1970年代台灣及韓國民歌場景的建構：以《滾石》與《流行歌月刊》為例

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國立臺灣大學音樂學研究所碩士論文

Graduate Institute of Musicology College of Humanities

National Taiwan University Master Thesis

1970年代台灣及韓國民歌場景的建構：

以《滾石》與《流行歌月刊》為例

Construction of Folk Scenes in 1970s Taiwan and Korea: “Rock Magazine” and “Monthly Pop Song”

朴炫惟 Hyunyoo Park

指導教授﹕山內文登博士 Advisor: Fumitaka Yamauchi, Ph.D.

中華民國 107 年 2 月 February 2018

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Acknowledgments

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to everyone in my graduate institute, the Graduate Institute of Musicology in National Taiwan University. As the almost only international student in the institute, it would not have been possible to complete my studies had it not been for the kindness and sharing of thoughts and experiences of professors, friends, and the staff.

In particular, this thesis would not have been possible without the guidance and support of my advisor, Professor Yamauchi Fumitaka. Professor Yamauchi has led me through every step of my graduate study and has given me detailed and critical advice on each step of my thesis. He understood my difficulties as an international student, always gave me valuable advice, and showed kindness toward my research and student life. His classes offered important insights on popular music research and modern history of East Asia. I consider myself to be extremely fortunate and grateful to have Professor Yamauchi as my advisor.

I would also like to give special thanks to Professor Ho Tung-hung, Chu Meng tze and Shin Hyunjoon for reading my manuscripts, paying special attention to my thesis and studies, and serving on the oral examination committee. Their valuable opinions and thoughts on my research and other issues helped me realize the

importance of popular music studies, and it was my great honor and pleasure to meet such outstanding scholars and be able to look up to them as my role models.

My fellow graduate students in the Graduate Institute of Musicology always willingly helped me study as an international student and offered me many local experiences in school and everyday life. They were also outstanding students and researchers, and I learned a lot from their insights and diligence. This thesis could not

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be complete without their help who provided me interview opportunities and let me know important resources and knowledge on the Taiwanese side of this research.

Finally, I would like to show my gratitude to Jung Kyung-su who has been the greatest source of strength during my school years and was always supportive of my studies. Also, special thanks go to my parents and sister who have shown constant attention and care in my student life and research, as well as my health and daily life in Taiwan.

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This research examines the issue of localization of popular music through folk music in the 1970s Taiwan and South Korea. Two representative pop music magazines in this period, Rock Magazine (Taiwan) and Monthly Pop Song (Korea), are examined and compared to show how the American folk as a genre was localized and modified, and what the possible reasons would be. The two magazines are valuable data which show how Anglo-American popular music was promoted and localized each in Taiwan and Korea. Furthermore, the publications contributed greatly to the construction of domestic pop scenes and connections between participants of the music scenes, not only promoting the pre-existing overseas popular music.

In particular, the magazines participated actively in the emergence of

domestic folk scenes. Folk music was one of the most prevalent musical trends of the youths in the 1970s Korea and Taiwan, along with other genres of overseas-oriented popular music. Korean and Taiwanese youths participated in constructing new domestic folk scenes as audience, musicians, and workers in the music industry, arousing changes in domestic pop music environments. They adopted many musical elements in the American modern folk revivals, but domestic folk scenes were placed in different contexts from American ones. Specificities of Korean and Taiwanese folk come from the historical contexts of domestic pop scenes, as well as different

mindsets of scene participants, which are shown through these two magazines.

As well as analyzing the publications, this research also tries to give an overview of popular music and the emergence of folk in Korea and Taiwan. The 1970s Korean and Taiwanese folk, as genres and scenes, were two separate

phenomena in themselves. Still, this paper examined, compared and contrasted the

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two different cases together, starting from several notable common features of folk’s development in Korea and Taiwan. Multiple reasons, including political limitations under authoritarian regimes, specific socio-cultural conceptualizations of youth, and prevalence and internalization of Anglophone pop music, are mentioned as the reasons for similarities. At the same time, through investigating magazines and other related materials, this research also dealt how Korean and Taiwanese folk, which share the root of modern American folk, diverged under different domestic circumstances.

Keywords: Pop Music, Localization, Folk, Music Magazines

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Abstract (Chinese)

本論文以 1970 年代台灣與南韓的「民歌（Folk）」為研究對象，指出流行音樂的在地化議題。本文特別分析與比較這段期間主要的兩種流行音樂雜誌，《滾石（台灣）》與《流行歌月刊（南韓）》，並顯示美國現代民歌如何各自在台灣與南韓在地化與變化，以及其原因。有關英美流行樂的在地化過程與當地聽眾的回應，這兩種雜誌對於英美流行樂及國內民歌音樂的「文化翻譯」

可說是相當珍貴的資料。

在 1970 年代的台灣與南韓，民歌在年輕人中廣泛流行，成為新的音樂潮流並代表年輕文化的重要因素。過去英美次文化（Subculture）研究者曾經指出，（在都市的勞動階級男性）年輕人對於社會表現出有反抗性的態度，並且透過音樂及其他文化象徵來認同自己。但是在 1970 年代台灣與南韓以美國流行樂成為學習的榜樣與大眾追求的對象，因而在年輕人新的音樂圈中出現比較不同的態度與發展過程。

再者，儘管台灣與南韓經由不同的歷史並且各自擁有自己的流行樂發展過程，這兩者在 1970 年代流行樂及民歌音樂上卻顯示各方面的共同點。本文試圖說明其共同點及主要原因，包括威權主義政權下的政治局限，當時在青年概念上特殊概念化，以及英美流行樂的流入與當地聽眾的內化。

關鍵詞：流行音樂、在地化、民歌、音樂雜誌

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Introduction

Discussing Popular Music in Korea and Taiwan through Magazines

South Korea and Taiwan are geographically not very far apart. They also had important common historical experiences during the last century, including Japanese colonial rule and ‘Free World’ authoritarian regimes under the Cold-war system.

However, their distance in popular music was not always very close.

When people think of musical encounters between Taiwan and South Korea¹ (whether two-way or one-way) what comes to mind would often be the ‘Korean Wave’

or Hallyu. Hallyu, which summarizes the global popularity and influence of Korean popular culture including music, was introduced in Taiwan and the Chinese-speaking world since the late 1990s. It is still frequently discussed as a case of foreign culture influx in Taiwan; but K-pop² is not a synonym to Korean pop music, and it is rather a specific term referring to certain genres and music industry systems. Moreover, such encounter happened in the late 1990s at the earliest, and the previous history of popular music is relatively unknown to each other.

