框架與日本民眾對同性戀議題的態度 - 政大學術集成

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(1)!. !. International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 政治大立立Master’s Thesis. •‧. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學 sit. y. Nat. er. io. The Effects of Message Framing on Japanese Attitudes. al. n. v i n toward Homosexuality,CSame-sex and Civil Unions h e n g c Marriage hi U. Student: Yuriko Miura Advisor: Professor Tsung-Jen Shih. January 2015 !. !. !.

(2) The Effects of Message Framing on Japanese Attitudes toward Homosexuality, Same-sex Marriage and Civil Unions. Student: Yuriko Miura Advisor: Professor Tsung-Jen Shih. 立立. 政治大. •‧. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. A Thesis. Submitted to International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. January 2015. i.

(3) The Effects of Message Framing on Japanese Attitudes toward Homosexuality, Same-sex Marriage and Civil Unions. Student: Yuriko Miura Advisor: Professor Tsung-Jen Shih. 立立. 政治大. •‧. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. A Thesis. Submitted to International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. January 2015. ii.

(4) Abstract. The main purpose of this study was to statistically determine the effects of message framing regarding homosexuality-related issues on Japanese audiences’ attitudes towards homosexual people and legalization of same-sex marriage and civil unions. Furthermore, this study also investigates the moderating role of individuals’ need for cognition (NFC) and religiosity on the framing effects. An online experiment was conducted with 150 Japanese participants. Attribute frame is manipulated by framing. 政治大 the issue of legalization of same-sex marriage either in terms of “equal rights” or “a 立立 •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. threat to traditional religion and values.” Results suggested a main effect of framing manipulation on attitudes toward same-sex marriage and civil unions. No statistical. •‧. significance was observed for interactions between frames and NFC as well as frames. io. sit. y. Nat. and religiosity.. n. al. er. Key words: framing, need for cognition, religiosity, homosexuality, same-sex marriage, Japan. Ch. engchi. iii. i n U. v.

(5) Acknowledgements. First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitudes (appreciation) to my advisor, Professor Tsung-Jen Shih for his patience and continuous support which have made this thesis possible. I would also like to thank the rest of my thesis committee, Prof. Katherine Chen and Prof. Hong-Chi Shiau, for their insightful comments and encouraging words. I believe that I am tremendously fortunate to have an opportunity to work with three outstanding scholars, and am deeply appreciative to each of them for their important contributions.. 立立. 政治大. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. My thanks go as well to my dearest Shao-Nung for supporting me and always standing by me through thick and thin. Without his tolerance and encouragement, the. •‧. completion of this study would not have been possible.. y. Nat. io. sit. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family, my parents, my. n. al. er. grandparents, my sister and brother for their unconditional love and support through. Ch. i n U. v. my entire life. In particular, my special thanks go to my parents for their patience and. engchi. understanding, for pushing me when it was necessary, and for always believing in me. I would also like to thank my brother for giving me an opportunity to research on this topic. Without my family’s support, none of this would have been possible.. iv.

(6) Table of Contents. Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Background ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................... 5 Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................... 7 2.1 Homosexuality in Japan .................................................................................... 7 2.1.1 Homosexuality in Modern Japan ............................................................. 7 2.1.2 Japanese’ Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage .... 10 2.2 Framing ........................................................................................................... 13. 政治大 2.2.2 Framing Homosexuality 立立 and Same-sex Marriage ................................. 15 2.2.1 Definition ............................................................................................... 13. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. 2.2.3 Portrayal of Homosexuality in Japanese Media .................................... 22 2.2.4 Impact of Framing Effect on Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage ................................................................................ 24. •‧. 2.3 Moderators of Framing Effects ....................................................................... 27. y. Nat. 2.4 Need for Cognition .......................................................................................... 29. sit. 2.4.1 Definition ............................................................................................... 29. er. io. 2.4.2 Elaboration Likelihood Model ............................................................... 31. al. n. v i n Ch 2.5 Religiosity ....................................................................................................... 35 engchi U 2.4.3 Moderating Effects of NFC ................................................................... 33 2.5.1 Religion and Homosexuality ................................................................. 35 2.5.2 Moderating Effects of Religiosity ......................................................... 36 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................... 41 3.1 Design and Procedure...................................................................................... 41 3.2 Data Collection ................................................................................................ 41 3.3 Framing Manipulation ..................................................................................... 43 3.4 Measures.......................................................................................................... 44 3.4.1 Attitudes toward Homosexuality ........................................................... 44 3.4.2 Attitudes toward Same-sex Marriage and Civil Unions ........................ 46 3.4.3 Need for Cognition ................................................................................ 46 3.4.4 Religious Affiliation and Religiosity ..................................................... 47. v.

(7) 3.4.5 Demographics ........................................................................................ 50 3.5 Pilot Study ....................................................................................................... 53 3.6 Manipulation Check ........................................................................................ 53 Chapter 4: Results ......................................................................................................... 56 4.1 General Findings ............................................................................................. 56 4.2 Hypotheses Testing ......................................................................................... 57 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion ......................................................................... 63 5.1 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 63 5.2 Limitation and Suggestion for Future Research .............................................. 67 5.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 69. 政治大 Appendix A ................................................................................................................... 87 立立 References ..................................................................................................................... 71. Appendix B ................................................................................................................... 92. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. Appendix C ................................................................................................................... 97. •‧. Appendix D ................................................................................................................... 99. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. vi. i n U. v.

(8) List of Tables. Table 1. The Exploratory Factor Analysis for ATLG scale.......................................... 45 Table 2. Religious Affiliation and Religiosity .............................................................. 48 Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations between Variables ................ 49 Table 4. Demographic Information............................................................................... 51 Table 5. Demographic Distribution of the Participants ................................................ 52 Table 6. t-test Results Comparing Pro-gay and Anti-gay Framing Conditions on Manipulation Check........................................................................................ 55. 治政大 Characteristics on Table 7. ANCOVA Results for the Effects of Demographic 立立 Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage/Civil Unions and •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. NFC Scores ..................................................................................................... 58 Table 8. t-test Results Comparing Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex. •‧. Marriage/Civil Unions between Pro-gay and Anti-gay Message Framing. y. Nat. Conditions ....................................................................................................... 58. sit. Table 9. ANOVA Results for Interaction Effect of Framing × Need for Cognition on. n. al. er. io. Attitudes .......................................................................................................... 61. i n U. v. Table 10. Comparison of Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex. Ch. engchi. Marriage/Civil Unions Across Experimental Conditions ............................... 61 Table 11. ANOVA Results for Interaction Effect of Framing ×Religiosity on Attitudes .......................................................................................................... 62 Table 12. Comparison of Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage/Civil Unions Across Experimental Conditions ............................... 62. vii.

