Career Prospects and Job Search Intention of High-Skilled Foreign Students in Taiwan.

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(1)Career Prospects and Job Search Intention of High-skilled Foreign Students in Taiwan. by. Edgard Ivan Garcia Torres. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: C. Rosa Yeh, Ph. D National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan June, 2012.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The writing of this thesis has been a wonderful experience and an opportunity to learn more in depth about a subject that it directly relates to me. Unexpectedly it was an opportunity to share ideas and knowledge between my advisor and myself. Through the last two years I had the full support of my family and specially my brothers that encourage me to always go forward.. This thesis would have not come to a reality if it wasn’t for the passion, knowledge and expertise that Dr. C. Rosa Yeh has regarding this topic. Her guidance throughout the thesis it was more than just showing the right path to thesis writing but a sincere interest in my selfimprovement and learning as a student, professional and a person.. I have many thanks to give to the many members of the International human resources and development department, especially Dr. Steven Lai whose remarkable ability to see the good in everyone has always encouraged his students to move forward. Many thanks to Dr. Yi-Chun Jane Lin whose knowledge and commitment to the development of this thesis was crucial for its completion. To Dr. Jin Feng Uen whose clear thinking, and open mind was crucial to move forward in the most critical stages of this research. To Mrs. Sandra Chen, administrative assistant of the IHRD office, for being the person all the students can always count on.. Finally I would like to thank my parents for being there for me and help me to achieve my goals.. ..

(3) ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine a number of the most important abilities foreign students need, to find employment in Taiwan and measure how much each of these abilities affect the students’ perceived possibilities to find work after graduation. Quantitative research approach was used to test the effect of acculturation, networking behavior, career decision making self-efficacy and awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies have on the perceived career prospects of foreign students in Taiwan and their job search intention after graduation. The participants were foreign students enrolled in a degree program in Taiwan’s higher education system. A pilot test involving 47 participants was used to establish the validity of the survey questionnaire, which was the main instrument used to collect data for this research. Once the proper changes on the questionnaire were made after the pilot test, 206 participants, about 2% of the population of foreign students in Taiwan as of 2010-2011 participated in the study. Hierarchical regression was used to test the study hypotheses. The research found that awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies and career decision making self-efficacy positively influenced foreign students’ perceived career prospects in Taiwan, while acculturation and networking behavior increased their job search intention. The effect of perceived career prospects on foreign students’ job search intention in Taiwan was also proved. Keywords: Job search intention, perceived career prospects, awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies, career decision making self-efficacy, acculturation. I.

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(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. I TABLE OF CONTENTS…………..………………………………………..……………………………III LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………..V LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………....VII CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………….….1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 2 Research Purpose ................................................................................................. …………..2 Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………………....3. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW………..…………………………….......5 Awareness of Taiwan Labor Policies ……………………...……………………….…...….5 Career Decision Making Self-efficacy ……………………………………………………..8 Acculturation……….…………………………………………………………………...…10 Networking Behavior.. …………………………..……………………………………......15 Perceived Career Prospects……………….…………………………………………………....17 Job Search Intention……………………………………………………………...……..….18. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY……….……………………………………………..21 Research Framework……………………………………………………………………….21 Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………………….....22 Research Procedure……………………………………………………………………...…23 Data Collection….……………..…………………………………………………………...25 Measurement……………………………………………………………………………….28. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS……………..………………...34 Correlation Analysis………………………………………………………………………..34 Hierarchical Regression Analysis…………………………………………………………..36 Results for Perceived Career Prospects as Dependent Variable……………………………36 Job Search Intention as a Dependent Variable…………………………..……………….....38 Mediation Effect of Perceived Career Prospects on Job Search Intention……....…………...39. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……..…………….46 III.

(6) Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 46 Practical Implications .......................................................................................................... 48 Research Implication ........................................................................................................... 50 Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 51 Future Research ................................................................................................................... 52. REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 53 APPENDIX THE INTRUMENT .......................................................................... 59. IV.

(7) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Research framework ………………………………………………………………..21 Figure 3.2 Research Procedure ………………………………………………………………...24. V.