However, there have been many notable musical similarities or divergences even when there were not direct interconnections. This research is based on the topic of musical trajectories or encounters of Korean and Taiwanese popular music before the Korean wave. In particular, it focuses on the 1970s folk scenes in Korea and Taiwan and analyzes two pop music magazines of the period as the mediators and

1 Hereafter, for convenience, ‘Korea’ will be used instead to refer to South Korea. This article does not include North Korea in the range of research, due to the reasons that music in North Korea underwent a rather different and separate history after the division of the Korean peninsula, and also that I currently do not have comprehensive theoretical tools and research materials to include North Korean music.

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participants of the scenes.

The two magazines, Monthly Pop Song (Korea) and Rock Magazine (Taiwan) are rich and valuable resources which show how the Korean and Taiwanese audience encountered Anglo-American popular music in the second half of the 20^th century and localized it. Monthly Pop Song (the Korean title romanized as Wolganpapsong), circulated from 1971 to 1987, was a music magazine which introduced overseas popular music to the Korean audience, as well as promoting Korean pop music and connecting between domestic listeners and musicians. On the other hand, Rock Magzine (the Chinese title romanized as Gunshi) was playing a similar role in Taiwan in the late 1970s, from 1975 to 1979.

The internet environment has become very commonplace as of now (the year 2018) and we can access music from different parts of the world without difficulty, but in the 1970s, it was not easy to get new information about music from overseas or get access to new music. That was why such pop magazines became primary routes to encounter popular music for music fans in Korea and Taiwan.

“I was always feeling something was missing when I only relied on melodies and rhythms, but now I have found out Monthly Pop Song. Did it not become my guiding stars, broadening my limited pop knowledge?”

(Readers’ page, “Hope it becomes the best pop magazine,” Monthly Pop Song 1974.11 p. 140)

“To whom it may concern: I have always been your devoted reader. Your company is the only magazine in Taiwan that reports pop music; I am glad of its birth and growth.”

(Letters from You, Rock Magazine 1976.8 p. 6)

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Monthly Pop Song and Rock Magazine introduced various kinds of Anglo- American music in real time and provided detailed information of the records and musicians. They include multiple ways of intercommunication with the pop audience, and we can find out how the readers felt and thought about the music through the articles and columns. Besides, the magazines do not only passively ‘import’ Anglo- American music; they also devote quite a few pages to introduce and promote domestic pop musicians and venues, especially those influenced by Anglo-American music. Consequently, they have become important mediators and resources through which we can get information about both Anglo-American and domestic popular music in Korea and Taiwan.

This paper investigates which kinds of overseas popular music were introduced to Korea and Taiwan in the 1970s through which processes, and how they influenced domestic popular music. I aim to examine processes of domestic scene formations under the Anglo-American³ pop influence, especially through analyzing the publications’ articles on domestic pop music.

It is notable that new pop genres, differentiated from the previous local

3 ‘Overseas’ pop music in this research mainly refers to ‘Anglo-American’ pop music, and I would like to continue using this term throughout the paper. Precisely speaking, foreign music introduced in Korea or Taiwan in the second half of the 20^th century included not only Anglo-American pop but also other musical origins, such as Japan (Teuroteu and Taiwan’s mixed-blood songs) and non-English-speaking Europe (e.g. Translated songs in 1970s Korean folk (Park 2003, 162-166)) to name only a few.

However, English-language pop music from the United Kingdom and the United States had huge worldwide impace in this period, and in particular, 1970s Korean and Taiwanese folk, the main focus of this research, mostly had the musical origin in American folk revival, as I will be discussing throughout the paper. Thus, this paper uses ‘Anglo-American’ pop when mentioning foreign musical influences in the 1970s folk music, unless

counterexamples appear.

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popular music, emerged in Taiwan and Korea in the 1970s. New genres called folk, featuring acoustic guitars and clean vocalization, were new phenomena which were differentiated from older forms of popular music in Taiwan and Korea. The ‘new music’ also featured new types of musical venues and new audience. In Korea folk was often transliterated and called as pokeu (transliteration of folk), Poksong (folksong) and other similar pronunciations, while on the other hand, the Chinese term minge (pronounced min-GUH; translation of ‘folk’ and literally meaning folksong or song of the people) was used to refer to this new type of Taiwanese popular music.

The new musical genres had its musical origins in American folk revival, not in traditional orally transmitted songs of pre-modern Korea and Taiwan. However, the 1970s Korean or Taiwanese folk do not necessarily correspond to the American folk revival in their contents and contexts. This research will investigate how and where this new trend emerged, focusing on the theoretical notion of scenes.

Scene had been one of the most frequently discussed concepts in popular music research in the past few decades. It has often been used not only in the academia but also in journalism and informal conversations of music lovers and therefore has sometimes become a relative loose and inclusive term. However, in an academic sense, the scene is used to denote musical movements or activities “which surround and nourish a cultural preference,” or the place which the movements take place in (Straw 2001: 6).

When academics started to talk of scenes, they often compared scenes with the notion of subcultures. Subcultures could be defined as “alternative cultural style, often differentiated from and resistant to the mainstream culture, within the same society. (Bennett & Peterson 2004: 3)” The concept of subculture has frequently been

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associated with the generation issue of popular culture research because it was often assumed that ‘deviant’ subcultures emerge among the young generation. In this research I view 1970s Korean and Taiwanese folk as two scenes and not as subcultures. However, I briefly mention the notion of subcultures as well because of the differences of two notions; in many American and European researches of subculture in the mid and late 20^th century, rock music has often been noted as the genre of young generation’s subculture. However, situations in Taiwan and Korea during the period seem to be somewhat different. New folk music scenes formed among the young Korean and Taiwanese students and the easy-listening pop and folk songs they played are not very appropriate to discuss using the notion of subculture.

On the other hand, this research does not assume that the two situations of Korea and Taiwan were completely the same. Popular music is not an independent movement; naturally, it is not irrelevant to the national and international situations of the time. Consequently, the formation of music scenes in Taiwan and Korea differ both concerning musical contents and in temporal, spatial terms. Such differences will also be examined carefully in the thesis, but I would still like to discuss the two cases together in this paper to highlight several important common features during this period. The thesis will also consider what the possible reasons were for the commonalities, such as the musical center-periphery relationships with America, urbanization of capital cities (Taipei and Seoul), and the emergence of generation gaps.

Balancing between commonalities and differences of two different musical trajectories and drawing significant East-Asian and Cold-war contexts from scattered historical facts will be main concerns of this research.

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Monthly Pop Song and Rock Magazine

Monthly Pop Song (Wolganpapsong) and Rock Magazine (Gunshi) were pop music magazines which had been the most representative and widely read pop magazines in the 1970s Korea and Taiwan. Korea’s Monthly Pop Song began its publication in November 1971 and published the last issue in February 1987. On the other hand, Rock Magazine was published from June 1975 to 1997. Of the long circulation periods, my thesis will mainly cover publications in the 1970s and early 1980s as the object of research. The reason I set a temporal limit is that the 1970s publications had a crucial influence in promoting domestic pop music, and that it was when the magazines focused on domestic folk scenes as they flourished. Since the late 1970s and early 1980s, some changes take place concerning the contents of the publications, as I will discuss in the last (fourth) part of Chapter 3.

