幼兒怎麼看？探究不同語文能力幼兒閱讀繪本的視覺焦點

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(1)國立臺中教育大學幼兒教育學系碩士班碩士論文. 指導教授：邱淑惠博士. 幼兒怎麼看？探究不同語文能力幼兒閱讀繪本的視覺焦點. 研究生：廖儷湘撰. 中華民國一百零一年七月.

(2) 謝. 誌. 呼～可以開始寫謝誌了耶！一想到這，就不由自主的打從心底笑了起來。但…三年的日子也就在這一刻將劃下句點。在論文寫作期間，感謝我最愛的指導教授－邱淑惠博士，帶領著我一字一句，築起一座屬於我的城堡。在研究過程中，您總會適時的提點我如何把即將歪斜的城牆重新修正再砌過，並不斷的給予我鼓勵與信心，包容我的囉唆、叨擾，還有平時瘋瘋癲顛的胡鬧。對於您的愛護，我由衷感激。此外，感謝兩位口試委員－魏美惠博士、江麗莉博士在百忙之中撥冗擔任我的口試委員，您們寶貴的指導與建議，協助我為這座城堡做更進一步的補強，使它變得更完善。同時，也要感謝系上所有教授，除了專業知識的傳授外，總在碰面的時刻給予小的我關心和為我打氣，特別是淑琴老師、姿儀老師、鈺菁老師、淑宜老師和明潔老師，謝謝您們！是的！接下來，就是我瘋狂、好笑、溫暖的好同學和學妹們了。回想起上課的每一天，同學間總有說不完的話、做不盡的傻事、笑不停的話題，讓上班一天的疲憊，就在晚上短短的兩個半小時，消失殆盡！然而，彼此也總在需要幫助的時候，適時的伸出援手，互相給予關懷。最喜歡你們了！我最最親愛的夜幼碩同學們！靜佩、永珠、欣雅、汾珉、金娥、若蓁、姍珊，與你們一起熬夜、努力、互相加油打氣的日子最開心也最難忘，這是709，一段屬於我們的美好回憶。而一群可愛的學妹們，謝謝你們這學期的陪伴，讓我在最後衝刺之餘，仍有餘興節目可以抒解壓力。還有我最親愛的死黨們：美育、雅君、勤敏，謝謝你們一直以來陪著我成長，做為我最堅強的後盾，有你們真好！最後獻給我親愛的家人，謝謝你們的支持鼓勵。更要感謝您－我最親愛的媽媽，這個學位是您的愛和我一起取得的。儷湘謹誌 2012.7.18.

(3) 幼兒怎麼看？探究不同語文能力幼兒閱讀繪本的視覺焦點廖儷湘. 摘要本研究旨在探討不同語文能力幼兒的閱讀理解表現，並分析其閱讀視覺焦點差異及閱讀視覺歷程。本研究採觀察研究，佐以質性分析，以年齡為六足歲未滿七足歲且修訂畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗 ( PPVT-R ) PR 值在 90 以上幼兒兩位、50 以下幼兒兩位為研究對象，主要觀察、分析不同語文能力的幼兒其閱讀理解能力、視覺焦點及視覺歷程之差異。在視覺焦點方面，研究發現語文能力較優的幼兒採以圖文並重的方式進行閱讀，閱讀圖區時，較關注於與主題相關的重點圖區。語文能力較弱的幼兒則偏重於圖像的閱讀，且較關注於與主題無關的非重點區域，顯示語文能力較弱組閱讀圖片時的視覺焦點不利於理解繪本內容。視覺歷程方面，語文能力較優的幼兒藉由認字的背景知識為基礎進行解碼，由下而上形成繪本概念，進而選擇性的尋找對應的圖像，再由閱讀取得圖像所傳達的訊息後，對繪本內容得到理解。語文能力較弱幼兒未以認字的方式做為理解的基礎，以致無法以繪本提供的線索做為繪本概念進行有效率的選擇性注意，只能透過過去的經驗尋找熟悉的圖像表徵進行推測，用對自己有意義的方式詮釋對故事的理解。關鍵字：幼兒、語文能力、視覺焦點、視線軌跡、眼動儀. I.