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(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Descriptive statistics of the sample…………………………….…………………27 Table 3.2 Reliability analysis pilot………………………….………………………………32 Table 3.3 Dimension adjustments………...………..……………….……………………………33 Table 4.1 Correlation analysis………………………………...………………………………35 Table 4.2 Influence of variables on perceived career prospects.……………………………38 Table 4.3 Hierarchical regression of perceived career prospects mediation on job search intention………..…………………………………………..………………………….44 Table 4.4 Hypothesis results …………………………………….……………………………45. VII.

(10) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION At the end of the University life, students often find themselves struggling with the job search process. How well students plan the career path they want to follow and have the awareness of the abilities they posses as well as the abilities that are required to have, can have a big impact on their perceived career prospect (Gottfredson & Becker, 1981). When students search for jobs, they usually assess what they can do, but they do not know much of what is required from them, especially before graduation. To focus and polish on abilities that can be more practical for each person’s work performance and to know what abilities are needed to find a job, a goal needs to be set for a course of action to be undertaken through career planning (Yang, Chen & Fan, 2010). The barriers to finding work are numerous and varied based on each person’s reality. The realities most foreign students have to encounter on their day to day life are even more complex. For a foreign student, problems like. career decision making-self-efficacy (Stacy, 2003;. Bullock, Andrews & Buzzetta, 2011), acculturation (Berry, 2003), networking behavior (Van Hoye, Hooft & Lievens, 2009) and awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies (Kang & Su, 1999) can complicate their search for work. The interest of Taiwan and many other nations in attracting foreign students is to remain competitive, in what it has been described as a race to obtain the best employees. (Zigurasa & law, 2006). In the period from 2010-2011, there were 8,801 foreign students in the tertiary education system in Taiwan (MOE, 2010), this represented a major growth in the population of foreign students in the country. This is due to a change in policies from the Taiwan government and the awareness of how important internationalization is and how this can be achieved through better positioning of its universities through the global university league table (Mok, 2010). Taiwan universities as in many other parts of Asia are being encourage to not only internationalize themselves but also to find other forms of funding other than government financial support to finance their programs. As an outcome this creates closer ties with the private sector and many governments believe it will make universities more flexible and more aware of the rapid socio-economic changes (Mok, 2010). One way to internationalize universities of Taiwan is to attract foreign students. To have a large number of foreign students, Taiwan needs to assess how the country can benefit from the high-skilled foreign workforce available 1.

(11) year after year, what are the abilities that these foreign students can offer to Taiwan at the end of their study and how they contribute to Taiwanese society. As foreign students have to adapt to a new environment, they all have to go through the process of acculturation, but what really can make a difference is the level of difficulty this acculturation process presents to each individual (Bektas, 2004). How they handle these challenges will be influenced by their abilities to engage in planning, their motivation and confidence in their abilities to handle task at hand (Rogers, Creed & Glendon, 2008). To increase their perceived career prospects foreign student will have to rely on one fundamental concept, networking behavior (Villar & Albertin, 2010). At arrival most foreigner do not have to have network or abilities that matches the need of the local markets (Friedberg, 2000), however, they will have to make up for these over time. When you take all these factors into account, one cannot stop to wonder the real possibilities that foreign high-skilled students perceive on finding work in Taiwan, once they have ended their university study.. Problem Statement Many studies focus on career paths of university students or expatriates, with little focus on foreign high-skilled students in a country. This research wants to bring insight on certain realities foreign students have to take into account before graduation for an effective career transition from student to employee to occur. Previous work focused on identifying key abilities that will be crucial for a foreign student to obtain work in Taiwan. This study focused on analyzing how effective some of these abilities are in predicting foreign students’ perceived career prospects and job search intention in Taiwan. In its effort to internationalize its higher education system, the Taiwanese government invests tremendously in recruiting and providing education to foreign students. However, the human capital investment will not result in appropriate return for the local economy if these Taiwan-educated foreign students do not work in Taiwan after obtaining their degrees. Therefore it is important to understand potential factors that contribute to foreign students’ career choice in Taiwan.. Research Purpose Transition from student to employee is not always easy, and the career path a student is choosing will determine how big or small his/her chances to find work will be. This 2.