These two are not the very first pop music magazines in Korea and Taiwan.

For instance, there was a Korean magazine introducing Anglo-American pop music called Pops Koreana (Papseu Koriana), first published in 1967 and lasted one to two years. (An 2004) In Taiwan, there was a more scholarly and formal music magazine called Music and Acoustics (Yinyue yu Yinxiang) which mostly covered classical music and audio equipment. These other publications are valuable research materials as well, but Monthly Pop Song and Rock Magazine became the research object due to their similarity in the period of publication, the fact that they mainly dealt with the Anglo-American pop music (not the previous local popular music which was already familiar to the general Korean and Taiwanese public) and that they became important channels through which local pop music fans could get access to new music and information.

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[Figure 1] First issue of Monthly Pop Song, published in November 1971, featuring David Cassidy on its cover. (Left)

[Figure 2] First issue of Rock Magazine, published in June 1975, featuring James Taylor on the cover. (Right)⁴

[Figure 3] Table of contents in Monthly Pop Song, July 1975.

Main sections include:

 The latest overseas information Spotlights (special features)

 Regular columns

 Original overseas sheet music hits

 Winners of Sanremo (Italy) music festival 1975

 Korean sheet music hits

 Readers’ page (160 pages in total)

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Main sections and types of the articles in these magazines can be roughly categorized into 3~4 types. (1) Introducing and critiquing overseas (mostly American or British) pop (2) Critiquing and promoting ‘domestic pop,’ especially the specific genres that follows Anglo-American trends such as rock and folk (3) Communicating with the readers through readers’ letters and QnAs (Wang 2016, 41-2) (4) In addition, there were various advertisements from enterprises and venues related to domestic pop music. I will continue to discuss these articles published in these magazines in Chapter Two.

Below are only a few of the examples showing the significance and

 Reports and reviews

 Exclusive interviews

 Songs and records

 Musical instruments and audio

 Lyrics and sheet music

 You and Rock (Readers’ favorite songs, readers’ letters, Tokyo report)

 Gifts for readers

[Figure 4] Table of contents in Rock Magazine, June 1975.

Main sections:

(80 pages in total; but except this first edition, other later editions had around 100~150 pages each)

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popularity of the magazines.

Monthly Pop Song (Wolganpapsong), Wŏlp'ap in short, was an unrivaled magazine in the early 1980s. There was no internet, newspapers were full of grim news, and the TV was as cheerless as its black-and-white screen.

Stories of British and American pop music scene that Monthly Pop Song delivered were novelty themselves. (Munseok 2011)

Rock Magazine, first published in 1975, was even called the most important textbook of Western pop music for the generation born in the Sixties. (Wawa 2015)

Previous Studies

Despite their representativeness and rich materials, it is not easy to find any in-depth research about the publications. I could find several Korean articles which briefly discuss Monthly Pop Song while giving an overview of the 1970s and 80s (Shin 2015; Kim 2013), but the magazine deserves more attention; it contains many original materials about the influence of Anglo-American popular music, and about how the Korean audience created music under the influence.

In Taiwan, there are quite a few papers, interviews, and books about ‘Rock Records (Gunshi Changpian),’ which is a record label that the founders of Rock Magazine, Duan brothers, established in the early 1980s after briefly suspending the circulation of the magazines. (Wang 2015; Tuan 2011) It has been one of the most well-known and significant record labels in the Chinese-speaking world. Although some articles about Taiwan’s popular music history mention Rock Magazine to some extent (Ho and Chang 2000; Wang 2016) it would also be meaningful to take a closer

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look at the actual articles of the magazine.

Concerning the 1970s Korean folk, there are already quite a few significant publications written in depth. Some of them narrate histories of Korean popular music in this period (Lee 2006/2011; Shin 2005a/2005b). Others take focus on the folk boom in the 1970s, focusing on chronological description and individual musicians as well as musical contents (Park 2003; Kim 2015). These earlier researches helped me understand the historical contexts of Korean folk scenes and articles on Monthly Pop Song.

Various writings and researches about the 1970s Taiwanese pop and folk exist as well. Non-academic publications such as ‘Singing Our Own Songs: Songs of This Generation’ series (1979) and ‘Folk 40: Let Me Sing Another Su-siang-khi’ (2015) contain valuable testimonies and memoirs by the scene participants and important insights on Taiwanese folk. Chang Chao-wei’s book (2003) is an influential academic publication on this topic. Ho Tung-hung’s thesis (2003) examines both the historical trajectories of Taiwanese pop music from the 1950s and the rise of the 1970s folk.

Before moving on to chapter one, I would like to bring up some points in tendencies of previous discourses and researches that could be further reinforced through this paper.

Discourses on folk, both in Taiwan and Korea, have often emphasized professional (or semi-professional) musicians and their works. However, folk was also a widely popular cultural phenomenon that university students and the general public picked up guitars and participated in the scenes as the audience. Emphasis on professional recordings, musicians, songwriters or on songs is often useful in popular music as well, but I also try to consider folk’s ‘amateurism’ through using the concept

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of scenes and including the general audiences and non-professional musicians which could be traced through the magazines.

“The Singer Branch [of Korea Entertainers’ Association]⁵ suggests folk singers get membership cards issued, but they keep dodging the questions saying that they are amateurs. I reckon that they want to avoid the taxes.”

(“Folk Songs Can Survive,” Monthly Pop Song 1974.11 p. 55)

They are often invited by their friends to sing for school parties or concerts. Amid clapping and cheering, they slowly gain self-confidence, and once again after recommendations from friends, they gradually enter these circles. They say that they sing for music, not for money. (“Special Report: Young People Earning Money through Songs,” Rock Magazine 1975.11 p. 13)

Such testimonies show that folk singers were not always intentionally planning to earn their livings by music and often considered themselves ‘amateur’ to some extent rather than fully professional, although their music was also commercially circulated and sold to the mainstream audience (Lee 2011, 88). Thus, it is possible to examine the folk ‘scenes’ which include not only professional works and well-known musicians.

Secondly, despite some notable commonalities regarding the folk scenes in 1970s Korea and Taiwan, there are few researches or discourses that connect the

5 Korea Entertainers’ Association (Singer Branch) was an interest group organized in 1961 by popular musicians, which played active roles in deciding popular music policies and contents of musical performances and records. It was the only association that

represented the opinions of popular musicians in Korea; there were more than a thousand

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popular music of Korea and Taiwan of this period.