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(5) How do young children read picture books? Examining the visual focus of children with high or low language ability Liao, Li-Hsiang Abstract This study aimed to explore the reading comprehension of young children with high or low language abilities, and to compare children’s visual focus while reading a picture book. Specifically, four young children, aged from 6 to 7 years old, participated in the study. Among them, two scored above 90% and two scored below 50% in PPVT-R. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Data indicated that young children scored higher in PPVT-R focus both on words and pictures while reading the selected book. They also paid more attention to the critical picture area related to the main idea of the story book. However, young children with poor language ability tended to read only the pictures, and paid more attention to trivial area which not closely related to the subject of the book. It reveals that the visual focus of young children with poor language ability may lead to the poor understanding of the contents of the picture book. When examining the course of children’s visual focus, young children with better language ability began with reading words and then selected the corresponding pictures to read. After getting the messages conveyed through the pictures, they may comprehend the content of the picture book. Young children with poor language ability rarely began with reading words, so that they read the cues in the picture books ineffectively. These children search for familiar graphic representation and make predictions based only on their experience in the past. Therefore, they could not grasp the main idea of the book. Keywords: young children, language ability, visual point, scanpath, eye tracker. III.

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(7) 目. 次. 中文摘要·················································································································································. I. 英文摘要·················································································································································. III. 目錄···························································································································································. V. 表目錄······················································································································································. VII. 圖目錄······················································································································································. VIII. 目. 錄. 第一章緒論·················································································································. 1. 第一節研究背景與動機········································································································. 1. 第二節研究目的與問題········································································································. 3. 第三節名詞釋義·······················································································································. 4. 第四節研究範圍與限制········································································································. 7. 第二章文獻探討·······································································································. 9. 第一節幼兒的語文能力········································································································. 9. 第二節幼兒的閱讀行為········································································································. 16. 第三節眼球運動與閱讀歷程······························································································. 25. V.

(8) 第三章研究方法········································································································. 31. 第一節研究流程與架構········································································································. 31. 第二節研究對象與場域········································································································. 34. 第三節研究工具·······················································································································. 39. 第四節實驗設計與流程········································································································. 42. 第五節資料處理與分析········································································································. 46. 第四章研究結果與討論·························································································. 49. 第一節幼兒閱讀繪本之圖文關注比例···········································································. 49. 第二節. 幼兒對不同圖區的關注··························································································. 62. 第三節. 幼兒的視線軌跡········································································································. 71. 第五章結論與建議···································································································. 75. 第一節結論································································································································. 75. 第二節. 建議································································································································. 79. 參考文獻················································································································································. 83. 中文····················································································································································. 83. 英文····················································································································································. 90. 附錄···························································································································································. 94. 附錄一參與閱讀焦點研究意願調查表···········································································. 94. 附錄二提問單···························································································································. 97. 附錄三眼動實驗所使用之繪本內容及圖區分布························································. 98. 附錄四四位幼兒視覺焦點區域分布圖···········································································. 102. 附錄五四位幼兒視線軌跡圖······························································································. 104. VI.

(9) 表目錄. 表 2-2-1. 兒童閱讀能力發展三階段······························································································. 20. 表 2-2-2. 閱讀行為發展及類別········································································································. 21. 表 4-1-1. 閱讀時對於文、圖的關注比例·······················································································. 51. 表 4-1-2. 語文能力不同幼兒對於文、圖的關注比例·····························································. 53. 表 4-1-3. 語文能力不同幼兒各頁的佇留時間佔凝視總時間%·········································. 54. 表 4-1-4. 11 頁中文字區佇留時間及能力分組雙因子變異數分析摘要表·····················. 57. 表 4-1-5. 語文能力不同幼兒在 11 頁繪本中每頁文字區佇留時間的比例·················. 57. 表 4-1-6. 11 頁中圖區佇留時間及能力分組雙因子變異數分析摘要表·························. 60. 表 4-1-7. 語文能力不同幼兒在 11 頁繪本中每頁圖區佇留時間的比例·····················. 60. 表 4-2-1. 語文能力不同幼兒對於各區的關注比例·································································. 64. 表 4-2-2. 11 頁中圖區佇留時間及能力分組雙因子混合設計變異數分析摘要表······. 65. 表 4-2-3. 語文能力不同幼兒在 11 頁繪本中每頁主題概念區佇留時間的比例·······. 66. 表 4-2-4. 語文能力不同幼兒在 11 頁繪本中每頁其他區域佇留時間的比例············. 68. VII.

