriate verbal and nonverbal behaviors. 27.

(37) Social support The social support was defined as the quantity and quality of social contacts and resources perceived by individuals (Hays & Dimatteo, 1987). The social support is measured by The Index of Sojourner Social Support (ISSS) Scale developed by Ong and Ward (2005). The total 18 items of ISSS consists of two dimensions, 9 items on socioemtional support, the items described included some people are willing to “Comfort me when I feel homesick.”; “Listen and talk with me whenever I feel lonely or depressed.”; 9 items on instrumental support, the items includes some people are willing to “Provide necessary information to help orient me to my new surroundings.”; “Help me deal with some local institutions’ official rules and regulations.” The questionnaire asked participants to self-report how much social support they received when they need in Taiwan. 5-point Likert scale was adopted. It rates from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The high score in this questionnaire indicates that the person obtained more social support when the person lives in a foreign environment. Sociocultural adjustment Sociocultural adjustment is the process that individuals learn the appropriate behavioral competence to interact with new culture (Swagler & Jome, 2005; Ward & Kennedy, 1999).The Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) was adopted to measure the sociocultural adjustment. The scale was inspired by Furnham and Bochner’s (1982) 40-items Social Situations Questionnaire (SSQ). The initially version of 16-items SCAS was developed by Searle and Ward (1990). In the recently version, Ward and Kennedy (1999) proposed a 29-items SCAS. The questionnaire consists of 29 items. The items asked participants to indicate how difficulty they experience in the host country. The items include “Making friends” and “Following rules and regulations”. 28.

(38) The 5-point Likert scale rate from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The high score indicates that the people experience more difficulties when they interact with local nationals, which means that their sociocultural adjustment is low.. Control Variables According to the previous literatures, researchers found that some demographic variables have the impact on cross-cultural adjustment. Therefore, the demographic variables were added in the personal information part of questionnaire. We can clarify the relationships between dependent and independent variables through controlling the impact of demographic variables. Age Ying and Liese (1994) found that the young international students easily adjust to new environment than elder one. The age was one of important factors to affect socio-cultural adjustment (Ait Ouarasse & Van De Vijver, 2005, Cortes, Rogler, & Malgady, 1994). Other studies also viewed age as an important variable that has impact on cross-cultural researches (Ang et al., 2006; Imai & Gelfand, 2006; Sam, 2001; Templer et al., 2006). Therefore, the age was the control variable in this study. Gender In the previous researches, the female international students tend to have less adjustment than male students (Marville, 1981; Sam, 2001; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1998). The other studies related to the cross-cultural issues believed that age was a significant effect (Ang et al., 2006; Imai & Gelfand, 2010; Templer et al., 2006). In this research, the dummy variable was created to analysis the categorical variable. Therefore, male was code as 1 and female was code as 2. Oversea experience The previous studies found that the oversea experience had impact on both 29.

(39) cross-cultural adjustment and cultural intelligence. The oversea experience has positive impact on cultural intelligence (Ang et al., 2007). The researchers also found that the previous experience makes people expected toward new environment, and it affects the people’s adjustment (Church, 1982; McClure, 2007; Tsang, 2001). The overseas experience was counted in months. Language ability Church (1982) demonstrated that the language difficulties make international students feel stressful, and the students who locked language abilities have lower adjustment (Crano & Crano, 1993; Church, 1982; Ying & Liese, 1990; Yang & Clum, 1995). English is a world-wide used language. The English might be the common language when international students interact with people from other countries. The native language of Taiwan is Chinese, international students have to interact with local people in Chinese in their daily life. Therefore, we added both English ability and Chinese ability into control variables. The dummy variable was created to analysis the categorical variable. For their language ability, not at all was code as 1, poor was code as 2, average was code as 3, good was code as 4, and excellent was code as 5.. Questionnaire Design The scales adopted in this questionnaire were all developed maturely. The content of scale’s items was all valid. The original scales are English version. To consider that some of students were oversea Chinese students, also, some of students were from non-English speaking countries; their English ability was not good enough. Therefore, the questionnaire in this research was designed in both English and Chinese. We put all variables’ scale in the one questionnaire, so the independent and 30.