When Korean and Taiwanese folk music ever cross national borders, they are contrasted with the American modern folk revival, like ‘American folk is like this, while Korean/Taiwanese folk is like that.’ For example: “Overseas folk songs, whether it is Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, or Joni Mitchell⁶, they are not [Taiwan’s] campus folk. Folk songs such as Dylan’s were often socially conscious, and they were more complex. By comparison, our campus folk songs were really simple and innocent, and sang about the growth of students on campus.” (Sylvia Chang’s interview, Taiwan Public Television Service 2011) However, it is also meaningful to discuss popular music history in a more multi-directional and trans-local way especially when 1970s Taiwan and Korea were both under the Cold-war authoritarian regimes and adopting Anglo-American pop.

Research Methods

The research would be mainly based on analysis of the two magazines.

Through the paper, I would like to examine closely on the formats, articles, and changes over time shown in the magazines. Both of them were published monthly, although there were special editions (Monthly Pop Song’s 1980 ‘End of year special edition’) or occasional skips⁷.

I had to range several places in search of the actual publications, since both magazines have already ceased publication now and they do not officially sell the past editions. However, a large part of the publications are well preserved at public

6 Mitchell was a Canadian, but she moved to New York City in 1967 and continued her musical career in the US. (Breese 1998)

7 “…You should not cease one edition so suddenly like this.” (Letters from You, Rock

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libraries. Monthly Pop Song is mostly available at several Korean libraries such as National Library of Korea and the National Assembly Library⁸. Also, cover pages of all the publications, starting from the first issue of November 1971 until the last issue, are available online⁹. On the other hand, I have the full Rock Magazine editions from the 1^st (published in June 1975) to the 40^th(published in April 1979). I could obtain them at Taiwan’s public libraries such as National Central Library in Taipei and National Library of Public Information in Taichung, and also thanks to Professor Ho Tung-hung, including the first issue, which became a rarity now.

Other than examining these firsthand materials it is also helpful to gather related data, such as interviews of people involved in the publications, other music magazines of the same period and related public writings. In this paper, interviews of Johnny Chung-Yu Tuan and his brother Sam Chung-Tan Tuan, founders of Rock Magazine (Hou and Xiong 2012; Wang 2002), as well as memoirs of Lee Mun-Se¹⁰ (Lee 2016) had been helpful in understanding the overall circumstances and making processes.

Chapter Descriptions

The chapters in this thesis aim to examine the formation process of the 1970s domestic folk scenes and their significances, through analyzing the magazines and by addressing the following three issues: history of the development of local scenes in postwar Korea and Taiwan, contents and contexts of Monthly Pop Song and Rock

8 National Library of Korea: July to December issue of 1973, and all issues of 1974-1987.

National Assembly Library: June & July issue of 1976, April & May issue of 1979, All issues of 1982-1985, and January to September issue of 1986

9 at Nomadbook (http://www.nomadbook.co.kr/html/mainm.html) and Book St.

(www.bookst.co.kr)

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Magazine, and significances of the folk scenes in the context of the Cold-war East Asia.

Chapter One will be a broad historical overview of how domestic popular music developed each in Korea and Taiwan after the WWII, under the influence of Anglo-American popular music. I aim to highlight that there have been different kinds/genres of popular music that have simultaneously emerged and that some of them were more Anglo-American oriented ‘pop’ while other genres had older historical roots from the first half of the 20th century. Chapter One will also include discussions on the notion of scenes, to explain why it would be appropriate to view the 1970s Korean and Taiwanese folk as emerging new scenes.

I devote Chapter Two to introductions and analyses of the two publications.

By looking at the actual content of the magazines and categorizing them according to their contents and by highlighting people involved in the productions of Monthly Pop Song and Rock Magazine (editors, writers, and the readers), this research will consider how and why these magazines could be created. In particular, the research focuses on how the magazines contributed to promoting domestic pop and making new musical trends in Korea and Taiwan.

Besides, a portion of Chapter Two will be an examination of the specific history that Korean and Taiwanese folk developed as genres, musical trends and characteristic features of youth culture in the 1970s. By providing a rough overview of what folk music was like in this period and also by examining the specific ways in which magazines take part in scene-makings and promotions of domestic pop, I hope to contribute to give comprehensible analyses of Korean and Taiwanese pop history in the age of folk.

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Starting from observations of the previous chapters, Chapter Three will be devoted to considering the particular attributes of domestic folk scenes in Korea and Taiwan. Here, I would like to look back on the historical contexts in which folk could emerge as new musical phenomena of Korean and Taiwanese urban youths, and how folk acquired new contexts different from American modern folk revival. Especially, this paper analyzes the particularities of the folk scenes through excerpts from the magazines, thus investigating the ‘constructions’ of folk scenes and the role of magazines in the processes.

I will start the chapter by introducing several main issues that had been often discussed concerning ‘70s Korean and Taiwanese folk. Then this thesis moves on to discuss the main attributes of the folk scenes. I could classify them into three main types: political limitations, specific conceptualizations of youth, and the prevalence and internalization of Anglophone Pop.

First I try to explain how music faced constant political restrictions and moral regulations under authoritarian regimes of Chiang Kai-shek and Park Chung-hee, and how they contributed to shaping the construction of folk scenes. A second common attribute of the ‘70s Taiwan and Korean folk is the optimistic and innocent attitudes of

‘youth.’ I examine the specific conceptualizations of youth in this period and that they rose from both socio-political factors and musical characteristics of folk music. The last thing I would like to point out is that the 1970s folk rose out of strong desires of Korean and Taiwanese youths to ‘internalize’ American and Anglophone pop. Based on Yoshimi Shunya's notion of ‘internalization of America’ this research argues that domestic folk scenes were attempts of musical localization when Anglophone pop music held dominant positions over local popular music.

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Finally, the concluding part of this thesis will briefly summarize the points that this paper had mentioned and consider the significance of ‘70s folk scenes of Korea and Taiwan in the contemporary perspective. Also, taking the limits and the future developments of this research into account, I conclude this paper with a hope for the further explorations of localization processes of pop in the context of Cold-war East Asia.

[Notes on romanization]

Korean personal names, places and other proper nouns will be romanized according to the Revised Romanization of Korean, and Chinese names and proper nouns will follow the Hanyu Pinyin romanization system. However, when there are already widely accepted and used romanization methods for certain proper nouns other than the two systems, I will adopt the widely used terms; for instance, Taipei will be used instead of Taibei.

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Chapter One:

Popular Music Scenes in South Korea and Taiwan

Popular Music and ‘Pop’: Postwar Popular Music in Korea and Taiwan

‘Pop’ is the abbreviation for popular music. Therefore, in English, it might be tricky to tell the difference between popular music and pop. However, popular music has been subdivided into different categories in ‘peripheries’ like the 1970s South Korea and Taiwan according to the extent of localization, where developments of popular music accompanied strong influences of Anglo-American music, and where the domestic popular music could not neglect the ‘originality’ of Anglo-American pop.