(12) research focuses on the relationship that acculturation, networking behavior, career decision self-efficacy and awareness of Taiwan labor policies, have with perceived career prospects of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan and how this influence foreign student’s job search intention. The purpose of this study is to find a number of the most important abilities foreign high-skilled students need to increase their job search intention in Taiwan. This is expected to provide an effective tool for students to carefully and effectively plan and execute the career choice they make based on the different dimensions this study takes into account. This research is based on the findings of Torres & Yeh, (2011), a qualitative paper with the purpose of finding the most important abilities a foreign student needs to effectively obtain work in Taiwan. In their research several characteristics were identified. With the purpose of identifying how effective several of these qualities are, this research looks to: 1.. Examine the level of career decision making self-efficacy, acculturation, networking,. awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies, perceived career prospects and job search intention of foreign students in Taiwan. 2. Measure the extent to which awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies, career decision making self-efficacy, acculturation and networking behavior influence the perceived career prospects of foreign high skill students in Taiwan. 3. Explore the influence that career decision making self-efficacy, acculturation, networking behavior, awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies and perceived career prospects have on the job search intention of foreign students in Taiwan.. Definition of Terms High-skilled foreign students – This study will define high-skilled foreign students as all of those foreign students that are currently studying their bachelor’s degree, Masters Degree and doctoral degrees (Canberra manual OECD, 1995; Lowell, 2005; Lowell & Batalova, 2005) in Taiwan. Awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies: This research defines awareness of labor policies as the knowledge that a foreign student has about the regulations and policies that abide his/her intention to work in Taiwan.. 3.

(13) Networking behavior- It is defined in this study as one person’s individual attempts to develop and maintain relationships with other people who may assist them in their work or career (Forret & Dougherty, 2001). Career decision making self-efficacy-It is defined in this study as a person’s belief about her or his capability to perform tasks related to the career decision making process (Bullock, Andrews & Buzzetta, 2011; Grier & Skaar, 2010; Stacy, 2003). Acculturation: It can be defined in this study as a group of phenomena which happens when groups of individuals having different cultures interact with each other resulting in changes in the original cultural patterns of one of the groups or both of them. (Buchemi, 2011; Choi, 2001; Williams & Berry, 1991). Perceived career prospects: In this study perceived career prospects is defined as the perception of opportunities that a person has access to based on his own abilities, labor conditions and other external factors that represent opportunity of career advancement or lack of it (De Vos et al, 2009; Lai Tian & Meng, 2011; Lindberg, 2009; Thomas & Dykes, 2011). Job search intention: Job search intention is defined in this study as the motivation to engage in job seeking ( Van Hooft, Born,Taris & Flier, 2006).. 4.

(14) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Throughout the literature, it was found that most of the research regarding career prospects go along the line of career development with a vague definition of it (Gottfredson & Becker, 1981), and describing it as the opportunities that are available to a foreign student based on his/her individual resources (De vos et al., 2009) and the labor market conditions (Lindberg, 2009). The goal of a foreign student should be to nurture resources that will increase their perceived career prospects. To help foreign students select the resources that can improve their perceived career prospects, this study was inspired by the research results of Torres and Yeh (2011) in which differences in the acculturation level of the students, lack of clarity regarding Taiwan’s labor policies and perceived lack of ability to build network relationships with people with access to job opportunities in the local community were identified. The study also identified differences in career decision making self-efficacy among the foreign students. This chapter explains the literature related to the abilities and behavior that will increase the individuals’ perceived career prospects. The first section reviews some of the literature regarding awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies. The second section of this chapter will discuss career decision making self-efficacy. The third section will explain theories related to acculturation. The fourth section reviews literature regarding networking behavior. The fifth section will explain how these four abilities help increase the perceived career prospects of foreign students and therefore their job search intention in Taiwan.. Awareness of Taiwan’s Labor Policies In 1988 Taiwan introduced foreign labor for the first time and in 1992 the employment service act was created to manage the flow of foreign workforce, both low-skilled and highskilled. This was a response to the shortage of labor at the time and showed how labor policies dictate specific abilities that were needed according to the labor market (Kang & Su, 1999 ). According to OECD (2002), labor policies have the function of relieving labor shortages in the local market and to increase human capital. The laws in Taiwan are very specific as to which industries and professions foreign workers can work in, following the needs of the labor market at any given moment. Hugo (2009) stated that recruitment of high-skilled workers is 5.