(9) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY. Chapter 1: Introduction. Research Background In his article “On Global Queering (1996),” Dennis Altman proposed the theory of global queering. This theory identifies the phenomenon of globalization where modes of experience characteristic of Euro-American societies are becoming increasingly widespread through the development of global media, and claims that no. 治政大 ideas, including newly society can fail to be influenced to some extent by Western 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. developed Western discourses of sexual identity. Cruz-Malavé and Manalansan (2002) also suggested, “Queerness is now global. Whether in advertising, film,. •‧. performance art, the Internet, or the political discourses of human rights in emerging. Nat. sit. n. al. er. io. (p. 1).. y. democracies, images of queer sexualities and cultures not circulate around the globe”. Ch. i n U. v. However, in Japanese society, public attitudes toward homosexuality are still. engchi. mixed. According to Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project, the "Global Divide on Homosexuality (2013),” the percentage of the Japanese respondents who believe homosexuality should be accepted by society remain at 54 percent, which has grown by only five percentage points since 2007. This statistic is shocking compared to the broad acceptance of homosexuality in North America, the European Union, and much of Latin America: for example, 80% of Canadians, 60% of Americans, 88% of Spanish, and 87% of Germans believe that society should accept homosexuality (Pew Research Center, 2013). It also turned out that 36 percent believe homosexuality 1.

(10) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY should not be accepted by society. Another survey revealed that only 10.3 percent of Japanese personally know of anyone who is gay or lesbian (Dentsu Communication Institute Inc., 2012), indicating most Japanese do not recognize the existence of gay or lesbian in their real life, but only through the media. Ichikawa (2004) concluded, “People believe that homosexuality is visible and what they recognize is the reality, but actually they are seeing nothing”. On the other hand, media coverage of homosexuality in Japan has been increasing dramatically since the early 1990s because of the “gay boom” in the. 治政 mainstream media (Ferguson, 2010; McLelland, 2006).大 The word “Onee-mans,” 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. which was nominated for the annual trendy-words-of-the-year in 2008, represents celebrities who are men who either act/talk like females or who have undergone a sex. •‧. change. These celebrities have gained widespread popularity, especially among. Nat. sit. y. Japanese young women, and are evident throughout mainstream media including. n. al. er. io. everyday TV, magazine, and advertising.. Ch. i n U. v. However, at the same time, the social problems of those who actually are of. engchi. homosexual orientation are still regarded as “taboo” and not openly discussed in Japan. One scholar recently stated, “while gay marriage is becoming much more accepted in European countries, as well as in the U.S.’s liberal states, it still remains to be discussed in most Asian countries, most notably of all Japan (Westlake, 2012).” McLelland (2000a) pointed out that “the visibility of ‘homosexuality’ in Japanese media such as comic books, women's magazines, TV dramas and talk-shows, movies and popular fiction has not created the space for homosexual individuals expressing lesbian or gay ‘identities’ to come out in actual life.” As such, increasing media 2.

(11) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY exposure of homosexuality does not necessarily lead to a resolution of problems actually faced by people with homosexual orientation. One of the major causes that have led to this unusual situation is the media’s focus on the negative aspects or “queerness” of the gay and lesbian people and related issues. Davidson (1991) suggests that media is selectively framing gay issues in order to portray them negatively in many cases. Framing effect is known as a phenomenon occurs when message senders present public issues within certain story frames, how events and issues are presented. 治政大 those events and issues by senders can fundamentally affect how receivers understand 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. (Price, Tewksbury & Powers, 1997). According to Price, Nir, and Cappella (2005),. media audiences can be viewed as active in interpreting and discussing public events,. •‧. but they rely on the mass media to provide common frames of references that guide. Nat. sit. y. interpretation and discussion. The experimental study by de Vreese, Boomgaarden,. n. al. er. io. and Semetko (2011) discovered that exposure to negative frames had significant. Ch. i n U. v. negative effects on attitudes toward certain political issues when compared to the. engchi. reference group. The effects of framing homosexuality in certain lights should be no exception. Another study indicated that the framing manipulation did influence the audience’s ways of discuss the prospect of legalizing gay partnerships (Price et al., 2005). In either case, the framing manipulations are found to bias audience’s information processing, often resulting in consequential differences in issue judgments and opinions, which may lead to stereotypical views and contribute to prejudice.. 3.

(12) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY Specific factors may regulate the effectiveness of framed messages. A number of previous research studies examined various contextual moderators of framing effects, such as source characteristics (e.g., Druckman, 2001; Slothuus & de Vreese, 2008), issue characteristics (e.g., Lecheler, de Vreese & Slothuus, 2009), interpersonal communication (e.g., Druckman & Nelson, 2003), or competitive framing (e.g., Chong & Druckman, 2007; Sniderman & Theriault, 2004) as well as individual-level moderator variables such as political knowledge (e.g., Nelson, Oxley & Clawson, 1997a), values (e.g., Bullock & Fernald, 2005; Shen & Edwards,. 治政大 Schreiber & Lauriola, 2005), or personality (Lauriola & Levin, 2001; Levin, Gaeth, 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. 2002).. Among them, this study will focus on two specific potential factors, which limit. •‧. the framing effects: (i) Need for Cognition (NFC) as a cognitive moderator and (ii). Nat. sit. y. religiosity as a heuristic moderator. We first examine the effect of NFC as a cognitive. n. al. er. io. moderator, which is generally defined as “an individual's tendency to engage in and. Ch. i n U. v. enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors” (Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984, p. 306). Using. engchi. the framework of Elaboration Likelihood Model, which suggests that people who are high in NFC are more motivated to engage in cognitive elaboration, this study proposes that those higher in NFC are more likely to evaluate the message carefully and ultimately neutralize the presented frame. Contrarily, since message frames serve as possible peripheral cues (Zhang & Buda, 1999), it is also expected that the framing effect is more salient for subjects who are low in NFC because they tend to exert less cognitive effort to comprehend and evaluate the message, making them more likely to be influenced by surface cues (Cheng & Wu, 2010; Chaiken, 1980; Smith & Levin). 4.

(13) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY In addition, because this study utilizes two types of value frames with respect to same-sex relationships, which focus on equal rights of homosexuality and traditional morality as a framing manipulation, moderating effect of individuals’ religiosity on message framing is also examined. With the strong correlation between religiosity and anti-homosexual attitudes, assuming that religious individuals would have stronger values and a higher chronic accessibility for traditional morality on sexuality and family, we expect that when media frames highlight traditional morality in framing homosexuality-related issues, those who have higher religiosity will find the. ㈻㊫學. •‧ 國. 治政大or no religiosity. news messages more resonant than those who have lower 立立 Purpose of the Study. •‧. The main purpose of this study was to statistically determine the effects of. sit. y. Nat. message framing on homosexuality-related issues on Japanese audiences’ attitudes. n. al. er. io. toward homosexual people and legalization of same-sex marriage and civil unions.. i n U. v. Furthermore, this study also investigates the moderating role of individuals’ NFC and. Ch. engchi. religiosity on the framing effects. In this study, an online experiment with 150 Japanese participants was conducted to investigate the impact of media messages manipulated by framing the issue of legalization of same-sex marriage either in terms of “equal rights” or “a threat to traditional religion and values.” To test the moderator effects, NFC scale and attitudes toward gay and lesbian scale are used. Although prior studies have illustrated that media framings of homosexuality-related issues certainly affect audiences’ attitudes toward gay and lesbian people (e.g. Levina, Waldo, & Fitzgerald, 2000; Zhang & Min, 2013), most of. 5.