New words like Pap or Remen Yinyue have emerged in the second half of the 20^th century to particularly refer to ‘Anglo-American pop or its localized, domestic versions’ in Korea and Taiwan. This localization issue is the main concern of this paper.

To understand the pop localization of the 1970s Korea and Taiwan, it is necessary to understand what happened before and up to this period. Both the Korean peninsula and Taiwan went through the Japanese colonial period in the early 20^th century. The Japanese imperialist government brought down the previous Joseon dynasty and colonized the peninsula from 1910 to 1945. Taiwan was a part of the Qing China but was ceded to Japan in 1895 after Qing lost the first Sino-Japanese war until Japanese troops surrendered after WWII and Taiwan was placed under the governance of the Republic of China.

The defeat of Japan in 1945 marked the end of colonization and before long,

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War and role of East Asia under the Cold War regime placed South Korea and Taiwan under strong American military and institutional influence. This influence included the cultural sphere, and therefore popular music of South Korea and Taiwan could not be separate from Anglo-American, and particularly American pop. The 1970s, which is the main concern of this paper, is when American pop became direct references for Korean and Taiwanese musicians as will be discussed hereafter.

I have already used the term ‘popular music’ many times in this paper, but what does it exactly refer to? Many academic discussions have tried to give a precise definition to the vague notion of popular music. ‘Popular music’ and ‘music that is popular’ are not the same; if we categorize music based on popularity, Beethoven and Mozart are still very popular around the world. On the other hand, ‘pop’ songs recorded by a little-known singer would not be very popular although they would be labeled as popular music.

Despite such contradictions, there is a widespread agreement that some types of music can be called popular music while other kinds cannot. This categorization starts with the development of mass media and recording technology since the late 19^th century. In many traditional societies people have enjoyed music in limited spaces and time, but afterward, music could be spread over different places and time with the technological progress, translocally and transnationally. Thus, instead of trying to give a precise definition of popular music, this paper covers a particular musical range that is conventionally considered popular music and also tries to give some examples of how the 1970s Korean and Taiwanese public thought of the notion of popular music through the magazines.

Korean and Chinese words referring to popular music are not exactly the

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same in their points of emphasis and nuances. The most comprehensive and frequently used Korean word is Daejungeumak. Daejungeumak refers to the music (Eumak) appreciated by the general public or mass (Daejung). On the other hand, Liuxing Yinyue is most inclusively and frequently used in Taiwan and the Chinese- speaking world to refer to popular music. Liuxing (translated as ‘in vogue’ or

‘fashionable’) is a word implying not only popularity but also the concept of flow (liu means flow in Chinese). However, in this paper, I will mainly use the English word popular music due to the convenience of discussion while also being mindful of the differences in languages.

The colonial Korean peninsula and island of Taiwan first encountered the notion of popular music under Japanese colonization. Popular music of imperial Japan was already a combination of different musical trends and origins, and colonial Korean peninsula (Joseon) and Taiwan once again localized these various musical elements imported through Japan, gradually marginalizing the previous local folk music. Complicated center-periphery relationships or ‘imagined geographies’ of popular music (Choi 2013, 342) had been established between the West, Japan, and Joseon (the Korean peninsula) as well as Taiwan.

Shin Hyunjoon’s book Archeology of Korean Pop 1960, which is a comprehensive detailed study of 1960s Korean popular music, starts with the Shin’s explanation concerning why he entitled this book the archeology of Korean ‘pop’ (or pap, following the Korean rendering), not the archeology of Korean ‘popular music’

(Daejung Eumak).

“In my opinion, it was proper to refer to ‘60s and ‘70s Korean popular

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music as Korean pop, and otherwise the signifier and signified do not correspond. This idea encountered some opposition. Many protested that the word Han'guk Pap (Korean Pop) is not in use. However, I still pushed ahead. (...) It was also because I found out a ‘pop columnist’ referring to the situations of Korean popular music from the late 1960s to the early

‘70s as the pop revolution. It is not very clear whether the word pop in this context means Western (American) pop, modified songs with translated Korean lyrics or fully localized pop music. He would have probably included all of them. (Shin 2005a, 5)

In Shin’s definition, ‘pop’ (Pap) is the domestic Korean popular music produced in the national boundary under the Anglo-American pop influence. This conceptualization implies that Korean Pap in this period was differentiated or even in conflicts with the mainstream popular music in Korea of this period.

Meanwhile in Taiwan, a new term, Remen Yinyue, emerged during the ‘60s and ‘70s. It literally means hit/popular (Remen) music (Yinyue) in Chinese, and designates Anglo-American pop and rock music in general. It should be noted that this Remen Yinyue was used as both a similar and different music compared to the general popular music. As will be further explained in the next chapter, the previous mainstream songs (They were often called Liuxing Gequ, meaning popular songs/songs in vogue) had more general audiences and were somewhat adult-oriented, while Remen Yinyue was often understood as a more novel and teen-oriented kind of popular music.

No matter what names and labels we give to this difference, it is noticeable that there was a sudden influx of Anglo-American music in Korea and Taiwan, and

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that to some extent it collided with the previous local popular music. This differentiation of Anglo-American pop and local popular music had a particular significance in this period. “Before, Korea (Asia) and pop (America) were two different notions. It is not the same anymore, but back then, ‘the Korean culture (national culture?)’ and ‘pop culture (foreign culture?)’ were in conflict relations. If we can say that ‘Korean rock’ or ‘Korean pop’ sound quite familiar, it means that ‘pop’

and ‘America’ are not considered external to Korea (Asia) anymore and that they have been internalized.” (Shin 2005a, 7)

Categorizing Popular Music in South Korea and Taiwan

Here, I would like to ‘draw outlines’ of the 1970s popular music in Korea and Taiwan and how different kinds of popular music were categorized. These categorizations are related to the context how folk emerged in Korea and Taiwan.

In terms of material conditions, it is not too much to say that Korean popular music started from scratch after 1945. After the end of colonization most Japanese record companies, machines, and other infrastructures were sent back to Japan, and the personnel also returned. Furthermore, due to the outbreak of Korean War a few years later, the popular music industry was placed in a critical situation. Taiwan also had similar problems although it did not experience a ‘hot war’ after WWII. After the Japanese infrastructures and Japanese administrators went back to the mainland Japan, Taiwan had to reconstruct its own postwar music industry in a harsh environment.

As discussed earlier in the introduction, this research stems from the point of view that despite cultural and historical differences of between Korea and Taiwan, it is significant to discuss the two together concerning 1970s popular music. This

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significance comes both from commonalities of the environment that fostered Korean and Taiwanese folk, as well as from the similarities in music and music-making processes. First, I would like to give a brief account concerning the overall environment of the 1970s popular music.