(10) 圖目錄. 圖 2-3-1. 眼球構造圖···························································································································. 26. 圖 3-1-1. 研究流程圖···························································································································. 32. 圖 3-1-2. 研究架構圖···························································································································. 33. 圖 3-2-1. 實驗室配置圖一·················································································································. 37. 圖 3-2-2. 實驗室配置圖二·················································································································. 38. 圖 3-2-3. 實驗室配置圖三·················································································································. 38. 圖 3-4-1. 9 點校正圖·····························································································································. 43. 圖 3-4-2. 實驗流程圖···························································································································. 44. 圖 4-1-1. 圖片組成要素······················································································································. 50. 圖 4-1-2 四位幼兒閱讀繪本時的圖文關注比例······································································. 52. 圖 4-1-3. 語文能力不同幼兒對於文、圖的關注比例·······························································. 53. 圖 4-1-4. 語文能力不同幼兒各頁的佇留時間佔凝視總時間%·········································. 55. 圖 4-1-5. 兩組幼兒在每一頁面佇留文字區時間佔凝視總時間%·····································. 58. 圖 4-1-6. 最後一頁文字區所佔的面積比例比較小·································································. 58. 圖 4-1-7. 兩組幼兒在每一頁面佇留圖區時間佔凝視總時間%·········································. 61. 圖 4-1-8. 圖區大小之比較·················································································································. 61. 圖 4-2-1. 凝視點產生的視覺焦點區域·························································································. 62. 圖 4-2-2. 將繪本畫面進行分區········································································································. 63. 圖 4-2-3. 語文能力不同幼兒在各區佇留時間比例·································································. 64. 圖 4-2-4. 兩組幼兒在每一頁面佇留主題概念區時間佔凝視總時間%···························. 67. 圖 4-2-5. 兩組幼兒在每一頁面佇留其他區域時間佔凝視總時間%································. 68. 圖 4-2-6. 視覺焦點區域分布比較圖······························································································. 69. 圖 4-2-7. 語文能力較弱組在每一頁面佇留三個區域時間佔凝視總時間%·················. 70. 圖 4-2-8. 語文能力較優組在每一頁面佇留三個區域時間佔凝視總時間%·················. 70. 圖 4-3-1. 語文能力較優組幼兒—K2 的視覺焦點區域分布···············································. 72. VIII.

(11) 圖 4-3-2. 語文能力較優組幼兒—K2 的視線軌跡··································································. 72. 圖 4-3-3. 語文能力較弱組幼兒—K3 的視覺焦點區域分布···············································. 74. 圖 4-3-4. 語文能力較弱組幼兒—K3 的視線軌跡··································································. 74. IX.