(14) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY them have focused on the impact of visual media or entertainment media. More research is needed to explore the main effect of news media on individuals’ attitudes towards homosexual people and related issues. Additionally, even though previous studies demonstrate the significant negative effects of media portrayals of homosexuality on people’s attitudes (Calzo & Ward, 2009; Johnson, 2012; Levina et al., 2000; Zhang & Min, 2013) as well as the role of NFC in diminishing the negative influences of the media (Hallahan, 2009; Tsfati & Cappella, 2005), virtually no study has directly assessed the interaction between NFC. 治政大In this study, this gap is and framing effects on attitudes toward sexual minorities. 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. addressed by examining whether individuals’ level of NFC moderate the impact of media framing and prevent audiences from sexual prejudice, which largely affect their. •‧. attitudes toward homosexuality.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat al. Ch. engchi. 6. i n U. v.

(15) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY. Chapter 2: Literature Review. Homosexuality in Japan Homosexuality in Modern Japan Some countries see homosexuality as a crime punishable by death, while others are open to diversity and make no judgment on the basis of one’s sexual orientation (“The gay divide”, 2014). In modern Japan, gay rights issues rarely become political. 治政大in Japan have no marriage topics like in the West. Currently, homosexual individuals 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. rights and sexual orientation is not protected by national civil rights laws, indicating that Japanese sexual minorities have no legal recourse when they face any. •‧. Nat. sit. security, health care, education and other fields (Hongo, 2008).. y. discrimination based on one’s sexual orientation in employment, housing, social. n. al. er. io. However, by the contribution of vigorous activities of NGOs, activist groups,. Ch. i n U. v. and the global movement for the legalization of same-sex marriage especially in the. engchi. West, a positive social change for homosexuals have come into being slowly yet steadily since the late 1990s in Japan (Sunagawa, 2006a). For instance, LGBT rights saw a first historic shift in 2000 when homosexuals were finally accepted as the subject of human rights policies in the “Tokyo City Human Rights Policy Directive Manual” (Sunagawa, 2006b). Also in 2004, the National Diet of Japan unanimously approved a new law that enables transsexual people to amend their registered sexuality on certain conditions (Hongo, 2008; Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, 2011). In addition, Sunagawa (2006b) reported that textbooks for 7.

(16) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY sex-education courses aimed at middle-school students have recently started including the discussion of homosexuality. To a certain extent, these developments demonstrate the increasing recognition and acceptance of homosexuality as a sexual minority in Japanese society. These social changes would seem to suggest that many of the obstacles preventing sexual minorities in Japan from being a part of society have already been removed, but this cannot be said to be true. Despite the recent trends suggesting a new level of tolerance for homosexuality as well as open scenes in more cosmopolitan. 治政 cities such as Tokyo and Osaka, homosexual individuals大 in Japan still often conceal 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. their sexual orientation (Ogata, 2001). Ichikawa (2004) suggests that one of the major causes putting them in such a situation is an invisibility of sexual minorities.. •‧. There are not any anti-homosexuality or sodomy laws in Japan. Homosexual. Nat. sit. y. activity is not illegal as it is, for instance, in many parts of Africa or the Arab world. n. al. er. io. (“The gay divide”, 2014). Critics argue this indicates there is no discrimination. Ch. i n U. v. against gay and lesbian in Japan. However, as Ogata (2001) suggests, the lack of any. engchi. legal sanctions (or a few legal protections) might be just another aspect of invisibility of homosexual people in Japan. According to a survey conducted on over 70,000 respondents by Dentsu Communication Institute Inc. (DCI, 2012), more than one out of every twenty Japanese adult respondents identify themselves either as homosexual or transgender (5.2%), which reaches almost 6.7 million people in Japan. However, only one in ten say that they personally know anyone who is gay or lesbian in real life (10.3%). Another poll by Ipsos/Reuters (2013) even shows lower number –less than 5%. This number is exceptionally low, especially when comparing with which of the 8.

(17) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY U.S. where 57% say they have a family member or a close friend who is gay or lesbian (CNN/ORC International survey, 2013). As we can see from these numbers, although homosexuals tend to be an invisible population in Japanese society, they truly exist in all schools and work places, and people are just unaware of their presence. A story by Clayton (2011) who is a university professor in Japan explains the situation well: They [students] expressed confusion over the American same-sex marriage debate. One male student even said, “We couldn't do that, because Japan has no. 治政大An older female shook her gay people.” Fellow students nodded in agreement. 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. head, conceding that there were “such people” but that they were hardly normal, not deserving of legal equality (p. 10).. •‧. Such invisibility of homosexuality in society does not give homosexual people. Nat. sit. y. an opportunity to openly talk about their sexuality. Many of them would rather remain. n. al. er. io. silent instead of becoming a cause of friction in society, since the public is not as. Ch. i n U. v. open-minded toward sexual minorities as it seems to be (Hongo, 2008). Indeed, as. engchi. Japan is often considered a homogeneous nation, Japanese people tend to exclude something or someone different (Burgess, 2004). Ogata (2001) comments, “assuming that everybody is straight in Japan, as anywhere else, the onus is on gays to tell people that they are ‘different,’ with all the stigma that can entail, particularly in a country that likes to claim that everybody is the same.” Without an abolition of prejudice against sexual minorities or an alleviation of social pressure to be “the same,” the social environment surrounding Japanese homosexuals cannot be expected to pursue a real change. 9.

(18) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY Japanese’ Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage According to World Values Survey data, from 1993 to 2006, the proportion of people who thought homosexuality was never justifiable dropped from an average of 59% to 34% (Kenny, 2013). Although public opinion about homosexuality still varies considerably around the world, the decline of homophobia is a truly global revolution. However, compared to a number of other countries, in Europe and Latin America in particular, the situation surrounding gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people in Japan is still difficult when it comes to the issue of public attitudes.. 治政大 Project, the "Global According to Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. Divide on Homosexuality (2013),” Japanese respondents who believe homosexuality should be accepted by society remain at 54%, which has grown by only 5 percentage. •‧. points since 2007. Additionally, 36% believe homosexuality should not be accepted. Nat. sit. y. by society. Another survey revealed that 33.7% of the respondents admit they have. n. al. er. io. prejudice against homosexuality without intention (DCI, 2012).. Ch. i n U. v. Similarly, according to a Reuters/Ipsos poll on public opinion about the. engchi. legalization of same-sex marriage (2013), only 24% of Japanese respondents agree that “same-sex couples should be allowed to marry legally” and nearly three in ten (27%) say that they “should be allowed to obtain some kind of legal recognition, but not to marry,” which scored the lowest amongst the 16 developed nations surveyed. Attitudes toward adoption by same-sex couples is relatively positive compared to same-sex marriage: approximately six in ten of respondents agree both that “same-sex couples should have the same rights to adopt children as heterosexual couples do” (59%) and that “same-sex couples are just as likely as other parents to successfully 10.

