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貳、 軟體專利相關問題

本章以介绍軟體專利現狀為重点。第一節介紹幾個基本問題,第二節則討論 這幾個基本問題與其他問題的關聯。

一、 基本問題

本節將介紹有關軟體專利的三個基本問題,包括它們如何相互關聯、如何對 專利系統造成困擾,同時也將提及軟體專利的一些其他現狀。

(一) 功能性請求項用語

在 Gottschalk v. Benson (1972)23一案中,一個將二進制編碼十進制數字(binary coded decimal numerals)轉換為純二進制數字的演算法(algorithm)24被美國聯 邦最高法院認為是不可專利的。因為演算法專利會完全先佔(preempt)相應的 數學公式,故遭到了明確的反對25。然而,電腦程式並未因此被絕對地排除在適 格專利標的之外。相反的,最高法院指出一些電腦程式可能是專利適格的26。 雖然演算法本身不是適格的專利標的,但該判決為電腦程式與軟體發明的專 利適格性(eligibility)留下了疑問。在 Benson 案後,當人們欲就類似發明申請 專利時,為避免被歸類為不適格的標的,便傾向於以演算法和數學公式以外的形 式描述他們的發明,典型者即自然語言27。這種手段一方面讓本不適格的專利標 的混進了專利資料庫,另一方面還造成了用語不精確的問題,畢竟數學語言和自

23 Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S. 63 (1972).

24 演算法,即解決特定的一類數學問題的步驟。Id., at 65 (“A procedure for solving a given type of mathematical problem is known as an ‘algorithm.’”).

25 Id., at 71-72.

26 Id., at 71 (“It is said that the decision precludes a patent for any program servicing a computer. We do not so hold.”) 另,適格性(eligibility)一詞是後來發展出來的,最高法院在 Benson 案中並未使用。另一種與適 格性意思完全相同的說法是,是否是法定/可專利標的(statutory/patentable subject matter)。為避免混淆,本

文中一律使用「適格性」。

27 所謂「自然語言」,即人們日常使用的語言,區別於數學語言。See ROBIN FELDMAN, RETHINKING

PATENT LAW 109 (2012) (“The message was clear, however, that if an innovation was ever going to survive a court challenge, it had to avoid being labeled an algorithm or looking too much like math. The result was an attempt to describe the process of what was happening in simple English terms by moving the description of the process to an even more abstract plane.”). 後文中將更詳細地介紹軟體發明的適格性問題的歷史,參見本文第

肆、三部分(軟體專利保護的歷史回顧和反省)。

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軟體的一些特徵,諸如無實體(intangible)29以及純功能性(functional all the way down)30,使得以高度抽象語言描述軟體發明變得可行,甚至毫無違和感。

29 See Richard S. Gruner, Intangible Inventions: Patentable Subject Matter for an Information Age, 35 Loy. L.A.

L. Rev. 355, 357 (2002).

30 See Kevin Emerson Collins, Patent Law's Functionality Malfunction and the Problem of Overbroad, Functional Software Patents, 90 Wash. U.L. Rev. 1399, 1440 (2013) [hereinafter Collins, Malfunction].

31 See Julie E. Cohen and Mark A. Lemley, Patent Scope and Innovation in the Software Industry, 89 Cal. L. Rev.

1, 48 (2001) [hereinafter Cohen & Lemley, Patent Scope and Innovation].

32 See Holly K. Victorson, Structure from Nothing and Claims for Free: Using A Whole-System View of the Patent System to Improve Notice and Predictability for Software Patents, 20 Mich. Telecomm. & Tech. L. Rev. 497, 509 (2014) (“The functional aspect of software is often the novel and inventive part of the invention.”) [hereinafter Victorson, Improve Notice]; see Collins, Malfunction, supra note 30, at 1443 (“In the software arts, however, an invention ‘is’ its function, not its structure.”)

33 筆者試舉一例說明演算法的效率問題。有正整數 i 和 j,其中 i < j,現在的數學問題是,計算 i 到 j 的所

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明在市場上貢獻可觀的優勢34。值得注意的是,消費者主要關心產品的功能,對 其內部結構卻冷漠得多35。假設一家公司開發了一套文字處理軟體,其演算法優 於 Microsoft 公司的對應產品「Word」。雖然性能更高,但普通用戶卻可能不會 以其取代 Word,例如,當該軟體與「docx」格式或流行的第三方插件不相容、

不能提供與 Word 相同的功能、甚至當該軟體就各種功能在用戶介面上的安排與 Word 有所不同。對於普通用戶而言,微軟的 Word 產品可能已經足以處理日常 工作,將處理時間從 0.2 秒降低至 0.1 秒的意義微乎其微。相比之下,花費數周 時間熟悉與調整新軟件卻顯得是個繁重的任務。

如下是 Microsoft 自己提供的例證。當其推出 Office 2013 系列的兩個版本後,

效率相對更高的 64 位元(bit)版本未受到官方的推薦,從而證明對於普通用戶 易用性的重要性至少在一定程度上高於效率:

Office 2013 有兩個可用於安裝的版本,32 位元版和 64 位元版。我們建

議大多數用戶使用 32 位版本的 Office,因為它與大多數其他應用程序(特 別是第三方加載項)更相容。但在您的工作涉及大量的資訊或圖形時,請考 慮 64 位元版 36

這似乎意味著,當人們就先進的演算法申請專利時,不但需要將個中秘密向 競爭者揭露,還要冒著根據 Benson 判決被認定為無效的風險,最終消費者對該 演算法所帶來的效果卻並不敏感。既然充分揭露演算法代價不菲卻收效甚微,那 麼說明書中未說明程式設計方式、必要的模組(module)被一併省略也就顯得理 所當然了37

遺憾的是,至少在在一些案件中法院也沒有阻止這種做法。在 N. Telecom, Inc.