(15) done through normal channels, therefore abiding by the laws of the host country. The host country’s labor policy will allow foreign students to understand the labor conditions of the country and the opportunities available (Lindberg, 2009). Students who do not possess the abilities the labor market is looking for will not have promising career prospects (Shumilova & Cai, 2011). To start understanding the situation of foreign students in Taiwan, one has to realize that, first and foremost, policies and regulations that rule a foreign individual working in the host country all come from labor policies (Davis & Hart, 2010). For the period 2010-2011, there were 8,801 foreign students enrolled in tertiary education in Taiwan (MOE, 2011), an indication that it exists a big pool of future foreign workers educated in Taiwan. Research showed that one of the most important factor of production in the world economy are highly skilled people, (Davis & Hart, 2010), but finding work for a foreigner can be challenging. The ability of a foreign student to allocate his/her abilities effectively will help him/her to have better perceived career prospects. This includes understanding the policies and regulations that abide his/her employment (Lai, Tian & Meng, 2011). Labor policies in Taiwan are a response for economic and social needs as stated before, foreign students need to be aware of possible mismatches between what the employers are looking for and the abilities that they have (Holzer, 1996). Taiwan as a knowledge-based economy will focus on the abilities that are needed at the time in different industries (Breznitz, 2007). The awareness of labor policies and labor market conditions will influence the perception of career prospects of a student in a country. This is based on push-pull factors that will encourage a student to stay or leave Taiwan after graduation (Shumilova & Cai, 2011). There is many literature regarding the intentions of governments to attract and regulate the flow of foreign skilled labor through migration policies (Hugo, 2009; Straubhaar, 2000; Zigurasa & Law, 2006; Lindberg, 2009), many of these policies focused on the abilities necessary for certain industries to grow and more importantly what are the skills, knowledge or contribution that foreign labor can provide to Taiwan (Wiers-Jenssen & Try, 2005; Friedberg, 2000).. 6.

(16) Referring to high-skilled foreign labor, Fang, Zikic and Novicevic (2009) explained how employers, organizations or governments can influence the flow of human capital among employees. Organizations and societies should develop policies that encourage workplace diversity and foreign student’s integration into the labor market, therefore creating opportunities and a perception of better career prospects (Carr et al., 2005). This integration of foreign students into the labor market can be done through training, job rotations (or internships), job development and team work (Chapman et al., 2005). Furthermore, research shows that educational and economic policies directly influence the career prospects or opportunities that students have (Stiwne & Jungert, 2010). Every receiving country has to be aware of how the foreign labor will affect the local labor force, by doing so there may be aware of missing opportunities for all parties involved (Davis & Hart, 2010). This loss or gain of opportunities represents the influence that labor policies can have in the perceived career prospects of foreign students in the country, thus Hypothesis 1a: Awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies positively influences perceived career prospects of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. According to Van Hooft, et al. (2006) the relationship between awareness of labor policies and job search intention becomes clear through job search behavior, taking into account that job search behavior will look into the opportunities available. In the case of this study this opportunities will be dictated by labor policies and this will predict the job search intention of foreign students (Ajzen, 1985). The perception of difficulty or easiness coming from the labor policies regarding foreign students will directly influence the job search behavior and therefore job search intention of foreign students (Conner & Armitage, 1998). Perceived behavioral control is related to concepts of self-efficacy where the perception of control over a behavior or situation will lead to intention to performed that behavior, that is, if foreign students perceived that accessing knowledge regarding labor policies is under their control, they must likely will have the intention to do so (Ajzen, 1991). The key concept that establishes a relationship between awareness of labor policies and job search intention is the concept of volitional behavior; the labor policies ruling a country regarding high-skilled foreign student will directly determine the level of job search intention if 7.