(19) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY raise children” (62%). Support for the issue is also highlighted by the strong proportion of participants (73%) disagreeing with the statement that “same-sex marriage is or could be harmful to society.” The poll suggests that the issue has been changing in a favorable way over time, as 36% of participants agree their views on same-sex marriage are different than they were five years ago. Hidaka (2007) surveyed over 5,000 Japanese gay respondents regarding their experiences as homosexuals. Results demonstrate that more than 80% of the respondents had heard discriminative statements against homosexuality. Since. 治政 participants across different age groups reported similar大 experiences, it is suggested 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. that Japanese heterosexuals’ prejudiced attitudes toward homosexuality may not have changed over time. It is also revealed that 54.5% of gay people experienced a verbal. •‧. harassment especially with the discriminative words including “homo” (an. Nat. sit. y. abbreviation for homosexual) or “okama,” which derives from the slang usage of the. n. al. er. io. term to refer to anal sex (Long, 1996). These terms referring to homosexuality. Ch. i n U. v. represent cross-dressed or effeminate men, suggesting that Japanese people tend to. engchi. conflate same-sex desire with transgenderism and transsexuality (McLelland, 2000b). Hidaka (2007) also described the difficulties faced by homosexuals in making other homosexual friends, since they tend to be afraid of having their sexual orientation revealed by their family and friends. As the survey conducted by Hidaka (2007) indicates only 13.8% of gay and bisexual men had come out to their parents, very few actually discuss the matter with their family or friends even among those who are not troubled by the fact that they are gay (Sunagawa, 2006b). The possible obstacles homosexuals may potentially face after coming out (i.e. being rejected by 11.

(20) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY family) often keep them from disclosing their sexual orientation and causing feelings of isolation instead. Martin and Hetrick (1988), in their discussions of gay and lesbian adolescent experiences, discuss 3 kinds of isolation - cognitive, social, and emotional - which are equally applicable to homosexual adults. Cognitive isolation comes from the lack of information about homosexuals, how gay and lesbian couples function, how they determine gender roles, and how they solve relationship problems. Social isolation derives from the lack of contact with positive role models and can reinforce the negative value that society places on homosexuals. Emotional isolation comes. 治政大 with. from having few other youth or adults with whom to interact 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. A number of previous studies suggest that attempted suicide rate among gay. and lesbian youths is comparatively higher than among the general population. These. •‧. studies also indicate that social isolation and marginalization at schools are. Nat. sit. y. psychologically damaging to them (Johnson, Oxendine, Taub, & Robertson, 2013;. n. al. er. io. Proctor & Groze, 1994; Russell & Joyner, 2001). The situation in Japan is not an. Ch. i n U. v. exceptional. According to the survey conducted by Hidaka et al. (2008), the. engchi. proportion of gay and bisexual men reporting thoughts about suicide reached 65.9%. Surprisingly, 14% have also attempted suicide, which is six times higher than that of heterosexual men. As the current situation has revealed that sexual minorities in Japan still suffer from prejudice and sexual discrimination, Japanese society needs to acknowledge the urgent need of improvement in attitudes toward them.. 12.

(21) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY Framing Definition Originating from sociology, framing research has examined how various media construct the meaning of social issues by selecting, excluding, punctuating, and elaborating on particular aspects of a given issue, event, or condition (Entman, 1993; Gitlin, 1980). Goffman (1974), one of the first scholars who have developed the general concept of framing, defines frames as the “schemata of interpretation,” which refers. 治政大 succession of events to a framework that helps us in making an otherwise meaningless 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. into something meaningful. According to Entman (1993), framing essentially involves selection and salience –“to frame is to select some aspects of perceived reality and. •‧. make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a. Nat. sit. y. particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment. n. al. er. io. recommendation for the item described (p. 52).” Entman (1993) also defines salience. Ch. i n U. v. as “making a piece of information more noticeable, meaningful, or memorable to. engchi. audiences” which is accomplished “by placement of repetition, or by associating them [bits of information] with culturally familiar symbols (p. 53).” In addition, frames help journalists quickly identify and classify enormous amount of information and “to package it for efficient relay to their audiences (Gitlin, 1980, p. 7).” Framing and presentation of events/issues in the mass media thus can fundamentally affect how audiences come to understand these events and issues (Price et al., 1997). Frames help people organize what they see in everyday life, determining “how they understand and remember a problem, as well as how they 13.

(22) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY evaluate and choose to act upon it” (Entman, 1993, p. 54). Despite being viewed as active in interpreting and discussing public events, the general population relies on mass media to provide common frames of reference that guide interpretation and discussion (Price et al., 2005). Also, while highlighting particular aspects of the reality described, frames simultaneously “direct attention away from other aspects (Entman, 1993, p. 53)” by excluding other elements, which might lead individuals to interpret issues differently. A number of studies have investigated how issues and messages are framed in. 治政 the news media and how these frames affect audiences’大 responses or attitudes. For 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. example, an experimental study on the effects of news framing on support for. membership of Turkey in the European Union conducted by de Vreese et al. (2011). •‧. showed a significant difference in the level of support for Turkish membership. Nat. sit. y. between participants who were exposed to a positive news frame and who received a. n. al. er. io. negative frame. Similarly, another research study examining the effect of different. Ch. i n U. v. frames on individual’s levels of tolerance towards the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), Nelson,. engchi. Clawson, and Oxley (1997b) asked participants to read one of two local news stories about a KKK rally. One story emphasized the KKK’ s rights to freedom of speech whereas the other story highlighted a threat to public safety. The results showed that participants exposed to the story emphasizing rights to freedom of speech rated beliefs about civil liberties to be more important and were more tolerant of the KKK, whereas those exposed to the other story emphasized beliefs about public safety and were less tolerant.. 14.

(23) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY As such, through exposure to the different courses of particular issue or public debate framed in the mass media, people on different sides of the debate understand issues differently: they focus on different aspects of social problems, decide which value to connect to a specific issue, and actively shape their perspectives on the debate in terms of an abstract value (Brewer, 2002; Kinder & Sanders, 1996; Nelson et al, 1997b; Price et al., 2005). Studies on the impact of framing effect on public opinion offer two alternative psychological explanations for why exposure to value frames in mass media coverage. 治政大 2002). Some framing might affect how people link their values to issues (Brewer, 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. studies suggest that “a frame can alter the accessibility of a value in the receiver’s mind” (Brewer, 2002, p.304) by priming values in audiences’ memories. This will. •‧. cause audiences’ to have an easier time to recall the value when they are asked to. Nat. sit. y. express their views (Kinder & Sanders, 1996). Other studies argue that a frame. n. al. er. io. influences the importance that audiences link to their values (Nelson et al., 1997b;. Ch. i n U. v. Nelson, Lecheler, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2012). In other words, exposure to a frame. engchi. can lead audiences to put greater weight or relevance to a value aroused by the frame. Although these two explanations differ in their characteristics, each interpretation leads to the same expectation that “exposure to a frame that emphasizes a specific value should magnify the role of that value in citizens’ thought processes (Brewer, 2002).”. Framing Homosexuality and Same-sex Marriage Media coverage of homosexuality. The term heterosexism refers to the 15.