(40) dependent variables were answered by the same person and at the same period of time. It may cause the problem of common method variance (CMV). In order to avoid the problem of CMV, we did the following effort. First, based on the suggestion from Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff (2003), the study purpose and variables did not explain in the questionnaire. Second, the different point of Likert scales were used in the questionnaire. The cultural intelligence adopted 7-point Likert scale, social support and socio-cultural adjustment adopted 5-point Likert scale. Third, we adopted reverse items in the questionnaire to avoid that participants may fill in the questions randomly.. Pilot Test This research was a quantitative research. We did the pilot test before collecting the data. In the pilot test, it separated to two parts. First, in order to confirm the wordings in the questionnaire were appropriately to the people who do not come from English-speaking countries, we found 5 international students. These 5 international students completed the questionnaire and pointed the words or sentences that were hard to understand. Second, in order to check the reliability of scales, pilot test was distributed to 43 international students. 40 questionnaires were valid. The Cronbach’s alpha values of pilot test are shown that the CQ was 0.89 and the sub-dimensions of CQ were 0.79 to 0.89; the social support was 0.93 and the sub-dimensions of social support were 0.92 and 0.91; the socio-cultural adjustment was 0.93.. Back Translation The original scales are English version. To consider that some of Asian international students and oversea Chinese students can understand Chinese, the researcher translated the scales into Chinese. In order to confirm the Chinese translation whether fits with the original meaning of English, we conducted the back 31.

(41) translation. The researcher found a Singapore student whose native languages are both Chinese and English. Her educational background was business. She translated the Chinese version scales back to English. Based on her translation, a graduate student who majored English and obtained over 800 TOEIC score check the translation. The purpose is of to check whether Chinese version and English version are in the same meaning or not. The researcher also asked the two professors to confirm both versions to make sure the words translated into the consistent meanings.. Data Collection Base on the understanding of international students of researcher, the purposive and convenient samplings were used in this research. Based on the previous literatures, the scales of each variable and control variables were determined. All of scales consisted of a complete questionnaire to investigate the socio-cultural adjustment problems that international students may experience in Taiwan. The questionnaires distributed to the universities which located in north and central of Taiwan. The contacts with international students were through the offices of international affair, international programs, and Mandarin training centers in the universities.. Data Analysis The statistic instruments of SPSS v18.0 and AMOS 8.0 were used in this research to analyze the data. The analysis methods included:. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Before testing the hypotheses, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the distinction of the measures used in this study by using AMOS 8.0. The results of CFA presented in Table 4.1. The value of chi square divide degree of freedom was below 3 (CQ = 1.804; Social Support = 2.531). The overall model fit 32.

(42) was examined by various fit indices including root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), Tucker-Lewis non-normed index (TLI), incremental fit index (IFI), the comparative fit index (CFI), and goodness-of-fit index (GFI). The model fit was good when RMSEA was below or equal to 0.08 (CQ = 0.06; Social Support = 0.08) (Browne & Cudeck, 1993), the TLI (CQ = 0.93; Social Support = 0.90), IFI (CQ = 0.92; Social Support = 0.88), and CFI (CQ = 0.93; Social Support = 0.90) scores were above 0.90, and the GFI score was above 0.80 (Byrne, 1998). The IFI value of social support was slightly below 0.90, but it still in the accepted range. In this study, dimensions of CQ and social support were satisfactory. The scale of socio-cultural adjustment consists of 29 items, but without the sub-dimensions. The CFA of socio-cultural adjustment was not good. Therefore, in the further step of analysis, the socio-cultural adjustment will be substitute by the mean value. The CFA value of socio-cultural adjustment was not shown in table. Table 4.1. Results of First Order Confirmatory Factor Analyses (N=236) Model fit indices χ². df. χ²/df. RMSEA. CFI. TLI. IFI. GFI. 1. CQ. 295.889. 164. 1.804. 0.06. 0.93. 0.93. 0.92. 0.89. 2. Social Support. 334.135. 132. 2.531. 0.08. 0.90. 0.90. 0.88. 0.86. Note 1. CQ=cultural intelligence; SA=socio-cultural adjustment; RMSEA=Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; CFI=Comparative Fit Index; TLI=Taker-Lewis Index (NNFI); IFI=Incremental Fit Index; GFI=Goodness-of-fit index. Note 2.The CFA result of socio-cultural adjustment was not showing here. In the following step, the mean value of socio-cultural adjustment will be substitute for socio-cultural adjustment.. Reliability and Validity The reliability and validity was test by internal consistency and stability. The Cronbach’s alpha was used in the test of internal consistency. It helped us to know the 33.