First, we cannot ignore the institutional systems that enabled encounters with Anglo-American music. Concerning the Cold War regime and geopolitical circumstances, South Korea and Taiwan were placed under the American military power especially after the Korean War. The national economy and military forces in Korea and Taiwan depended very heavily on the American troops disposed within their territories, especially during the several decades after the end of colonization.

The US military camps fostered many local singers and instrumentalists, who later contributed in providing alternatives to the local mainstream popular songs.

Moreover, there were American radio stations targeted for US soldiers (Called AFKN in Korea and AFNT in Taiwan) and these stations also became the music channels through which the local youngsters could listen to the latest American pop.

“Although the American Radio Station [in Taiwan] had broadcasted in English and its main purpose was to serve as the loudspeaker of the American view of world news, its music broadcasts had offered direct information to the educated and urban youngsters.”

(Ho 2003, 63-64) “Few pop fans in this country do not the experience of tuning in AFKN. Pop fans get carried away listening to AFKN, which broadcasts pop music almost all day. And after domestic stations stop broadcasting around 1 o’clock, it remains as the only radio station.” (Monthly Pop Song 1973.9 p. 30)

The postwar educational systems of Korea and Taiwan which considered English education crucial were not irrelevant from the prevalence of Anglophone songs. We can easily find from the magazines that listening to overseas pop songs

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were often connected with English education.

[Figure 5] “Pop song English class:” learning English through lyrics of Tom Jones’

song. (Monthly Pop Song, 1975.10, pp. 64-65)

[Figure 6] “Learning English through songs – the repository of popular songs (p. 35)”

(from Rock Magazine, 1975.6, table of contents)

Such influence included several different dimensions. As discussed above, there were domestic circumstances that enabled the encounter of Anglophone music.

The necessity for English learning, American radio broadcasts and the physical existence of American troops were shared experiences of Korea and Taiwan during the second half of the 20^th century.

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On the other hand, it is also necessary to note that Anglophone popular music has exerted very far-reaching influence not only in Korea and Taiwan but also in different parts of the world. Anglo-America music icons such as Elvis Presley and the Beatles were stars in all over the world, including Korea and Taiwan. Thus, the

‘baptism’ of Anglo-American pop music was a universal phenomenon in this period, as well as being domestic experiences.

It is also possible to say that (Anglo-American) pop became the standard that domestic audiences ought to follow, under the situation that it held the central place in their mindset. Popular music, brought through colonial Japan, already existed in pre- war Korea and Taiwan. However, after the liberation, the previous musical trends were gradually marginalized, and the Anglophone way of writing/playing music became the standard grammar for the local musicians. (Choi 2013, 359)

Such process could be called Americanization. We should note, however, that

“the authenticity of American values is not the issue here (for there is no single American value system)” as Ho Tung-hong mentions in his research on the Americanization of Taiwanese popular music (Ho 2003, 63). It will not be possible to give a precise definition to ‘the original America’ and moreover, America in this process was constructed in the imagery or selectively chosen by South Korea or Taiwan as will be discussed later. The focus of this paper is how the local public perceived which kind of representation of America through popular music.

Mainstream popular songs around the ‘60s and ‘70s Korea were unique combinations of different musical origins, including Japanese colonial songs, jazz, and American standards. Some songs represented images of more urban and optimistic Korea/Seoul through interpretations of American standards and other

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genres of pop music. Meanwhile, Teuroteu, largely a continuation of Japanese colonial songs, were still very widely sung among the Korean public, in particular among the less privileged and living in the non-urban environment. “In the 1960s, (American) standards were regarded as new and refined music, and Teuroteu became relatively rural and unsophisticated music.” (Lee 2011, 55)

These two 1960s musical trends could be best represented by two songs: The Boy in the Yellow Shirt sung by Han Myeongsuk, and A Camellia of a Girl sung by Lee Mi-ja. “Composer Son Seok-u, through Venus Records which he established in the winter of 1960, introduced new grammars of American popular music and departed from Teuroteu. The result was the massive hit of the song ‘The Boy in the Yellow Shirt’ by Han Myeongsuk, and it became the new starting point of American standards trend in Korea.” (Kim 2015, 27) On the other hand, Lee Mi-ja and her hit ‘A Camelia of a Girl (1962),’ using the musical grammars and sentiments of rural women, became one of the best-selling hit of the 1960s, being the first song to sell more than 100 thousand copies in Korea. (Maeil Business Newspaper 1966)

However, other kinds of pop have also existed, differentiated from mainstream trends and consisting of more limited audiences and musicians. One of them was rock. The early history of Korean rock music could not be separate from the existence of US military troops in the South Korean territory. Hundreds of US military camps, camp towns (Gijichon), and American soldier clubs have formed in different cities of South Korea. These soldier clubs starred show groups (Syodan) and rock bands that consisted of Korean musicians who played British or American rock hits. (For details, see Kim 2015, 38-42; Shin 2005a, 44-48; etc.) The existence of U.S.

Army bases is known to have exerted a very fundamental influence in the early formation of Korean pop, and thus most researches and writings that deal with Korean

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popular music of this period mention their existence and importance. “Western pop music styles performed at music clubs on U.S. Army bases (i.e., the Eighth United States Army) played key roles in training Korean musicians and audiences.” (Yoon 2017, 111)

However, we should also be mindful that the music played in U.S. military bases were rather peculiar forms of popular music, relatively separate from the

‘mainstream’ pop represented by the composer Son Seok-u or singer Lee Mi-ja described above. “Stages on the Eighth United States Army were not necessarily planned only for American soldiers, but basically, it was targeted for the musical tastes of the small number of foreigners staying in Korea temporarily.” (Lee 2007, 94) Playing for the American audiences, Korean musicians have tried their best to get closer to the ‘original’ contemporary Anglophone pop and rock so that they could cater to the needs of US soldiers. They were hired in the US troops through fierce auditions and were paid many times more than the vast majority of Koreans living in poverty.