(24) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY attitude that heterosexuals are important and homosexuals are not (Davidson, 1991). Since heterosexuals form the dominant group in society, they hold the political power to define and govern cultural values and social norms such as sexual relationship, marriage, family structure and parenthood from a heterocentric ideology. Heterocentric ideology has been and still is the dominant force in most social practices including the media industry; in fact, Herek (1992) describes the media as one aspect of cultural heterosexism (as cited in Levina et al., 2000). Kielwasser and Wolf (1994) conceptualize such a phenomenon in the term mediated heterosexism,. 治政大the processes of mass which refers to “heterosexism manifested in and through 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. communication (p. 61).” Mediated heterosexism not only reinforces cultural. heterosexism, but also works as an institutional bridge between cultural heterosexism. •‧. and the psychological heterosexism of the individual (Levina et al., 2000). In his. Nat. sit. y. research, Davidson (1991) elaborated on the portrayals of gays and lesbians in the. n. al. er. io. news media and discovered that most of them were negative. He suggests, “anti-gay. Ch. i n U. v. prejudice in the media occurs not just as vicious as slander, but also as casual bias,. engchi. perpetuation of negative stereotypes, deference to the prejudice of others, and lesbian and gay invisibility. Problems with media coverage of the lesbian and gay community are rooted as much in heterosexism as in homophobia (p. 72).” Thus, given the influence that the the media have on individuals in society, the portraits of homosexual people and related issues in the media become crucial in understanding an individual’s attitudes toward homosexuality. Gross (1991) as well as Kielwasser and Wolf (1994) discussed the virtual absence of homosexuality in the visual media, which is accounted for by the 16.

(25) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY systematic annihilation. Gays and lesbians represent possibly one of the most invisible groups even in society. This is partially due to the fact that homosexuality itself is an invisible trait, unless deliberately exhibited by homosexual people themselves with something or action which makes it apparent. Therefore, the media inevitably tend to represent a world in which everyone is assumed to be heterosexual (Levina et al., 2000). In addition to the limited amount of media exposure homosexuality has received, most of early media portrayals illustrated lesbian and gay people in negative. 治政 ways (Gross, 1991). Advertisements, comedies, dramas,大 and educational programs 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. virtually always consist only of heterosexual characters where the love between a man and a woman is portrayed as the only available romantic scenario (Gross, 1991;. •‧. Kielwasser & Wolf, 1994). In those rare instances in which a gay character is. Nat. sit. y. portrayed on television, he or she is usually the subject of jokes and stereotypes. The. n. al. er. io. typical way in which homosexuality is represented on screen is through a gay male. Ch. i n U. v. character who is very flamboyant, sexually aggressive, and funny (McLelland, 2000b).. engchi. Whereas heterosexual couples are frequently shown making love, the gay character does not even get a kiss. Another way that homosexuality is represented on screen is through talk shows that typically convey a very inaccurate or sensationalized representation of gay life to the heterosexual audiences (Levina at al., 2000). Chung (2007) argues that such lesbian and gay stereotyping involves nuances of prejudice, dehumanization, and ridicules of gay characters. Most of the time these media representations are oversimplified and inaccurate stereotypes manipulated by media producers to portray the values and behaviors of gay people. As such, these portrayals 17.

(26) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY can mislead the general public into thinking that being lesbian or gay is a matter of performance or lifestyle choice (Chung, 2007). In recent years, the issue of gay-rights or same-sex marriage has been receiving a great deal of attention especially in the news media. According to Zhang and Min (2013), as in framing of other social and political issues, the media adopts various frames to discuss homosexuality-related issues, focusing mainly on attribution patterns and core values. Several studies have suggested that frames focusing on certain attributions or core values may increase the audience’s support for. 治政大 in general, whereas homosexuals or gay-rights policies as well as homosexuality 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. frames with other attributions or values may produce the opposite effect (Brewer, 2002, 2003; Haider-Markel & Joslyn, 2008; Zhang & Min, 2013).. •‧. Nat. sit. y. Attribution framing. In terms of causal attributions, media discourse has. n. al. er. io. frequently depicted homosexuality either as a hereditary trait that cannot be changed. Ch. i n U. v. by any subjective initiatives or as a matter of an individual’s personal choice of his or. engchi. her sexual identity that may change over the course of his or her life (Wilcox, 2003; Zhang & Min, 2013). In other words, the causes of homosexuality can be framed either as uncontrollable (i.e. sexual orientation, biological/genetically determined) or as controllable (i.e. sexual preference, environmental/personal choice). Such frames on the causal attributions of homosexuality may affect individual’s moral judgments, affective emotions, and behavioral tendencies regarding homosexuality, since it is difficult to justify discrimination against gays and lesbians especially when it is believed that the causes of homosexuality are “uncontrollable” (Yoshino, 2006). On 18.

(27) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY the other hand, the result of an experimental study on the framing effects of gay-themed entertainment media by Zhang and Min (2013) suggests that the participants exposed to an entertainment program framing homosexuality as something controllable through the individual’s free will are more likely to feel anger towards homosexuality. This significantly limits their support for gay people’s personal dignity and equal rights to jobs, housing, and freedom of expression, among others. As an issue reflecting a serious social stigma, homosexuality has been. 治政大 examined from the perspective of attribution theory (Harder-Markel & Joslyn, 2008; 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. Sakalli, 2002; Tygart, 2000; Wood & Bartkowski, 2004). Originally proposed by. Heider (1944), the attribution theory dictates that people generally strive to predict. •‧. and control their environments; prediction and control can be achieved through an. Nat. sit. y. understanding of the cause of behavior. Observed behaviors are attributed either to the. n. al. er. io. person (internal/dispositional) or the environment (situational/external). How. Ch. i n U. v. people respond to observed behaviors usually depends on whether dispositional. engchi. or situational attributions are selected. In addition to Heider’s basic formulation of attribution theory, Weiner (1979, 1985) introduced “controllability” as a third dimension of causality. While dispositional and situational factors refer to perceived causes of behavior, controllability concerns whether or not a person is believed to control their own behavior and the subsequent attitudinal and perceptual implications. Research on the role of controllability as causal attributions in attitudinal and behavioral responses toward the stigmatized individuals and groups has established often negative consequences associated with stigmas that are 19.

(28) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY perceived as controllable. For example, Weiner and colleagues utilized controllability attributions to investigate reactions to stigmatized individuals and groups (Weiner, Perry, & Magnusson, 1988). Results illustrate that people who are observed to have caused their stigma (e.g., AIDS, child abuse, drug abuse and obesity) will be evaluated more negatively than those who are stigmatized as a consequence of misfortune or the actions of others (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, and heart disease). Applying this theory of controllability attributions to the social stigma of homosexuality, researchers hypothesized and revealed that people who. 治政 considered homosexuality as a controllable state would大 report more negative attitudes 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. towards homosexuals than those who considered homosexuality as. uncontrollable (e.g., Sakalli 2002; Tygart 2000; Wilcox & Wolpert 2000; Wood &. •‧. Bartkowski 2004; Haider-Markel & Joslyn, 2008).. sit. y. Nat n. al. er. io. Value framing. Value framing refers to the process by which a media frame. Ch. i n U. v. connects an issue to particular values, strengthening this link in the mind of the. engchi. audience. As a result, the audience may accept the perspective indicated by the frame (Brewer, 2001, 2002, 2003). With regard to value framing, Brewer (2002, 2003) explores the types of core values associated with issues related to gay-rights. He suggests the news media has generally considered two types of value frames with respect to same-sex relationships: “pro-gay equality frames” and “anti-gay morality frames.” The news coverage focusing on “equal rights” are commonly invoked by gay activists and generally frames gay activists as those who strive for full marital status for same-sex partnerships. They use the egalitarian principle to justify support 20.