(43) internal consistency of variables. If the Cronbach’s alpha value is over 0.7, it is reliable (Guieford, 1965).. Descriptive Statistics The descriptive statistics adopted to know the means, standard deviations, variance and the inter-correlations among the variables. The variables exhibited in frequency distribution table and we can understand the percentages and distributions of variables. In the descriptive statistic, it reported the results of demographic information, included gender, age, nationality, student status, living place, academic status, school location, times of visiting Taiwan, length of stay in Taiwan, oversea experience, English ability, and Chinese ability.. Pearson Correlation Analysis The Pearson’s correlation ( ) was used in determine that whether it had linear correlation between each variable. When the correlation was higher, the relationship between two variables was stronger. The number of correlation should between 1 and -1. When. , it is perfect positive correlation. If. , it is zero correlation. If. , it is perfect negative correlation. The modulus number of correlation below 0.4 is called low correlation; the number between 0.4 and 0.7 is called medium correlation; the number over 0.7 is called high correlation.. Hierarchical Regression analysis Base on Baron and Kenny (1986), the moderation effect was tested by hierarchical regression analysis. We used this method to examine the relationships between variables and its sub-dimensions.. 34.

(44) CHAPTER Ⅳ RESULTS This chapter reveals the analysis result by each method. First, the descriptive statistic shows that the demographic information about the respondents. Then, the correlation analysis revealed the mean, standard deviation, validity, and the correlation between the variables. Final, the hierarchical regression analysis was conduct to examine the hypotheses in this study.. Descriptive Statistics For collecting data, each respondent received one questionnaire and was asked to fill out it. There were 13 demographic information in the questionnaire. The demographic information included gender, age, nationality, marital status, student status in Taiwan, living place, academic status in Taiwan, school name, times of visiting Taiwan, oversea experience, English ability and Chinese ability. The frequency of the result was shown in Table 4.2. In this study, the ratio of male and female was half-and-half. For the age of students, most of students were between 21 to 25 years old (53.4%). In our sample, the ratio of students from Eastern and Western countries was half-and-half. For the marital status, most of students were single (88.6%). For the student status and academic status, most of students were enrolled in Chinese learning center (50.4%) and non-degree seeking students in Taiwan (50.8%); degree seeking student account for 30.1% and most of them were studying Bachelor and Master Degree in Taiwan. To the living place, two of third international students were living outside of campus (72.5%). Most of respondents’ universities were located in the North of Taiwan (78.4%). For the times of visiting Taiwan, most of students were the first time to visit Taiwan (56.4%). For the lengths of stay in Taiwan, most of students stayed in Taiwan 35.

(45) within one year (65.7%). For the overseas experience, 60.6% students did not have without overseas experience before coming Taiwan. For English ability, the ability was self-report by students themselves. Most of students’ English ability was good or excellent (67.3%). For Chinese ability, most of students could not speak Chinese very well (42.4%). Table 4.2. Demographic Information (N=236) Item Gender. Age. Nationality. Nationality. Frequency. Percentage (%). Male. 106. 44.9%. Female. 130. 55.1%. Below 20. 36. 15.3%. 21-25. 122. 51.7%. 26-30. 46. 19.5%. 31-35. 21. 8.9%. Over 36. 7. 2.9%. Missing Data. 4. 1.7%. Eastern Asia. 110. 46.6%. Western Asia. 9. 3.8%. North America. 28. 11.9%. Central America. 26. 11%. South America. 5. 2.1%. Europe. 36. 15.3%. Africa. 20. 8.5%. Oceania. 2. 0.8%. (continued) 36.