數為固定值,即效率為 O(1))。故,演算法 B 被認為更加高效。

在程式設計中,常用的演算法往往被封裝(encapsulate)為現成的函數/方法,無需程式設計師操心具 體的解決方法。例如,對數列 a 進行排序時,程式設計師可能僅需要寫 sort(a)。

34 但也並非總是如此,有時演算法的效率十分關鍵。Google 就是一例,其勝出之道便是其演算法比當時的

其他同行更為優秀。

35 See Collins, Malfunction, supra note 30, at 1419

36 Microsoft, “Choose the 64-bit or 32-bit version of Office”,

https://support.office.com/en-us/article/Choose-the-64-bit-or-32-bit-version-of-Office-2dee7807-8f95-4d0c-b5fe-6 c6f49b8d261#32or64Bit=2013 (visited on Jan. 23, 2017).

37 Mark A. Lemley, Software Patents and the Return of Functional Claiming, 2013 Wis. L. Rev. 905, at 924 (2013) [hereinafter Lemley, Functional Claiming].

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v. Datapoint Corp. (Fed. Cir. 1990)一案中,為了滿足美國專利法(下文簡稱為「專 利法」)第 112 條據以實施要件、避免過度實驗(undue experiment),詳細流程 圖(detailed flow charts)、框圖(block diagrams)與源代碼列表(source code listings)

都被認為是不必要的,因為聯邦巡迴上訴法院認定在該案的情況下「一個擁有合 理技能的程式設計師可以通過尋常的努力寫出一份令人滿意的程式」38。在 In re Hayes Microcomputer Prod. (Fed. Cir. 1992)一案中,上訴法院主張申請人為滿足揭 露義務無需揭露實際程式 39。相反的,揭露發明的能力(capabilities)與功能即 已足夠,因為這將使得該領域擁有通常技藝者足以理解與實現該發明 40。Fonar Corp. v. General Elec. Co. (Fed. Cir. 1997)一案中,上訴法院再次重申為充分揭露 的目的,流程圖與源代碼列表並非必要,並在此案中認為提供功能比提供方法更 重要41。不難看出,至少在一些情況下說明書僅需要揭露功能而非實現功能的方 法,只要該領域內有通常技藝者(a person having ordinary skills in the art,下文 稱為「PHOSITA」)能夠據以實現。

不僅法院對抽象的軟體專利加以較少的限制 42,美國專利與商標局(U.S.

Patent and Trademark Office,下文稱為「專利局」)也並不十分嚴格 43。一個典型 的例子是 Amazon 公司的「一鍵(one-click)」專利,該方法允許用戶通過一次點 擊完成一次在線購物44。一方面該專利未揭露任何先進技術,另一方面通過一個 動作完成一次購買的思想對於任何一個使用過軟飲料機的人來說似乎都是顯而

38 N. Telecom, Inc. v. Datapoint Corp., 908 F.2d 931, 942-943 (Fed. Cir. 1990) (“Datapoint's witness Professor Clark testified that additional information such as detailed flow charts, block diagrams, or source code listings were necessary in order to avoid spending experimental time. However, as noted in Sherwood, a description of such information may be adequate to a skilled programmer”.) (“The great weight of the expert testimony on both sides was that a programmer of reasonable skill could write a satisfactory program with ordinary effort.”)

39 In re Hayes Microcomputer Prod., 982 F.2d 1527, 1534 (Fed. Cir. 1992) (“The evidence of record supports the conclusion that all that was required for one of ordinary skill in the art to understand what the invention was and how to carry it out was the disclosure of a microprocessor having certain capabilities and the desired functions it was to perform.”)

40 Id.

41 Fonar Corp. v. General Elec. Co., 107 F.3d 1543, at 1549 (Fed. Cir. 1997)

42 See JAMES BESSEN &MICHAEL J.MEURER,PATENT FAILURE:HOW JUDGES,BUREAUCRATS AND LAWYERS PUT

INNOVATORS AT RISK 212 (2008) [hereinafter BESSON &MEURER,PATENT FAILURE].

43 For an opposite opinion, see Mark A. Lemley & Bhaven Sampat, Is the Patent Office A Rubber Stamp?, 58 Emory L.J. 181 (2008) (發現電腦產業中的專利申請以及被歸類為商業方法的專利申請被核准的幾率都特別 低).