(29) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY for gay rights by emphasizing several issues: gay rights policies fighting for equal rights, gay and lesbians being treated like everybody else, and anti-gay rights policies denying gays and lesbians equal treatment. By contrast, opponents frame the issue in terms of a “traditional moral value,” highlighting the threat civil unions or same-sex marriage would pose to the long-standing social and religious institutions of marriage and family. They use traditional notions of morality and “family values” to justify opposition to gay rights by advocating that gay rights policies go against traditional morals and anti-gay policies protect them (Brewer, 2003).. 立立. 政治大. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. The content analysis and survey study conducted by Johnson (2012) examines how media framing capturing discussion of equality and morality shapes how the. •‧. public feels concerning same-sex marriage and civil unions. The results show that as. Nat. sit. y. equality framing within AP coverage increases, opposition to same-sex and civil. n. al. er. io. unions decreases. This data indicates the power of value framing to impact opinion on. Ch. i n U. v. same-sex marriage and civil unions. Furthermore, the data supports how traditional. engchi. morality produces opposition to gay rights and that support for equality produces support for gay rights (Brewer, 2003; Wilcox and Wolpert, 2000). While there has been significant changes to media portrayals of homosexuality over the last few decades, many studies suggest that heterosexism and homophobia still prevail in the media. For instance, by analyzing 356 stories about gays and lesbians appearing in Time and Newsweek magazines from 1947 to 1997, Bennett (2000) concluded that prejudicial allegations against gays and lesbians have continued to appear despite the steady decline of unbalanced coverage on homosexuality during 21.

(30) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY the past fifty years. Similarly, Hart (2000) argues that even though recent media portrayals rarely depict homosexuality as mental illness, most representations continue to perpetuate negative stereotypes about homosexuality. They tend to be portrayed as promiscuous, infected with HIV, or have unsatisfying sexual and romantic relationships (Calzo & Ward, 2009; Hart, 2000; Herman, 2005). In their study, Riggs and Patterson (2009) briefly elaborate the ways in which homophobia and transphobia play out in the contemporary media. For instance, there have been several examples of PSAs that repeatedly state, “that’s so gay!” along with celebrities’. 治政 transphobic remarks. They concluded that contemporary大 media representations of 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. lesbians and gay men arguably continue to perpetuate homophobia in more. sophisticated and subtle ways than in the past, but which are no less violent in their. •‧. effects.. n. Ch. er. io. al. sit. y. Nat Portrayal of Homosexuality in Japanese Media. i n U. v. In his study on a Japanese gay identity, McLelland (2000b, p.459) argues that. engchi. representations of homosexuality in Japanese media are generally found in the “entertainment world” and limited to male homosexuality, particularly are often mixed up with transsexuality and transgenderism. In the early 1990s, representations of gay men began to appear in a wide variety of popular media including magazines, comic books, TV shows, films, which resulted in a phenomenon termed Japan’s “gay boom (McLelland, 2000a, 2000b, 2006).” It was the first time in modern Japanese history that the discussion of homosexuality became widespread. In fact, a number of gay celebrities and comedians started to appear frequently in mainstream media. 22.

(31) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY However, most of these representations are based on stereotypical images of homosexuality, depicting homosexual men as a flamboyant feminine gay man or a cross-dressing transsexual man (McLelland, 2000b). Additionally in the mainstream media (particularly in TV shows), homosexuality and transgenderism tend to be treated as “something to be laughed at” (Ito, 1996, p.45). Valentines (1997) argues that “in media portrayals okama look like fakes, trying to be women but noticeably failing” (p.108). Today, there are even many “fake gay” comedians trying to induce audiences’ laughter by acting as a feminine gay man, which may foster audiences’. 治政大 a staff member at Gay incorrect prejudice against homosexuality. Mochizuki (2008), 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. Japan News worries about the situation stating, “it’s good that such people are making appearances on TV and are being accepted, but I’m concerned that most of them are. •‧. being featured as comedy characters (cited in Hongo, 2008).” Although TV programs. Nat. sit. y. in the U.S. have come to depict sexual minorities as ordinary people that are part of. n. al. er. io. the common community, their portrayals in Japan may cause misunderstandings of. Ch. i n U. the characteristics of gay, lesbian and transsexual people.. engchi. v. Aside from visual media, popular magazines have also given extensive coverage to homosexuality in Japan. However, they tend to focus more on the unusual or bizarre aspects of gay subculture with little space given to discuss gay issues such as gay rights, gay lifestyle or a gay identity (McLelland, 2000b). Such partial and biased portrayals has led some Japanese gays and lesbians to criticize the media for being “voyeuristic” and solely focusing on a narrow aspect of homosexuality (Ishino & Wakabayashi, 1996, as cited in McLelland, 2000b). According to a survey by DCI (2012), only 33.7% of LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) respondents 23.

(32) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY look with a favorable eye on performances of these homosexual celebrities and comedians, while 41.3% of heterosexual respondents do so. This result bears out Ito (1996)’s comment that the media has a tendency to report the more unusual aspects of gay life that actually are not like those of ordinary gay men. One potential reason is because featuring gays and lesbians whose daily lives are really no different from heterosexuals does not attract audiences. McLelland (2000b) suggests that these media portrayals and the discourses surrounding homosexuality in Japan are very different from the more politically. 治政大 European and the U.S. constructed representations of homosexuality in contemporary 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. media. Rather, issues concerning gay rights, gay lifestyle or a gay identity are hardly discussed even in Japanese news media.. •‧ y. sit. io. er. Marriage. Nat. Impact of Framing Effect on Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Same-sex. An attitude is defined as “a person's general evaluation of an object (where. al. n. iv n C ‘object’ is understood in a broad sense, h easnencompassing g c h i U persons, events, products, policies, institutions, and so on),” which is an important determinant of one’s behavior (O’keefe, 1990, p.18). Like other sexual topics, an individual’s attitudes toward homosexuality are not innate but instead are socialized. Although multiple factors contribute to this socialization process including parents, teachers, peers, and religious institutions (Ballard & Morris, 1998), one of the most influential among them is likely to be the media. In fact, youth frequently mention the media as a top source of sexual. 24.