Rock music in Korea associated with the American army and camp towns represented a certain face of America. On the other hand, folk music began to represent a different one or the ‘other’ West or the other America with imageries of the urban environment and middle-class university students. “Various genres of pop music, for example, jazz, country, soul, and rock were often regarded as

‘entertainments in the American military clubs’ and were not free from uncomfortable memories and experiences of the military bases, but folk music was different.” (Shin

& Sawangchot 2009, 437)

Popular music in Taiwan had multiple sources of origin, just like the

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intertwined history of Taiwan. First, Japanese popular music left traces in the early 20^th-century Taiwanese music under the colonial rule, and this Japanese flavor still lingered in many postwar Taiwanese records, as we can find in the popularity of so- called ‘mixed-blood songs (Hunxie Gequ)’ in the 1950s and ‘60s. These were songs that were ‘imported’ from Japan and had translated Taiwanese (Minnan) lyrics. “Amid the widespread postwar nostalgia for Japan, ‘mixed songs’ emerged. These songs already gained popularity in Japan, and Taiwanese imported and added lyrics in Minnan (Taiwanese) language.” (Lin Liang-Che’s interview, Taiwan Public Television Service 2011) On the other hand, songs from Shanghai also became widespread in the postwar Taiwan. Shanghai pop, which blossomed in the mainland in the 1930s and during the WWII, were often called Old Shanghai Songs (Shanghai Laoge); however, they were in fact relatively ‘new’ songs in postwar Taiwan, since the Taiwanese public encountered this music mainly after the retreat of the Nationalist Party (KMT). (Chen 2017)

Soon, Anglo-American pop was also rapidly brought into the postwar Taiwan.

As well as in South Korea, many military bases were stationed in different parts of Taiwan especially after the outbreak of Korean War. Many musicians who learned to play Anglo-American pop made stage appearances in these places for American soldiers, as well as playing for the local audience. Edward Yang’s 1991 film A Bright Summer Day, which depicts the teenage life of second-generation mainlanders in 1960s Taipei, shows many aspects of the musical life of the urban mainlander/waishengren youths. At home, they put up posters of Anglo-American pop and movie stars and listen to pop music through turntables. At restaurants, dessert cafes and concert halls teenagers go to concerts of bands that play foreign pop and rock, especially Elvis Presley, and form bands themselves. Such descriptions coincide

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with the memoirs of Remen Yinyue musicians who grew up in this period, such as Jin Ju-ling¹¹: “We often ate shaved ice at shaved ice stores then, and there we could listen to Western songs they play. I thought, ‘Wow, how strange. Their beats, rhythms, chords and melodies are different from the ones of Chinese pop songs or Peking opera.’ That was when I fell in love with Western pop.” (Taiwan Public Television Service 2011)

Unfortunately, there are not many recordings that exist now or original songs (not covers) of these musicians. Shin and Ho note that attempts to make recordings of Taiwanese local musicians were not very welcomed by the record companies because they preferred ‘(Anglo-American) originals’ than recordings by local musicians (2009, 95).

[Figure 7] Rock Magazine: “Why would you not record an album?”

Martha Huang (Huang Xiao-ning): “First, the market for Western songs is smaller.

Record companies will not ask you to make recordings. Second, I’m not very experienced, and do not like to do trivial things. (…) But since I’ve sung songs for such a long time, I might make a record and keep it as a keepsake if I have free time.”

11 Jin (1937-2014) was a representative Remen Yinyue musician of the 1960s and 70s. He was the vocalist and leader of The Ritmon (1962-1978), a band that had wide repertoires from the American Top 40 Chart to hard rock and had played in various venues for the local audience and American soldiers. For a more detailed history of The Ritmon and

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(Rock Magazine, 1976.6, p. 61)

Huang is a singer-songwriter who stood on many small and big stages, covering Western pop and rock hits. Her interview shows that her musical career was mostly through live stages and that if she ever makes a recording, it would be her

‘keepsake.’ The interview might be an answer to why not many Remen Yinyue recordings were made. In fact, recordings were also regarded as mere keepsakes to Korean rock bands of the ‘60s and 70s (often called ‘group sound’) (Shin 2005a, 304) but it seems that there are fewer records of Remen Yinyue compared to the 1970s Korean urban rock scenes which left quite a few cover/original recordings and songs (Shin & Ho 2009, 94). Another possible reason is that the number of American troops was smaller than that of S. Korea and decreased significantly since the early 1970s for the establishment of PRC-US diplomatic ties (Lin 2012, 70), thus largely changing musical environments and job opportunities for the musicians.

In such musical environments, Anglo-American pop and rock emerged as new musical trends for urban youths. Mainstream popular songs (songs in Mandarin or Taiwanese/Hoklo) did not necessarily target for a specific generation (Chang Meng-Jui, interview) but were often considered relatively old and adult-oriented compared to the new and fashionable Anglo-American pop. Many young locals were listening to Anglo-American pop/rock through various media and ‘campus folk,’ the primary concern of this research. It was a unique local pop genre which emerged amid such Anglo-American cultural influences.

Next, I will discuss the reasons I use the notion of scenes and what it means to think of scenes in discussing this 1970s folk music.

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Folk Music as Scenes

One of the most common ways to talk about popular music is to follow the major names. We often accumulate knowledge about a particular genre and time through the names of well-known pop stars and musicians, along with the names of their major songs and albums. This is helpful when one wants to have the sketchy outline, but it is not very useful when one wants to understand the context of a specific genre comprehensively.

In the case of 1970s Korean and Taiwanese folk, there were many nationwide stars and canonized songs as well. However, in many instances, there were no clear boundaries between amateurs and professionals, since even the best-known musicians were daytime college students and many of them were not considering music as their lifetime occupation. (Tai Zhaomei, interview) It was in contrast with the previous Korean and Taiwanese adult-oriented pop music circle, where singers, composers, and instrumentalists went through certain career-making steps and worked as professionals. Thus in this research, I am using the notion of scenes rather than certain songs and artists.

Since the mid and late 1960s there were already many Korean radio programs which specialized in introducing Anglo-American pop music, and many teenagers and young adults, especially those living in cities, could listen to these programs without much difficulty. The private (non-governmental) TV broadcasting station, Dong-A, opened in 1964 as well, but few programs specialized in pop music due to the limited number of channels and broadcasting hours. Also, TV sets were quite expensive to many Koreans at least around the 1960s and even when a family had one, in most cases it belonged to the adults and parents. Therefore, radios became the primary medium through which the young generation encountered music.

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Accordingly, the young generation (typically high school and college students) started to find places where they could listen to the familiar Anglo-American pop and exchange their musical taste. Some of them started to play such music themselves and acquaint with other musicians.

One well-known example of such places was C'est Si Bon (The French word meaning ‘It’s so good,’ which is still a familiar name to the Korean public. C'est Si Bon was a record listening room and music hall in Jongno, the center of Seoul, which existed from the early 1950s until 1969. Since the mid-1960s it becomes the representative place of ‘folk scenes’ because of regular performances by student- musicians and other related events held here. Many amateur young musicians who often performed and hung out here became nationwide stars in a few years, appearing in TV and radio shows and recording hit songs.