(46) Table 4.2 (continued) Item Marital Status. Student Status. Living place. Academic Status. Frequency. Percentage (%). Single. 209. 88.6%. Married. 25. 10.6%. Divorced. 2. 0.8%. Degree-seeking. 70. 29.7%. Exchange student. 33. 14%. Oversea Chinese student. 14. 5.9%. Chinese learning center. 118. 50%. Missing Data. 1. 0.4%. On campus. 66. 28%. Off campus. 161. 68.2%. Missing Data. 9. 3.8%. 2-Year Junior College. 2. 0.8%. 2-Year Senior College. 4. 1.7%. Bachelor degree. 60. 25.4%. Master degree. 50. 21.2%. Non-degree seeking. 113. 47.9%. 7. 3%. North of Taiwan. 185. 78.4%. Central of Taiwan. 51. 21.6%. 133. 56.4%. 2-5 times. 86. 36.4%. 6-9 times. 7. 3%. Missing Data School Location. Times Taiwan. of. Visiting 1 time. (continued) 37.

(47) Table 4.2 (continued) Item. Frequency. Percentage (%). 10. 4.2%. Length of Stay in 3 months. 15. 6.4%. Taiwan. 4-6 months. 66. 28%. 7-9 months. 47. 19.9%. 10-12 months. 27. 11.4%. 13-36 months. 66. 28%. 37-60 months. 10. 4.2%. Over 61 months. 5. 2.1%. No. 143. 60.6%. 1-3 months. 19. 8.1%. 4-6 months. 12. 5.1%. 7-9 months. 2. 0.8%. 10-12 months. 15. 6.4%. 13-36 months. 24. 10.2%. 37-60 months. 6. 2.5%. Over 61 months. 15. 6.4%. Not at all. 9. 3.8%. Poor. 15. 6.4%. Average. 53. 22.5%. Good. 69. 29.2%. Excellent. 90. 38.1%. Times. of. Visiting Over 10 times. Taiwan. Oversea Experience. English Ability. (continued) 38.

(48) Table 4.2 (continued) Item English Listening. English Speaking. English Reading. English Writing. Frequency. Percentage (%). Not at all. 4. 1.7%. Poor. 18. 7.6%. Average. 46. 19.5%. Good. 66. 28%. Excellent. 100. 42.4%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Not at all. 8. 3.4%. Poor. 20. 8.5%. Average. 52. 22%. Good. 64. 27.1%. Excellent. 90. 38.1%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Not at all. 6. 2.5%. Poor. 17. 7.2%. Average. 50. 21.2%. Good. 62. 26.3%. Excellent. 99. 41.9%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Not at all. 8. 3.4%. Poor. 17. 7.2%. Average. 54. 22.9%. Good. 63. 26.7% (continued). 39.

(49) Table 4.2 (continued) Item English Writing. Chinese Ability. Chinese Listening. Chinese Speaking. Chinese Reading. Frequency. Percentage (%). Excellent. 92. 39%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Not at all. 11. 4.7%. Poor. 89. 37.7%. Average. 94. 39.8%. Good. 36. 15.3%. Excellent. 6. 2.5%. Not at all. 7. 3%. Poor. 77. 32.6%. Average. 76. 32.2%. Good. 61. 25.8%. Excellent. 13. 5.5%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Not at all. 7. 3%. Poor. 86. 36.4%. Average. 76. 32.2%. Good. 58. 24.6%. Excellent. 7. 3%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Not at all. 13. 5.5%. Poor. 79. 33.5%. Average. 93. 39.4% (continued). 40.