(33) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY information (Brown, Halpern, & L’Engle, 2005; Ward, 2003). Indeed, it is argued that the media has an important role in shaping individual’s attitudes, especially towards homosexuality because people generally learn about homosexuality from characters and scenes portrayed in films, television programs, fashion magazines and commercial advertisements rather than direct contact with gay and lesbian people (Chung, 2007). One key reason is because discussions over sexuality-related issues are often avoided by parents and peers due to the controversial nature of the topic in addition to the notion that first-hand experience of homosexuality may be limited (Chung, 2007; Gross, 1991).. 立立. 政治大. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. According to Hart (2000), exposure to negative media representations of gays and lesbians can decrease the levels of social tolerance for homosexuality as well as. •‧. increase the levels of homophobia. It also contributes to the vision of a society in. Nat. sit. y. which differences are devalued and discrimination against gays and lesbians may not. n. al. er. io. be perceived as intolerable. In contrast, exposure to positive representations of gays. Ch. i n U. v. and lesbians may significantly influence the public attitudes toward gays, lesbians,. engchi. and other sexually marginalized groups (Levina et al., 2000; Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind, & Rosselli, 1996). These positive representations can serve to decrease the stigma associated with homosexuality and the prevalent influence of heterocentric ideology in society. If negative stereotypes dominate the mainstream media, regular exposure could lead audiences to accept those unfavorable portrayals and make them less tolerant of homosexuality (Gross, 1991). Media framing on homosexuality can not only elicit homophobia among heterosexuals that may lead to discrimination toward gays and lesbians, but can also 25.

(34) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY affect a formation of public opinion on homosexuality and related issues. Many public opinion scholars support the view that people often rely on frames borrowed from public debate to connect issues and values (Kinder & Sanders 1996; Nelson, et al., 1997b). The public debate on an issue can be considered as the sum of the frames for the issue that flow from elites to the public, usually through the mass media (Brewer, 2003). Therefore, how a social issue is covered in the media will influence audiences’ perception of the issue. According to Chong and Druckman (2007), most individuals hold conflicting beliefs about controversial social issues and are often unable to. 治政大 set of values, media determine their relative importance. By presenting a particular 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. frames can work as an important cue by which audiences decide which beliefs are more or less important in shaping their opinions over a given issue. Since a. •‧. controversial issue is often framed through different angles and perspectives, media. Nat. sit. y. framing of an issue may lead the audience to interpret the issue in different ways. n. al. er. io. (Shah, Kwak, Schmierbach, & Zubric, 2004). The news coverage of homosexuality. Ch. i n U. v. especially on same-sex marriage or gay-rights often involves debates between two. engchi. sides that possess conflicting views on the issues (Li, 2010). Many previous studies have examined how core values reflected in a media frame influence the audiences’ beliefs and opinions (Brewer, 2002, 2003; Brewer & Gross, 2005). For example, in their study on the framing of visual media and attitudes toward homosexuality, Levina et al. (2000) randomly expose participants to one of three different videos (anti-gay, neutral, and pro-gay content) to observe the influence of media frames on shaping attitudes towards homosexuality. The results illustrate that the group exposed to an anti-gay video reported more negative attitudes than 26.

(35) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY those exposed to a pro-gay video, demonstrating the significant correlation between the media frames and attitudes. They also examined the influence of a long-term framed message (10 to 14 days), suggesting that the effects of media frames are both powerful and lasting. Therefore, it is logical to argue that media frames play a crucial role in connecting an issue to particular values, thus strengthening this link in the mind of the audiences. Thus based on the previous literature, a first hypothesis is proposed:. 治政大 toward (1) H1: Message framing has an impact on participants’ attitudes 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. homosexuality and (2) legalization of same-sex marriage and civil unions. Specifically, participants who are exposed to pro-gay equality frame will have more. •‧. positive attitudes whereas those who exposed to anti-gay morality frame will have. Nat n. al. er. io. sit. y. more negative attitudes.. Ch. i n U. Moderators of Framing Effects. engchi. v. As seen previously, there is a large body of literature illustrating that media framing works as a persuasive tool. Many studies have shown that framing the same issue in different ways, while keeping the same core facts consistent, is effective at influencing opinion or attitudes (e.g., Hart, 2000; Jacoby, W. G., 2000: Nelson & Kinder, 1996; Nelson et al., 1997b; Nelson & Oxley, 1999; Levina et al., 2000). However, while the relationship between the use of framing and resulting opinion is well established, previous studies have often presented mixed or conflicting findings. For example, McCroskey and Wright (1971) failed to observe a significant 27.

(36) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY difference of persuasion effects between a “punishment-oriented” message and a “reward-oriented” message on either attitude change or perceived credibility. Similarly, O’Keefe and Jensen’s (2006) review of 165 gain-loss message framing studies found no significant general difference in persuasiveness between the two appeal forms. In another study by Levin and Gaeth (1988), the positive framing of a meat product attribute (i.e., 75% lean) results in more positive evaluation of the product than its presumed equivalent negative framing (i.e., 25% fat). In contrast, Ganzach and Karsahi (1995) report reverse outcomes: a negatively framed message. 治政大significantly greater (i.e., benefits lost and financial costs of nonuse) attracted 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. increased credit card usage among lapsed cardholders than did the positively framed incentive (i.e., benefits gained and financial rewards).. •‧. Facing these inconsistent findings, researchers began to devote considerable. Nat. sit. y. effort to investigate moderators of message framing effect. Specifically, they sought. n. al. er. io. to explore specific factors that regulate the effectiveness of messages presented in. Ch. i n U. v. either frame. Previous literature presents a number of contextual moderators, such as. engchi. source characteristics (e.g., Druckman, 2001; Slothuus & de Vreese, 2008), issue characteristics (e.g., Lecheler, de Vreese & Slothuus, 2009), interpersonal communication (e.g., Druckman & Nelson, 2003), or competitive framing (e.g., Chong & Druckman, 2007; Sniderman & Theriault, 2004) as well as individual-level moderator variables such as political knowledge (e.g., Nelson, Oxley & Clawson, 1997a), values (e.g., Bullock & Fernald, 2005; Shen & Edwards, 2005), or personality (Lauriola & Levin, 2001; Levin, Gaeth, Schreiber & Lauriola, 2002).. 28.

(37) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY Among them, this study will focus on two specific potential factors that may limit the framing effects: Need for Cognition as a cognitive moderator and religiosity as a heuristic moderator.. Need for Cognition Definition In this study, I focus on Need for Cognition (NFC) and examined the implications of this personality variable relative to effects of message framing.. 治政大and Wolfe (1955) during NFC was originally introduced by Cohen, Stotland, 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. their work on individual differences in cognitive motivation. They describe the. concept as “a need to structure relevant situations in meaningful, integrated ways …. •‧. [and] a need to understand and make reasonable the experiential world (p. 291).”. Nat. sit. y. Cacioppo, Petty, and Kao (1984) further defined NFC in contemporary literature as. n. al. er. io. “an individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors (p.. Ch. i n U. v. 306),” and suggest that while all individuals have the need to make sense of their. engchi. world, there are individual differences in their tendency to satisfy this need. Research has shown NFC to be a highly stable personality variable (Sadowski & Guloz, 1992), and researchers have considered it central to understanding different components of information processing and behavior. In particular, individuals high in NFC are intrinsically motivated to search for, gather, and analyze information in an effort to comprehend their world, devoting more cognitive resources to processing messages than those low in NFC. Furthermore, high NFC individuals constitutionally enjoy thinking and complex tasks, and are more likely to process information analytically. 29.

