第五章 研究結論、研究貢獻與建議
第三節 建議
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
貳、正念訓練對學生考試焦慮之重要性
考試是學生不可避免的學習情境，然在面臨測驗或考試的壓力狀況下，可能伴隨 而來的考試焦慮卻深深影響學生的學習表現（余民寧，1987），亦可能成為適應生活 的障礙。協助學生克服因擔心考試而引發的種種不安情緒及不適應的生理症狀，是教 育工作者急需解決的問題。根據本研究結果發現，在接受 14 週正念訓練後，實驗組 的考試焦慮顯著低於對照組，換言之，透過教師教導正念技巧，且經過一段時間的練 習，可有效緩減學生在面對考試時所引發的焦慮感受。
參、採教學實驗方式符合研究之生態效度
有別於過去研究多採用迴歸分析探討正念特質與各變項間的關係，本研究採教學 實驗方式，藉由標準化流程教導學生正念練習的技巧與方式，且於固定時間進行練 習，強化學生對於正念的認識與操作的準確性，進而考驗接受正念訓練的學生對於其 自律學習、閱讀行為、考試焦慮與情緒幸福感改變之效果。本研究透過於真實情境中 蒐集資料並加以分析，所獲得的結果除了符合生態效度之外，以教學實驗進行研究更 可真實反映教學現場狀況，根據研究結果提供國中教學與學習輔導之用。
第三節 建議
壹、教學與輔導上的建議
一、納入正念訓練作為學校常規作息
在現今資訊爆炸的時代，社會對於學校教師知識與技能的需求亦日益增加，根據 本研究結果發現，正念訓練對於學生學習及降低焦慮情緒有相當程度的影響，若將正 念練習納入學校常規作息中，除能協助教師更有效地處理學生在學習過程中遭遇的困 境，此「帶得走的能力」將使學生在學習與生活上有更適應性的表現。此外，Napoli 等人（2005）研究提到學校將正念納入教學材料中，可提升學生的創造力、認知彈性
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
與工作記憶等優勢，甚至普遍施行於常規作息後成為一種更經濟的作法，能夠降低課 堂上的無關干擾，從而使教師能夠有效教學，學生有效學習，且擴大的效益將影響整 個學校（Farrell ＆ Barrett, 2007）。
二、正視考試焦慮的影響，活用應試情緒調節策略
過去研究持續證實考試焦慮對於學生學習表現的影響，高考試焦慮除了妨礙學習 外，亦可能成為適應生活的障礙。正念與個人的生理及心理健康有關，亦是情緒調節 的有效方式之一，正念實踐的方法包含冥想、身體掃描、正念瑜伽等，本研究所使用 的正念呼吸練習更是經濟簡易的方式，便於操作於學校環境中，對於減低學生的考試 焦慮有相當程度之助益。除了正念技巧練習之外，教師可於日常教學活動中提供學生 關於識別自我情緒及情緒調節的具體方法，如轉移思考或採取行動解決問題等，藉由 不斷的練習與提醒，提升學生應試情緒調整的能力，緩和其緊張、不安的感受。
貳、未來研究上的建議
一、探討特定正念活動類型對青少年之最大效益
本研究透過呼吸練習的正念活動方式，發現接受正念訓練的國中生對於提升閱讀 行為與減低考試焦慮有相當的助益，而在自律學習與情緒幸福感的改變則無顯著結 果。事實上，基於正念（mindfulness-based）的介入活動類型眾多，如覺察呼吸、情 緒自我調節、專注力轉移、正念瑜珈、靜坐冥想、有目的的專注於日常生活（如正念 飲食）等（Hwang & Kearney, 2013），因此，未來研究可探討其他正念活動類型對於 青少年的影響，分別探究不同類型的活動將提升對於每項正念活動之理解，並發展出 最適合青少年的實踐方式，包含正念活動類型的運用、該類型練習場域的優化、練習 時程的安排等，進而在有限時間中，使正念訓練的效果達最大化。
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
二、採混合研究方式延伸探討正念訓練之成效
本研究採準實驗研究法進行正念介入研究，探討正念訓練對國中生的自律學習、
閱讀行為、考試焦慮，及情緒幸福感之影響，透過回收問卷分析資料後獲得考驗結果，
然卻也從實驗組導師於活動結束後的觀察回饋中察覺研究設計的不足，例如實驗組Ａ 導師提到：「一開始學生覺得滿新奇的，甚至覺得活動的過程很好笑，但在幾週後漸 漸習慣…」，換言之，受試者在過程中的心境轉變是難以透過問卷測量的，而忽略隱 性的情意狀態將可能影響研究結果，是本研究設計時未考量的。此外，透過導師的觀 察回饋，可協助研究者對於研究結果的解釋與推論，更深入理解結果的樣貌與對受試 者的影響。因此，建議未來研究除了問卷資料的蒐集之外，可加入質性研究方法，兼 採觀察法及受試者自陳回饋，以彌補單純使用量化研究之限制。
‧
‧
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
盧映伃（2013）。以正念為基礎的認知治療團體對大學生焦慮情緒之諮商效果研究（未 出版之碩士論文）。國立臺中教育大學，台中市。
蘇姵綺（2014）。正念、慈悲和主觀幸福感-以環球科技大學為例（未出版之碩士論文）。 國立雲林科技大學，雲林縣。
‧
Bahl, S., Milne, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Chan, K. (2013). Mindfulness: A long-term solution for mindless eating by college students. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 32(2), 173-184.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Rreview, 84(2), 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1978). The self-system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33(4), 344-358.