(12) 第一章. 第一節. 緒論. 研究動機與背景. 研究者還是一位幼稚園大班的老師時，總會在每天下午請幼兒挑選一本最想聽的繪本，讀繪本給幼兒聽，這也是幼兒們最期待的時刻。當研究者在述說繪本內容的情節時，除了會透過團討去瞭解幼兒對於繪本圖像的理解或細節的觀察，也會請幼兒輪流說故事給大家聽。由於多數學前幼兒的識字量較少，大多僅能透過圖片提供的線索做為說故事的依據，但也有部分識字量較多的幼兒可同時利用文字和圖片來述說故事情節，儘管是同一繪本的故事，有些幼兒說的故事內容卻較豐富，有些幼兒述說語句較簡單，甚至無法成為一個完整的故事。如果閱讀是由下而上，亦即訊息由外進入腦中處理的歷程 (Gough, 1972)，閱讀內容較豐富或較貧乏的幼兒，所接收到的訊息是相同的嗎？又如果閱讀是由上而下的訊息處理，亦即幼兒閱讀時多需透過先備經驗的協助進行，此時，先備經驗會影響幼兒如何由繪本閱讀的理解（李連珠譯，1998；Smith, 1981）的圖文中提取線索，幼兒提取線索的不同，也反應在閱讀過程中的視覺焦點差異，進而導致幼兒口述故事時有不同的豐富度。研究者認為，不論閱讀是由下而上、上而下或是上下交互的訊息處理過程 (Rumelhart, 1985)，閱讀能力高或低的幼兒，閱讀繪本時視覺的關注焦點應有所不同，此為本研究探討語文能力不同幼兒閱讀繪本時視覺焦點差異之動機之一。文獻中探討幼兒閱讀相關議題之研究，多探討幼兒發展、家長背景及閱讀教學方式對於幼兒語文能力的影響，其中發現：（一）一般幼兒的閱讀時的工作記憶、知覺記憶、注意力等認知能力較發展遲緩幼兒佳，因此其語文能力表現亦較好（黃敏秀，2002）；（二）家庭社經地位高的幼兒，其閱讀理解能力較家庭社經地位低的幼兒好，因此語文能力表. 1.

(13) 現也較佳（林美秀，1993；謝美寶，2003；黃卓琦，2004；劉靜蓉，2005；吳宜錞，2005；李亞玲，2006；林依曄，2009）；（三）在閱讀過程中，如能以圖像畫面作為口語表達的線索與依據，並運用提話的引導技巧，能增加幼兒語言表達與理解能力（郭俐伶，2002；蔡幸怡，2005；吳詠蘭，2006；吳孟真，2007；張雅雯，2008）。這些研究僅對幼兒閱讀的外顯行為與幼兒語文能力進行較廣泛的閱讀行為分析，並未針對幼兒閱讀時，其視覺的焦點與歷程進行研究，亦即未能對於閱讀時的實際行為表現進行更深入的瞭解，此為研究者想要進行此研究議題原因之二。此外，在國外應用眼動儀探究幼兒閱讀繪本之視覺焦點研究 (Justice & Lankford, 2002 ; Justice, Skibbe & Canning, 2005) 發現，學前幼兒閱讀繪本時，對於圖片的閱讀偏好高於文字，但當閱讀文字較多的繪本時，對於文字的關注時間會增加。而這類的研究又僅著重於幼兒閱讀時，其閱讀的圖文比例。本研究認為應可進一步針對語文能力不同的幼兒其閱讀視覺圖、文的視覺焦點與歷程進行研究，且視覺焦點不應只分圖文比例，應可更深入的針對閱讀於所關注的圖像屬性進行探究，此為研究者想要進行此研究議題原因之三。因此本研究擬藉由修訂畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗 ( PPVT-R ) 的施測，篩選出語文能力較高與較低的幼兒，並以眼動儀 (Eye Tracker) 技術探究語文能力不同的幼兒閱讀繪本時的視覺焦點與歷程。. 2.

(14) 第二節. 研究目的與問題. 一、研究目的本研究擬透過修訂畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗分別選出語文能力較優及較弱幼兒各兩名，藉由眼動儀觀察、記錄幼兒閱讀繪本時的視覺焦點與軌跡，並在幼兒閱讀後使用事先設計好的提問表進行提問，以瞭解語文能力不同的幼兒閱讀理解表現，並分析其閱讀視覺焦點差異及閱讀歷程。具體的研究目的有以下三點：（一）探討語文能力不同幼兒閱讀繪本之圖文關注比例。（二）探討語文能力不同幼兒閱讀繪本時所關注的圖像區域。（三）瞭解語文能力不同幼兒的視線軌跡差異。. 二、研究問題基於上述研究目的，本研究待答問題如下：（一）語文能力不同幼兒閱讀繪本對圖、文所投注的凝視時間比例及差異為何？（二）語文能力不同幼兒閱讀圖像時對主題區、臉部區及其他區域所投注的凝視時間比例及差異為何？（三）語文能力不同幼兒閱讀繪本時的視線軌跡的路徑有何不同？. 3.