After C’est Si Bon went out of business due to financial issues, another place named House of Tree Frogs became the center of ‘youth culture.’ It was originally a cultural space that Seoul YWCA (Young Womens' Christian Association) opened for young musicians and students, and soon becomes the gathering space of semi-amateur folk singers and hundreds of audience. The place only lasted around one year, but many teenagers and young adults who hung out here gained national recognition not long ago, including musicians Kim Min-ki and Yang Hee-eun. (Choi 2013)

These are only a part of examples of various musical venues and sites, but it is noticeable that most venues were located very closely (in other words, in walking distances) to each other. They were mostly located in the ‘downtown’ of Seoul (Shin 2013, 608; Lee 2014, 115) near Jongno and Myeongdong.

Main repertoires in these venues were Anglo-American mainstream pop and

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the American modern folk revival. In Korea, such music was commonly called pokeu, a Korean transliteration of folk. It does not mean that the music completely corresponds to the Anglo-American notion of modern folk, but even when the musicians sang ‘mainstream pop’ repertoires, the semi-amateur musicians sang in simple manners with acoustic guitar accompaniments. Thus it is possible to think of pokeu as a new local genre due to such patterns of performance, rather than strictly applying the original Anglo-American genre categorizations of the songs performed.

Radio broadcast programs also became major channels through which Taiwanese youths could encounter Western pop. “There were many radio channels, but I listened to only one of them. Songs from other channels were not intriguing or stimulating at all. In those days I thought, ‘When could music in Taiwan be like the songs from American Forces Network (AFN)?’ That was the first time I had my own opinions about music.”¹² (Taiwan Public Television Service 2011) After the establishment of AFN in Taiwan (1957) many local broadcasts followed up with their own programs that exclusively play and introduce Western/Anglo-American pop. “In a special report about Taiwan’s Remen yinyue scene from 1956 to 1968, it was estimated that in Taipei city in 1968 (Lo et al. 1968), there were 17 programs weekly on American popular music (the American Radio Station and other cities’ programs were not included).” (Shin & Ho 2009, 98)

There were various musical venues in Taiwan, mostly in Taipei and especially since the early 1970s for the teenagers and young adults who grew up in such pop environments. One of the most well-known gathering spaces among the urban youth

12 The interviewee was Lee Shou-Chuan (1955-) who started his musical career as a

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was a café and small concert venue called Idea House. It was located in the eastern center of Taipei (the current Dongqu) and opened in 1973. Here, the young generation was acquainted with each other and held small musical events. Semi-amateurs who soon became the leading roles in Taiwan’s ‘Modern Folksong movement’ frequently visited Idea House with guitars in their hands.

Scarecrow Restaurant was another famous example of such a venue. It was just next to the campus of National Taiwan University, at the Roosevelt Rd. and run for several years after it opened in 1975. Besides holding cultural and musical events such as regular concerts of traditional musician Chen Da, Scarecrow Restaurant was mostly a place where young musicians (Ara-Kimbo and TC Yang, to name only a few) performed Anglo-American pop and folk as well as their original songs influenced by the Western pop. The fact that this place stood right next to the university also shows who the main audience was.

Such places served as small cafés or restaurants, and the restaurants were called Xicanting which means ‘Western’ cafeteria. Considering drinking coffees and eating Western food was thought as a foreign-style culture in the 1970s Taiwan, it was not surprising that Western pop or related local pop was performed here. Most of these Xicantings and cafes were situated in certain ‘downtown’ areas of Taipei:

Zhongshan North Rd., which had been the avenue representing foreign (Japanese or American) culture since the Japanese colonial period, near universities or in Dongqu, the then-newly developed urban area in Taipei. (Ma et al. 2015)

Why were the young generations of Korea and Taiwan in need of such places?

It is because they were not satisfied with the local mainstream pop and wanted to listen to and sing the music they liked. We can conceptualize this musical culture as

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youth culture through such alternative nature and the generation issue.

There are many ways to think of youth culture, and one of them is the notion of subculture. In Hebdige's classic research on subculture, which is based on the Barthes' theory on signs, subculture challenges the hegemony through 'different symbols' than the social majority. (1979, 17) In this point of view, culture refers not only to intentional artworks but also various symbols which can imply certain significance. A subculture has a resistant nature, which is revealed not through obvious political slogans but implicative ‘styles.’ (Ibid.)

However, folk in Korea and Taiwan were in different contexts than the resistant nature of subculture theory, although they were also recognized as youth culture. The ‘folk’ to some extent was opposed to the mainstream pop of the same period, but the direction of the criticism was more focused on enjoying better or more refined music. For instance, advocates of Taiwan campus folk called the contemporary adult-oriented pop music as ‘decadent music (Mimizhiyin).’ This expression was used by the youths as well as the authoritative older generation, who had critical views on ‘vulgar’ pop music. “The essence of folk songs is in their simpleness, and through this, they can counteract the ‘decadent’ music.” (Yu 1978) The Korean urban youth likewise had contempt or antipathy toward Teuroteu. “Folk singers who sing in the Cosmos Hall (a.k.a. Heaven of Youth) sometimes would parody and mock the Ppongjjak of the older generation. Then the audience shouted for joy and encore. It was a kind of mockery.” (Shin 2005a, 275)

Moreover, the contexts in which the subculture discussion emerged were related to class issues of postwar Britain. However, the youth cultures in postwar Korea and Taiwan were in different situations other than class struggle. They did not occur homogeneously for everyone; when folk scenes emerged, they were enjoyed

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mostly by a small number of youths who lived in the urbanest parts of the countries such as Korea and Taiwan, and most of the musicians were students in prestigious universities.

For these reasons, this research is based on the notion of scenes when talking of 1970s folk in Taiwan and Korea. "A musical scene, in contrast, is that cultural space in which a range of musical practices coexist..." (Straw 1991, 373) The scene is the concept which does not preassume resistance toward the mainstream culture in contrast to subculture. Therefore it could be vaguer, but on the other hand, it can explain a wider range of phenomena.

Meanwhile, compared to musical communities, scene is a notion that focuses more on the dynamic nature of musical activities. As Ho Tung-hong put in his research on the history of Taiwanese popular music, also considering scenes as the basic components of the pop music history: “The discourse of musical community tends to treat local identities - in geographical and generic senses - as stabilized over time (...) However, the rise of musical scenes (e.g., in the 80s' alternative rock and dance scenes) tended ‘to disrupt such continuities, to cosmopolitanize and relativize them.’” (Ho 2003, 43-44) The 1970s folk scenes were new phenomena which emerged during the differentiation of previous nationwide pop music communities, and they were also based on specific sites of the urban environment.

Folk scenes were notable scene movements in the early history of postwar popular music in Korea and Taiwan, and moreover, they were one of the first scenes that had generation issues. Before Korean pokeu and Taiwan's minge got wide nationwide recognition, the mainstream popular music was not intentionally focusing on the generation of the audience and musicians. In addition, we can find out that Monthly Pop Song and Rock Magazine contributed to a large extent in creating and

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expanding the scenes. The next chapter will be devoted to their relationships to the magazines, while also discussing the specific development of the scenes.