(50) Table 4.2 (continued) Item. Chinese Writing. Frequency. Percentage (%). Good. 39. 16.5%. Excellent. 10. 4.2%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Not at all. 16. 6.8%. Poor. 87. 36.9%. Average. 96. 40.7%. Good. 28. 11.9%. Excellent. 7. 3%. Missing Data. 2. 0.8%. Correlation Analysis In order to gain the relationships between each variable, the correlation analysis was conducted. Therefore, the correlation between each variable should be low correlation. Table 4.3 listed the mean, standard deviation, correlation, and reliability of variables. The mean of CQ and sub-dimensions was range from 4.31 to 5.62; the standard deviation was range from 0.67 to 1.06. The mean of social support was range from 3.60 to 3.87; the standard deviation was between 0.51 and 0.61. The mean of socio-cultural adjustment was 3.45; the standard deviation was 0.62. The CQ was significantly positive related to socio-cultural adjustment (r = 0.33, p < 0.001). Also, four dimensions of CQ, meta-cognitive CQ (r = 0.26, p < 0.001), cognitive CQ (r = 0.18, p < 0.01), motivational CQ (r = 0.32, p < 0.001), and behavioral CQ (r = 0.21, p < 0.01), were significantly positive related to socio-cultural adjustment. The CQ was significantly positive related to social support 41.

(51) (r = 0.30, p < 0.001). Except the correlation between meta-cognitive CQ and social emotional support, other three dimensions of CQ were significantly positive related to two dimensions of social support. The dimensions of CQ, cognitive CQ (r = 0.19, p < 0.01), motivational CQ (r = 0.15, p < 0.05), and behavioral CQ (r = 0.20, p < 0.01), were positively related to social emotional support at a significant level. The dimensions of CQ, meta-cognitive CQ (r = 0.16, p < 0.05), cognitive CQ (r = 0.21, p < 0.01), motivational CQ (r = 0.27, p < 0.001), behavioral CQ (r = 0.17, p < 0.05) were significantly positive related to instrumental support. The social support was positively related to socio-cultural adjustment at a significant level (r = 0.28, p < 0.001). Besides, two dimensions of social support, social emotional support (r = 0.18, p < 0.01), instrumental support (r = 0.29, p < 0.001), were significantly positive related to socio-cultural adjustment.. 42.

(52) Table 4.3. Mean, Standard Deviations, Correlations, and Reliability (N=236) Mean. S.D.. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. Age. 24.60. 4.79. 2. Oversea Experience. 13.72. 37.83. 0.20**. 3. English Ability. 3.95. 1.06. 0.15*. 0.16*. 4. Chinese Ability. 2.83. 0.85. -0.06. 0.04. 0.08. 5. CQ. 5.05. 0.67. 0.03. 0.04. 5-1. Meta-Cognitive CQ. 5.41. 0.90. 0.09. 5-2. Cognitive CQ. 4.31. 1.06. 5-3. Motivational CQ. 5.62. 5-4. Behavioral CQ. 5-1. 5-2. 5-3. 5-4. 6. 6-1. 6-2. 0.39***. 0.14*. (0.88). 0.15*. 0.41***. 0.08. 0.69***. (0.82). -0.03. -0.04. 0.16*. 0.07. 0.75***. 0.31***. (0.86). 0.83. 0.08. 0.10. 0.47***. 0.10. 0.70***. 0.49***. 0.26***. (0.80). 5.01. 0.91. -0.01. -0.01. 0.17**. 0.17*. 0.70***. 0.36***. 0.31***. 0.37***. (0.80). 6. Social Support. 3.74. 0.51. -0.16*. 0.02. 0.14*. 0.20**. 0.30***. 0.15*. 0.23***. 0.24***. 0.22**. (0.90). 6-1. Emotional Support. 3.60. 0.58. -0.14*. -0.01. 0.04. 0.21**. 0.23***. 0.10. 0.19**. 0.15*. 0.20**. 0.85***. (0.85). 6-2. Instrumental. 3.87. 0.61. -0.13*. 0.03. 0.19**. 0.14*. 0.28***. 0.16*. 0.21**. 0.27***. 0.17*. 0.86***. 0.47***. (0.91). 3.45. 0.62. 0.09. 0.11+. 0.36***. 0.14*. 0.33***. 0.26***. 0.18**. 0.32***. 0.21**. 0.28***. 0.18**. 0.29***. 7. Support 7. Socio-cultural Adjustment. Note. Number in parentheses represents Cronbach’s alpha value. * p < .05; ** p < .01, *** p < .001. 43. (0.95).