(15) 第三節. 名詞釋義. 在本節，研究者對於本研究所使用的重要名詞進行定義與說明，以釐清不同閱讀者對於相同名詞可能衍生出的不同解讀，重要名詞釋義如下：. 一、幼兒 (young children) 幼兒一般是指二到六歲的兒童。本研究對象為四位就讀某國小附設幼稚園剛畢業尚未進入小學一年級就讀，年齡為六足歲未滿七足歲的幼兒。. 二、繪本 (picture book) 繪本是一本書運用一組圖畫，且畫面與畫面具有連貫的關係以表達一個故事或主題，它的特色就是靠畫面連貫的韻律來說故事。內容主要以圖畫為主，文字為輔，藉由圖畫和文字的敘述，讓讀者可從不同的角度去理解故事內容（張耀水、張裕幸，2007；郝廣才，2006；方淑貞，2004）。本研究所指的繪本是從繪本「噗小弟」中，挑選包含封面頁共十五頁內容進行掃瞄，後製成十一個電腦數位頁面的電子繪本。. 三、語文能力 (language ability) 語文的形式包含口說語言和書面語言，口說語言是聽和說的過程及行為的呈現，書面語言則是讀和寫的歷程與表現，因此語文能力主要經由「聽」、「說」、「讀」、「寫」四大領域來呈現（李連珠、林慧芬，2001；黃瑞琴，1993）。本研究中所關注的是閱讀歷程及反映閱讀結果的閱讀理解能力，亦即「讀」的能力。因此，以修訂畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗對幼兒的語文能力進行評量外，也透過研究者針對故事內容事先設計好的提問表，以幼兒回答的內容做為閱讀理解的指標。本研究中所指的語文能力較優組幼兒為修訂畢. 4.

(16) 保德圖畫詞彙測驗 PR 值 90 以上之幼兒，語文能力較弱組幼兒則是 PR 值 50 以下之幼兒。. 四、眼動儀 (eye tracker) 眼動儀是用來追蹤眼球的運動情形，能夠精確測量眼球移動時所停留的位置和時間，並即時的記錄眼球在閱讀時所產生的眼動訊息。本研究所採用的眼動儀器為 SR Research 公司之 Eye LinkⅡ 眼動儀。. 五、凝視 (fixation) 為了讓所要注意的影像能落在獲得清晰的視覺訊息—中央窩的位置，因此眼球需經常對準目標進行短暫的停留行為稱為凝視 (Yang, Laura, Hu & Rowe, 2002)。而每一次凝視包含了凝視時間與凝視位置等眼動訊息，為眼動追蹤中最基本的資料。. 六、佇留時間 (dwell time) 閱讀過程中，在某個感興趣區域內所有凝視時間的總和即為佇留時間，該時間可能包含了單次的凝視時間或多次的凝視時間總和（陳學志、賴惠德、邱發忠，2010）。本研究藉由凝視眼動指標中的佇留時間來分析幼兒閱讀時的關注焦點。. 七、視覺焦點 (visual focus) 凝視時間比例較高的特定區域稱為視覺焦點，藉由視覺焦點可瞭解幼兒閱讀時關注的區域。. 5.

(17) 八、視線軌跡 (scanpath) 在閱讀過程中，凝視點與凝視點間移動所形成之順序軌跡。可藉以瞭解閱讀時提取線索順序的資訊。. 九、圖區 (picture area) 在本研究中，將圖區分為主題概念區、臉部區和其他區域等三個區，以檢視幼兒分別在三區的凝視時間佔總凝視時間的比例。主題概念區是與繪本內容最直接相關的重點；臉部區指的是繪本中人與動物的臉部表情區域；其他區域則是在所有圖區中扣除以上二個區域的部分（不包含文字區）。. 6.