Bear, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 125-143.
Biegel, G., Brown, K., Shapiro, S., & Schubert, C. (2009). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for the treatment of adolescent psychiatric outpatients: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(5), 855–866.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. C., Carmody, J., Segal, Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychololgy: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230-241.
Britton, W. B., Lepp, N. E., Files, H. F., Rocha, T., Fisher, N. E., & Gold, J. S. (2014). A randomized controlled pilot trial of classroom-based mindfulness meditation compared to an active control condition in sixth-grade children. Journal of School Psychology, 52, 263–278.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822-848.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237.
‧
Performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 270-295.Carlson, L. E., & Garland, S. N. (2005). Impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on sleep, mood, stress and fatigue symptoms in cancer outpatients.
International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12, 278–285.
Carmody, J., and Baer, R. A. (2009). How long does a mindfulness-based stress reduction program need to be? A review of class contact hours and effect sizes for psychological distress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 627–638.
Chiesa, A., & Malinowski, P.（2011）. Mindfulness-based approaches: Are they all the same? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67, 404-424.
Clay, M. M. (2001). Change over time in children's literacy development. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575.
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43.
Dignath, C., & Büttner, G. (2008). Components of fostering selfregulated learning among students: A meta-analysis on intervention studies at primary and secondary school level. Metacognition and Learning, 3, 231-264.
Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 377-389.
Farrant, K., & Uddin, L. Q. (2015). Asymmetric development of dorsal and ventral attention networks in the human brain. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 165–174.
‧
the burden of suffering associated with anxiety and depression. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 12(2), 58–65.Goldstein, J. (2002). One Dharma: The emerging western Buddhism. San Francisco, CA:
Harper.
Greenberg, S. N., Inhoff, A. W., & Weger, U. W. (2006). The impact of letter detection on eye movement patterns during reading: Reconsidering lexical analysis in connected text as a function of task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 987–995.
Howell, A. J., & Buro, K. (2010). Relations among mindfulness, achievement-related self-regulation, and achievement emotions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(6), 1007-1022.
Hwang, Y. S., & Kearney, P. (2013). A systematic review of mindfulness intervention for individuals with developmental disabilities: Long-term practice and long lasting effects. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34, 314-326.
Jimenez, S. S., Niles, B. L., & Park, C. L. (2010). A mindfulness model of affect regulation and depressive symptoms: Positive emotions, mood regulation expectancies, and self- acceptance as regulatory mechanisms. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(6), 645-650.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144-156.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A. O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L. G., Fletcher, K. E., Pbert, L., Lenderking, W. R., & Santorelli, S. F. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 936–943.
‧
non-clinical population. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 11, 285–296.Keyes, C. L. M., Waterman, M. B. (2003). Dimensions of well-being and mental health in adulthood. In Bornstein, M., Davidson, L., Keyes, C. L. M., & Moore, K (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development throughout the life course (pp. 477-497). Erlbaum,
Mahwah.
King, L. A. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals. Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 798-807.
Kramer, R. S. S., Weger U. W., & Sharma, D. (2013). The effect of mindfulness meditation on time perception. Consciousness and Cognition, 22(3), 846-852.
Kumar, S., Feldman, G., & Hayes, A. (2008). Changes in mindfulness and emotion regulation in an exposure-based cognitive therapy for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 734–744.
Lau, N. S., and Hue, M. T. (2011). Preliminary outcomes of a mindfulnessbased programme for Hong Kong adolescents in schools: Well-being, stress and depressive symptoms. International Journal of Children's Spirituality, 16, 315–330.
Lawlor, M. S., Schonert-Reichl, K., Gadermann, A. M., & Zumbo, B. D. (2013). A validation study of the mindful attention awareness scale adapted for children.
Mindfulness, 5(6), 730-741.
Lee, M., & Larson, R. (2000). The Korean “examination hell”: Long hours of studying, distress, and depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 249–271.
Lewis, R., & Teale, W. H. (1980). Another look at secondary school students' attitudes toward reading. Journal of Reading Behavior, 12, 187-201.
‧
Ley, T., Schaer, B. and Dismukes, B. 1994. Longitudinal study of the reading attitudes and behaviors of middle school students. Reading Psychology, 15, 11–38.
Lin, C. L., Liu, F., Chen, L. C., & Lin, C. J. (2017). An exploratory study of the mindful emotion course on the elderly`s depression and well-being of the elderly of senior university. Journal of Tungnan University, 42, 111-119.