44 See US Patent no. 5,960,411; see Amazon.com, Inc. v. Barnesandnoble.com, Inc., 239 F.3d 1343 (Fed. Cir.

2001)

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易見的45。然而,它依然通過了單方復審程序(ex parte reexamination)46。 對於專利局不嚴格的審查有幾種解釋。一些人主張專利局與法院是兩套不同

45 Michele Boldrin & David K. Levine, The Case Against Patents, 27 J. Econ. Perspectives 3, 13 (2013) [hereinafter Boldrin & Levine, Against Patents].

46 See Reexamination No. 90/007,946. For an introduction to ex parte reexamination, see KINNEY &LANGE,P.A., INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW FOR BUSINESS LAWYERS, § 4:6. Ex parte reexamination (2016) (Westlaw citation:

Intell. Prop. L. Bus. Law. § 4:6); for more details about ex parte reexamination, see Manual of Patent Examining Procedure, Chapter 2200 “Citation of Prior Art and Ex Parte Reexamination of Patents”.

47 李明德,美國知識產權法,頁 57-58,2014 年 4 月,2 版。

48 同前註。

49 See Dan L. Burk & Mark A. Lemley, Fence Posts or Sign Posts? Rethinking Patent Claim Construction, 157 U.

Pa. L. Rev. 1743, 1782 (2009) (“[G]iven the negligible social value of most patents, it is inconceivable that we would want to invest the resources necessary to fully vet every patent application for validity, much less the resources that would be required to accurately predict all the ways that the market might use or modify an invention. And using the PTO to determine patent scope is particularly problematic given that patent examiners have no experience evaluating infringement as opposed to patent validity.”) [hereinafter Burk & Lemley, Fence].

50 Mark A. Lemley, Rational Ignorance at the Patent Office, 95 Nw. U. L. Rev. 1495, n3 (2001) (arguing that a PTO examiner has very limited time to spend on each patent and explaining why examiners are motivated to issue patents) [hereinafter Lemley, Rational Ignorance]. 筆者註:根據美國專利局新的審查規則,Lemley 在該註解 中所提到的無限次數的延續申請案自 2007 年 9 月 1 日起已成為歷史。

51 Id.

52 See Boldrin & Levine, Against Patent, supra note 45, at 13.

53 Id.

54 See Lemley, Functional Claiming, supra note 37, n137.

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審查、訴訟週期(examination-litigation cycle)之前 55,從而大大降低禁制令

(permanent injunction)56等敗訴後果的威懾力。

由於軟體發明容易以抽象的方式描述、專利申請人傾向於更大的專利範圍、

55 See Mark Aaron Paley, A Model Software Petite Patent Act, 12 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 301, 332 (1996) [hereinafter Paley, Petite].

56 當有效專利被侵犯時,法院可能會授予永久禁制令救濟(a permanent injunctive relief),禁止侵權方繼續 進行侵權行為。是否授予禁制令救濟,法院通常會根據衡平原則考慮四個因素,即無法回復之損害、法律 救濟的不足、權衡雙方困難後禁制令救濟是正當的、公共利益不受禁制令的損害。See 35 U.S.C § 283; see eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C., 547 U.S. 388, 391 (2006) (“According to well-established principles of equity, a plaintiff seeking a permanent injunction must satisfy a four-factor test before a court may grant such relief. A plaintiff must demonstrate: (1) that it has suffered an irreparable injury; (2) that remedies available at law, such as monetary damages, are inadequate to compensate for that injury; (3) that, considering the balance of hardships between the plaintiff and defendant, a remedy in equity is warranted; and (4) that the public interest would not be disserved by a permanent injunction.”) 違反禁制令的行為可能構成藐視法庭罪。See 18 U.S.C. § 401; see Siebring v. Hansen, 346 F.2d 474, 477 (8th Cir. 1965) (“[O]ne who violates an injunction restraining him from infringing upon a patent may be held in contempt.”)

57 See Lemley, Functional Claiming, supra note 37, at 908, 962.

58 Id., at 908.

59 Id., at 908.

60 See Pamela Samuelson et al., A Manifesto Concerning the Legal Protection of Computer Programs, 94 Colum.

L. Rev. 2308, 2345 (1994) [hereinafter Samuelson, Manifesto].

61 See Burk & Lemley, Policy Levers, supra note 21, at 1599 (2003) (“We grant patents in order to promote innovation, and so we should grant patents only to the extent necessary to encourage such innovation.”); see Graham v. John Deere Co. of Kansas City, 383 U.S. 1, 11 (1966) (holding that patents should be awarded to only

“those inventions which would not be disclosed or devised but for the inducement of a patent”); see Michael Abramowicz & John F. Duffy, The Inducement Standard of Patentability, 120 Yale L.J. 1590, 1597-98 (2011) (“[P]atents would cover only innovations that, without the patent system, would not have been in the public domain.”)

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若此種專利氾濫,將降低同一市場的競爭者的創新動力,因為無論他們的創新如 何地具有進步性,都將落入寬泛的功能性請求項中62。因此,功能性請求項為專

若此種專利氾濫,將降低同一市場的競爭者的創新動力,因為無論他們的創新如 何地具有進步性,都將落入寬泛的功能性請求項中62。因此,功能性請求項為專