(18) 第四節. 研究範圍與限制. 本研究礙於時間及人力有限，故僅以立意取樣的方式，選取十二名就讀某公立國小附設幼稚園剛畢業尚未進入小學一年級就讀的幼兒，在取得家長同意後，進行修訂畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗，篩選出 PR 值在 90 以上與 50 以下之幼兒四位做為研究對象，並於七、八月進行閱讀視覺焦點的眼動測量。本研究透過實驗觀察法、提問單、眼動數據的整理分析等方式收集研究資料，於研究過程中產生之限制分述如下。. 一、研究對象本研究透過眼動儀對幼兒閱讀時的視覺焦點進行觀測與分析，在眼動測量前，需先進行九點的校正測驗，如無法完成校正，則無法施測。受試者如有配戴眼鏡，部分鏡片對於光線的折射會影響眼動儀對於瞳孔移動的追蹤，因此本研究中，有一名配戴眼鏡的幼兒無法完成校正，導致樣本流失。此外，眼動測量進行時，受試者的頭部及身體須維持一定的穩定程度，以獲取精確的眼動資料，故本研究僅以幼稚園剛畢業尚未進入小學一年級就讀之年齡較大、穩定性較高的幼兒做為研究對象。由於本研究使用樣本數少，故推論需更加謹慎，但仍可藉由本研究之結論，對於語文能力較優幼兒及語文能力較弱幼兒閱讀繪本時的圖文關注重點與視線軌跡有一定的瞭解。. 二、研究工具本研究的閱讀材料選取設定為該園幼兒未曾閱讀過的繪本，因此幼兒的視覺焦點可能與使用幼兒熟悉的繪本有所不同。. 7.

(19) 三、研究方法眼動測量進行期間，需要求受試者的頭部及身體須維持一定的穩定程度，以減低實驗結果的誤差，所以研究者進行眼動測量前，先配合幼兒身高調整座位，使其有較舒適的坐姿能維持身體的穩定性，但對於受試的學齡前幼兒而言，仍具有一定的困難度。因此如何使幼兒能以較輕鬆方式維持穩定的姿勢進行實驗，以獲得精確的眼動資料，為努力的方向之一。此外，眼動測量過程中，每閱讀完一頁，幼兒需手指按空白鍵以結束該頁的閱讀。雖然受試前，研究者與受試幼兒已進行過相關練習，但翻頁方式及當時的閱讀情境與自然閱讀時有交談互動或轉移注意力的狀況仍有所不同，因此如何減少受試幼兒視線飄移至繪本畫面以外的區域，為努力的方向之二。儘管如此，本研究相信視覺焦點的關注有一定的習慣，仍能藉由此情境瞭解幼兒的閱讀行為。. 8.

(20) 第二章. 文獻探討. 本章首先說明幼兒語文能力與閱讀行為的理論，再針對眼動儀對於閱讀歷程的視覺焦點施測方式與應用進行探討。. 第一節. 幼兒的語文能力. 人類之所以異於其他動物，其中最大的特點是人類天生具有語言發展的潛力，所以很早就會利用聲音和符號來表達思想與情感，藉以達到溝通的目的，經過長期不斷的修正改變和演化，文字應運而生，逐漸變成後來的語言和文字兩大媒介（左少興譯，2002；陳淑琴，2000a）。在中文的字義上，「語文」(language) 是口說語言 (spoken language) 和書面文字 (written language) 的統稱，用以傳遞溝通訊息，其中書面文字是將口說語言以「形象」的視覺方式呈現，它是人類為了便於表達和溝通，所創造出來的一套複雜、抽象又變化多端的符號系統（洪月女譯，1998；黃瑞琴，1993）。一般中文文獻常將「語言」與「語文」兩個詞彙混用，也就是語言被廣泛的定義為包含口說語言與書面語言（文字），因此本研究廣義的定義語言為包含聲音與文字的訊息溝通，僅在談及口語表達時會以「口說語言」加以區隔，以下就幼兒如何學習語言的相關理論進一步探討。. 一、幼兒語言學習理論依據幼兒語言發展的各階段特徵來看，人類的語言發展是依循著一定的順序，但語言如何發展，學者們的描述各有其著重點。綜合國內外學者的論述，可歸納出語言學習. 9.