(17) foreign students feel it will guide them to the engagement of job search behavior with good final results (Ajzen,1985), and over time this intention can change based on individual reasons of a person or social influence (Van Hooft, et al., 2006), thus Hypothesis 1b: Awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan.. Career decision making self-efficacy Choosing a career is not an easy task and it is greatly affected by the level of preparation an individual has, this level of preparation is greatly influenced by a person’s confidence in their abilities to perform a task (Rogers, Creed & Glendon, 2008). Career decision making self-efficacy is an important subject regarding perceived career prospects and the choices people make due to the fact that it can predict behavior of a person (Yang & Gysberg, 2007). Smith (2002) describes how perceived career prospects of an individual are determined by beliefs in his/her own abilities and how this affects motivation and aspirations. Strong career decision making self-efficacy will have a big impact on a person’s perceived career prospects because it has the quality of transforming ideas into actions, that is people who have strong career decision making self-efficacy will perceive better career prospects for themselves and also have the intention to pursue this perception (Bandura, 1986). Marra et al. (2009) found that a person who lacks career decision making self-efficacy may not act or pursue their career goals; therefore affecting his/her perceived career prospects. Career decision making self-efficacy can directly influence an individual’s behavior regarding their perceived career prospect and whether to pursue his/her goal or not. This is because individuals who want to pursue their perceived career prospects will engage in planning and career development activities (Betz & Voyten,1997; Smith, 2002). According to Kelly, Gunsalus and Gunsalus (2009), career decision making selfefficacy influences a person’s goals and shows a strong link between self-efficacy and the ability to engage in actions that will lead a certain goal; in the case of this study those actions are acquiring the abilities to increase perceived career prospects of a foreign student. 8.

(18) According to Bandura (1989) career decision making self-efficacy works as a determinant of how people behave and their emotional conditions in different situations. Career decision making self-efficacy influences the career decision process of students and people in general (Kelly, Gunsalus & Gunsalus, 2009). According to Greer-Reed & Skaar (2010),. individuals. who have. high career. decision making self-efficacy are not only more motivated but more aware of their perceived career prospects. Stiwne & Jungert (2010) explain that this awareness of their perceived career prospects is because career decision making self-efficacy nurtures the interest of the individual into engaging in career related activities. Based on Bandura (1977), foreign students as individuals place standards to be achieved and to which they can evaluate their own performance and make respective changes according to the situation. These changes are made due to perceived differences between standards they set for themselves and the performance outcome. This affects their career decision making selfefficacy (Lent et al., 1994). There are evidences that suggest that career decision making self-efficacy is related to self-efficacy expectations and therefore affecting the plans a foreign student has regarding going back to his/her home country or stay in the host country to work. (Singer, 1993). This will affect greatly how foreign students think about their work opportunities in the host country and their willingness to engage in activities that will increase their perceived career prospects in their home country or the host country (Spencer-Rodgers, 2000). Much research has been made regarding career decision making self-efficacy and how it can predict behavior (Bullock, Andrews & Buzzeta, 2011; Grier & Skaar, 2010; Marra et al., 2009; Stacy, 2003). This is of great importance for foreign students in Taiwan, especially when it comes to their motivation (Bandura, 1986), planning (Greer-Reed & Skaar, 2010), goals and willingness to engage in career activities that will improve their career prospects (Stiwne & Jungert, 2010) based on the abilities they possess, thus Hypothesis 2a: Career decision making self-efficacy positively influences perceived career prospects of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan.. According to Stiwne & Jungert (2010) in the career decision making process which 9.

(19) includes academic self-efficacy among others, the confidence in their capacities may influence their motivation. Research shows that intention is based on motivational factors; how strong is foreign student’s job search intention will be partly based on their perception of their career decision making self-efficacy (Azjen, 1991). The literature explained how career decision making self-efficacy is strongly related to motivation and goals (Bandura, 1977; Grier & Skaar, 2010; Smith, 2002). This is important because goals are set based on the abilities a person possess, but if the person lacks confidence in his/her abilities it will not pursue not only his/her goals but any action that leads to self improvement (Stiwne & Jungert, 2010). Besides having a strong link to motivation and career goals (Bandura, 1986; Betz & Voyten, 1997; Smith, 2002; Kelly, Gunsalus & Gunsalus, 2009), career decision making selfefficacy has a strong link to success experiences, people who experience success in their careers will have stronger career decision making self-efficacy (Lent et al., 1994). The simple relation between career decision making self-efficacy and job search intention is that even with a strong motivation to do something, individuals with strongest belief that they can master or perform a task, possibly will have the strongest job search intention (Bandura, 1977). Liu (2009) explained that the intention of foreign students to look for work in the host country is likely a reflection of their confidence in dealing with barriers and challenges that they may step upon. Similar findings were described by Blustein (1989) stating how foreign students that will have the intention to seek information regarding their career, will base their decision on the level of confidence they have on their career decision making capacities, thus Hypothesis 2b: Career decision making self-efficacy positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan.. Acculturation Living in a multicultural society requires a level of understanding about the origins of every individual’s culture and customs. The level of acculturation of a person can help explain how they behave regarding a present situation (Berry, 2003; Flores, Ojeda, Huang, Gee & Lee, 10.