Meiklejohn, J., Phillips, C., Lee-Freedman, M., Lee-Griffin, M., Biegel, G., Roach, A., Frank, J., Burke, C., Pinger, L., Soloway, G., Isberg, R., Sibinga, E., Grossman, L., &
Saltzman (2012). Integrating mindfulness training into K-12 education: Fostering the resilience of teachers and students. Mindfulness, 3(4), 291-307.
Metz, S., Frank, J. L., Reibel, D., Cantrell, T., Sanders, S., and Broderick, P. C. (2013).
The effectiveness of the learning to breathe program on adolescent emotion regulation.
Research in Human Development, 10, 252–272.
Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2013).
Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. Psychological Science, 24, 776–781.
Napoli, M., Krech, P. R., & Holley, L. C. (2005). Mindfulness training for elementary school students: The attention academy. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 21(1), 99-125.
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., & Titz, W. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research.
Educational psychologist, 37(2), 91-105.
Pope, D. (2010). Beyond “doing school”: From “stressed-out” to “engaged in learning”.
Education Canada, 50, 4-8.
Putwain, D., Chamberlain, S., Daly, A. L., & Sadreddini, S. (2014). Reducing test anxiety among school-aged adolescents: A field experiment. Educational Psychology in Practice, 30(4), 420-440.
‧
Rempel, K. (2012). Mindfulness for children and youth: A review of the literature with an argument for school-based implementation. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 46(3), 201-220.
Robert, W. L. (2006). Restoring Emotional Well-Being: A Model. In Michael Feuerstein (Eds.), Handbook of Cancer Survivorship (pp. 231-248). Maryland: Springer.
Sarason, I. G. (1984). Stress, anxiety and cognitive interference: reactions to tests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 929–938.
Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T.
F., & Diamond, A. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51, 52–66.
Schure, M. B., Christopher, J. C., & Christopher, S. E. (2008). Mind-body medicine and the art of self-care: Teaching mindfulness to counseling students though yoga, meditation, and qigong. Journal of Counseling and Development, 86, 47-56.
Seligman, M. E. P., Emst, R. M., Gillham, K. R., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009).
Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293-311.
Semple, R. J., Reid, E. F. G., & Miller, L. (2005). Treating anxiety with mindfulness: An open trial of mindfulness training for anxious children. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 62, 379-392.
Shapiro, J. & Shumaker, S. (1987). Differences in emotional well-being and communication styles between mothers and fathers of pediatric cancer patients.
Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 5, 121–131.
‧
mindfulness into psychology and the helping professions. Washington, DC: AmericanPsychological Association.
Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Astin, J., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386.
Short, M. M., Mazmanian, D., Ozen, L. J., & Bédard, M. (2015). Four days of mindfulness meditation training for graduate students: A pilot study examining effects on mindfulness, self-regulation, and executive function. The Journal of Contemplative Inquiry, 2(1), 37-48.
Siegel, R. D., Germer, C. K., & Olendzki, A. (2009). Mindfulness: What is it? Where did it come from? In F. Didonna (Ed.), Clinical handbook of mindfulness (pp. 17-35). New
York, NY: Springer.
Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Singh Joy, S. D., Winton, A. S. W., Sabaawi, M., & Wahler, R. G. (2007). Adolescents with conduct disorder can be mindful of their aggressive behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 15, 56-63.
Spielberger, C. D. (1972). Anxiety as an emotion state. In C.D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety:
Current trends in theory and research (pp. 23–49). New York, NY: Academic.
Sung, Y. T., & Chao, T. Y. (2015). Construction of the examination stress scale for adolescent students. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 48(1), 44-58.
Tarrasch, R., Berman, Z., & Friedmann, N. (2016). Mindful reading: Mindfulness meditation helps keep readers with dyslexia and ADHD on the lexical track. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 578.
Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., & Williams. M. G., (1995). How does Cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 25-39.
‧
achievement—Still much of a mystery. Educational Psychology Review, 15, 115–145.Vago, D. R., & Silbersweig, D. A. (2012). Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence(S-ART): A framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1-30.
Wigfield A., & Guthrie, J. T. (1997). Motivation for reading: Individual, home, textual, and classroom perspective. Educational Psychologist, 32, 57-135.
Wisner, B. L., Jones, B., & Gwin, D. (2010). School-based meditation practices for adolescents: A resource for strengthening self-regulation, emotional coping, and self-esteem. Children & Schools, 32(3), 150-159.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329-339.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Academic studying and the development of personal skill: A self-regulatory perspective. Educational Psychologist, 33, 73–86.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M.
Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp.
13–39). San Diego, CA: Academic.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice. 41(2), 67-70.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166-183.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2005). Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30, 397-417.
‧
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
附件 A
學習經驗量表
學校：＿＿＿＿＿國中
班級：＿＿＿年＿＿＿班 座號：＿＿＿
班級：＿＿＿年＿＿＿班 座號：＿＿＿