(38) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY On the other hand, low NFC individuals tend to avoid effortful cognitive work, prefer tasks that require fewer cognitive resources, and are more likely to process information heuristically (Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992). For example, a study on advertising showed that using humor as a means for inducing favorable responses to a product led to greater success among participants who scored low in NFC as compared to those who scored high in NFC (Zhang, 1996). NFC has also been included in attempts to understand differences among students in comprehension of instructional materials (Leone & Dalton, 1988). This research demonstrated that those. 治政大 course material than who were high in NFC were able to comprehend more difficult 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. those who were low in NFC. When simple material was presented, no differences were found between the two groups.. •‧. In addition, prior research suggests that an individual’s NFC is positively. Nat. sit. y. correlated with their level of education, ACT scores, and high school/college grade. n. al. er. io. point averages (e.g., Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996; Olson, Camp, &. Ch. i n U. v. Fuller, 1984). NFC can also influence consumer behavior to a large degree. For. engchi. example, high NFC consumers tend to be persuaded by the substance of a message, whereas consumers low in NFC are persuaded by incidental cues, such as the spokesperson delivering a message or the number of arguments presented (Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983). In addition, previous research has shown that high NFC individuals recall greater amounts of information (Cacioppo, Petty, & Morris, 1983), pay more attention to the quality of information available (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982), generate a higher number of task relevant thoughts (Axsom, Yates, & Chaiken,. 30.

(39) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY 1987), make more thoughtful judgments (Verplanken, 1989), and perform better in various cognitive tasks (Leone & Dalton, 1988).. Elaboration Likelihood Model Need for cognition gained prominence in the literature of the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986), which assumes that individuals engage in one of two modes when they process information. That is, as discussed below, an individual’s motivation to process the message, which. 治政 determines which mode he or she will follow, is largely大 influenced by his/her level of 立立. •‧. •‧ 國. Buda).. ㈻㊫學. NFC at the time of message exposure (Cacioppo, Petty, & Rodriguez, 1986; Zhang &. ELM is primarily concerned with how the cognitive processing of a message. Nat. sit. y. affects the persuasiveness or effectiveness of the message. According to ELM, when. n. al. er. io. individuals engage with persuasive communications, attitudes are formed or changed. Ch. i n U. v. through one of two different routes of thinking: the central route or the peripheral. engchi. route. The central route is best described as thinking critically and thoughtfully about a persuasive message while the peripheral route is more of an automatic response to a message. ELM indicates that when elaboration likelihood is high, receivers utilize a central route to assess the message; that is, they will put more cognitive effort to evaluate the quality of the received message and will carefully scrutinize the information delivered by the message. On the other hand, when the elaboration likelihood is low, individuals will follow a peripheral route in which they employ less cognitive effort to evaluate the 31.

(40) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY content of the received message. Instead, they generally depend on simple (peripheral) cues within the message (i.e. issue-irrelevant or superficial information) to make a decision about the persuasiveness of the message. In sum, as elaboration likelihood level decreases, the influence of information which need a careful assessment on readers' perception, attitude, or belief will also be attenuated, whereas the effects of peripheral cues become more important. ELM has identified two important contextual factors affecting message receiver’s degree of elaboration likelihood: receivers' motivation and ability (Petty &. 治政大studies empirically Cacioppo, 1986). Consistent with ELM predictions, prior 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. confirmed significant interactive effects of these two factors with both central and peripheral routes on receivers' perception or attitude towards the received. •‧. message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1984; Rothman, Salovey, Antone, Keough, & Martin,. Nat. sit. y. 1993). In the context of ELM, NFC has been developed as an individual difference. n. al. er. io. variable potentially affecting receivers' motivation to process persuasive. Ch. i n U. v. communication that determines whether an individual follows a central route or a. engchi. peripheral route to process the message. In other words, individuals high in NFC are generally more motivated to engage in message argument quality than individuals low in NFC (Cacioppo et al., 1984). Thus, those high in NFC are more likely than those low in NFC to process persuasive information via the central route whereas people low in NFC are more likely to attend to peripheral route due to lower motivation to process complex information (Axsom et al., 1987; Steward, Schneider, Pizarro, & Salovey, 2003).. 32.

(41) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY Moderating Effects of NFC Framing effects is a cognitive bias that causes message receivers to adopt heuristic principles that simplify the complex tasks of making judgments (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981; Cheng & Wu, 2010). However, it has been argued that the occurrence of framing effects can be attributed to a lack of attention. If individuals would only think more carefully about their choices, they would detect alternative ways to think about the problem and would make decisions that are less dependent on a particular frame (Cheng & Wu, 2010; LeBoeuf & Shafir, 2003; Sieck. 治政大supported by research & Yates, 1997; Smith & Levin, 1996). This view has been 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. attempting to show a lower occurrence of framing effects among more thoughtful decision makers (e.g. Smith & Levin, 1996; Stanovich, 1999). For example, Miller. •‧. and Fargley (1991) asked participants to provide a rationale for their choices. They. Nat. sit. y. showed that this request significantly reduced the magnitude of framing effects on. n. al. er. io. risky choice. Similar findings were reported by Sieck and Yates (1997) and Tekemura. Ch. i n U. v. (1993, 1994). As Smith and Levin (1996) suggest that this experimental. engchi. manipulation presumably “leads to greater thought about the choice, and hence less contamination by biasing factors such as framing (p. 284),” the mechanism for this improvement may be that providing a rationale facilitates the recognition of multiple valid reference points from which to consider the choice (Miller & Fagley, 1991; Sieck & Yates, 1997; Simon, Fagley, & Halleran, 2004). This generates choices that are less biased by the initial frame. In addition, these results are also convergent with the ELM; as noted before, it is thought to be more difficult to persuade a person who is motivated or has the ability to process messages. 33.

(42) FRAMING EFFECTS ON ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY As stated previously, people who are high in NFC have been found to be more: motivated to engage in cognitive elaboration and consequently generate more thoughtful analysis of written messages (Cacippo et al., 1983), engage in greater search for information (Verplanken, Hazenberg, & Palenéwen, 1992), and pay less attention to surface cues (Heppner, Reeder, & Larson, 1983) than those low in NFC. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that those higher in NFC already actively think more about the options and are thereby more likely to reframe the options and neutralize the presented frame (Simon et al., 2004). Contrarily, since positive. 治政大cues (Zhang & Buda, 1999), or negative framing messages serve as possible peripheral 立立. •‧ 國. ㈻㊫學. it is expected that those lower in NFC are more susceptible to message framing. because they are more likely to be influenced by surface cues as they tend to exert. •‧. less cognitive effort to comprehend and evaluate messages (Cheng & Wu, 2010;. Nat. sit. y. Chaiken, 1980; Smith & Levin) such as whether “the attitude issue or object is. n. al. er. io. associated with positive or negative cues (Petty et al., 1983, p. 135).” Based on. Ch. i n U. the discussion above, the following hypothesis is proposed:. engchi. v. H2: Participants’ level of NFC will moderate the influence of message framing on their attitudes toward (1) homosexuality and (2) legalization of same-sex marriage and civil unions. Participants who are low in NFC will show more message framing effects than participants who are high in NFC.. 34.