(20) 2006). Foreign students have to consider how important it is keeping their cultural identity or getting close to another culture that will have as an outcome better perceived career prospects because of greater access to career opportunities. This will determine the attitude that foreign students will take (Mace, Atkins, Fletcher & Carr, 2005). The importance of acculturation as a critical part of increasing the perceived career prospects of a foreign students is because most failures of employees on assignment in a foreign country are directly linked to their inability to successfully go through the acculturation process (White, Absher & Huggins, 2011). Some research suggest that the opportunities available to a foreign student may be good or bad based on their acculturation level, not because they are not qualified but because the employers are more comfortable working with people from their same culture or a similar ones (Herald, 2000). The new nature of careers have pushed companies and employees to be more diverse, companies are more aware of the importance of culture knowledge among their workforce and place it as an important factor due to the mobility work at a global scale requires (Tharmaseelan, 2005). The importance companies are putting into acculturation puts employees in the search for experience abroad studying or working, because employees have to become more adaptive and flexible in their careers according to the needs of the company (Hall & Moss, 1998). As a new employee in an organization, the level of acculturation will be crucial to establish the type of working relation the foreign employee will have with the locals, since in many forms locals act as a mentor in the way the organization works (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). Among the different groups in foreign population it has been found that every single group goes through the process of acculturation (White, Absher & Huggins, 2011), that is, having first contact, understanding the meaning of their experiences, choosing strategies to deal with stress (coping strategies), and finally adapting to the new culture and having access to information that can influence their perceived career prospects (Bektas, 2004). It was found that voluntariness affects the acculturation process in a way that some individuals embrace the acculturation process like in the case of foreign students, while to 11.

(21) others the acculturation process has been forced upon them like in the case of expatriates on assignment. This affects the level of acculturation a person has and how much they get along with the locals as also the perception of their career prospects in the host country or in their native ones (Berry, 1997). From the point of view of a company, high-skilled foreign workers’ failure to accomplish a task due to a lack of acculturation abilities suffers a great cost in terms of performance, costumer relations and prestige among co-workers (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). Acculturation is a multidimensional process where people adapt to different cultures at different levels (Berry, 2003; Choi, 2001). It also involves changes in a person’s behavior, values, and attitudes. Foreign students embracing the acculturation process perform better than their counterparts, possibly a result of having better perceived career prospects (Choi, 2001). The acculturation process is also related to a number of demographic and social characteristics that can influence a person’s way of dealing with a new culture (Choi, 2001); these characteristics are there before the intercultural contact occurs (Berry, 1991). One of these factors is age; the younger the person, the easier it is to adapt to new customs. Older people appear to have more difficulties adjusting to the new cultural environment. Another factor is education; higher education seems to be associated with lower stress, possibly because problem solving and problem analysis abilities are established by education. (Bektas, 2004). Acculturation can have different outcomes depending on the strategy that an individual or a group decides to engage in (Berry, 2003; Bektas, 2004). If the right strategy is selected by foreign student to deal with the acculturation processes, this can have a great impact on the perceived career prospects of high-skilled foreign students. This is based on what companies have learned from their foreign employees who chose strategies that help them to perform better at work, the type of foreign employees companies are looking for. (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; White, Absher & Huggins, 2011). Research showed that the acculturation process can change an individual’s behavior (Berry, 2003; Choi, 2001) taking into account that foreign students will be a minority in the company and therefore will have to follow the customs of the larger group, in this case Taiwanese employees. The need of a foreign student to have the ability to engage in coping strategies (Bektas, 2004) to avoid underperformance (White, Absher & Huggins, 2011) seems 12.

(22) critical for their career prospects. Perceived career prospects will be determined by the opportunities available to a foreign student, internally and externally, additionally immigrant with better acculturation will have a better understanding of how they can be a contributor to the labor workforce in the host country, thus Hypothesis 3a: Acculturation positively influences perceived career prospects of high- skilled foreign students in Taiwan. The different cultural values and the background of foreign students will directly affect their job search intention (Van Hooft & De Jong, 2009), theory of planned behavior explains how job search intention can be influenced by the differences in cultures, e.g., individualismcollectivism, power distance and masculinity among others. Much research has been written about subjective norms and job search attitudes among different cultures. Subjective norms were found to be a stronger predictor of turnover intention in Japanese society compared to British society (Abrams, Ando, & Hinkle, 1998). Regarding job search intention, Non-western ethnic minorities in the Netherlands were motivated more by subjective norms than by personal attitudes (Van Hooft., et al., 2004) showing how foreign students can be influenced by culture at certain degrees and explain the job search intention that they may have. Western foreign students may rely more on their own abilities to determine their intention to look for work while Asian students may have pressure from society to look for work (Williams & Berry, 1991). Since the effect of acculturation does not only reach individuals but also the group, there are differences in the changes it makes. Group level entails changes in technological, social, cultural and political transformation, and individual level focuses on behavior, values, attitudes and identity. All of these may influence the job search intention that a foreign student possesses (Williams & Berry, 1991; Van Hooft & De Jong, 2009). Regarding employment of a foreigner in a host country, there are two groups of people that represent the key aspect of acculturation, the minority group, usually the foreign population, and a majority group, usually the locals in the host country (Bektas, 2004). It has been found that minority groups change their behavior towards the majority groups and this level of adjustment of behavior depends on the size of the minority group (Nekby & Rodin, 2007). 13.

(23) Taiwan as a collectivist culture, will base its job search intention on subjective norms putting the benefit of the group first. To have this intention to look for work in Taiwan based on opportunities and outside factors, integration at some degree will be crucial (Van Hooft., et al., 2004). The fit between the style of acculturation chosen by a foreign student and the acculturation style preferred by a host community will make integration more easy and therefore foreign students will feel more comfortable and with an increasing job search intention to work in Taiwan (Azjen, 1991; Berry, 1997). Williams & Berry (1991) stated that anxiety and depressions which are connected to negative emotions are related to acculturative stress. High-skilled foreign employees who experience acculturative stress have the tendency to have lower than expected performance, low productivity and an inability to meet company goals, which means that companies, especially MNC’s, are taking into account acculturative stress in their recruitment systems to select foreign employees. Moreover, foreign students who do not adjust to the host culture may feel less inclined to work in the host country (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; White, Absher & Huggins, 2011). Acculturative stress has its roots when problems arise from the acculturations process. These problems can be found in differences in cultural values, language difficulties and discrimination among others (White, Absher & Huggins, 2011). Acculturative stress occurs when stressors go beyond an individual’s coping resources (Gil, Vega & Dimas, 1994). Regarding college students, acculturative stress is not so much related to language difficulties but more connected with events related with conflicting values. Several stress models state that taxing situations cause stress and lead to negative effects possibly reducing the willingness to stay or search for work in the host country (Crockett et al., 2007). Acculturation plays a big role in the intention and behavior of foreign students, because it is mediated by subjective norms, attitude and perceived behavioral control (Van Hooft & De Jong, 2009). Foreign students, depending on their origins and skills, will rely on different predictors of job search intention like job search attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (Conner & Armitage, 1998), thus Hypothesis 3b: Acculturation positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. 14.

(24) Networking Behavior The ability for an individual to engage in networking behavior that will lead to increasing career prospects should be of great importance for foreign students in Taiwan. Networking behavior can be explained as the engagement in networking activities by a person with the purpose of maintaining a relationship with individuals who can be of assistance in their work or careers (Forret & Dougherty, 2004). The importance of networking behavior can be understood based on Masikiewicz (1998). Whose study reported that 70 % of job opportunities are found through networking behavior, the reason being that only 10 % of job opportunities are advertised Logue (1993) stated that between 60 to 90% of individuals found their work through the engagement of networking behavior. This argument alone puts a great deal of importance to why engaging in networking behavior matters. Besides being a good source of. employment, during times of high. unemployment, networking behavior produces more information regarding work opportunities than any other form of job search and therefore providing a perception of the career prospects available to foreign students (Lambert, Eby & Reeves, 2006). Other reasons to engage in networking behavior are the number of job opportunities in a certain market. If job opportunities are only given within an organization, or if there is large supply of labor, like in the case of high-skilled foreign labor (Hugo, 2009), it will make an individual’s strengths difficult to be seen. Therefore, it will make the engagement of networking behavior an appealing strategy for increasing a foreign students career prospects (Flap & Boxman, 2000). Research has found that the intensity of engaging in networking behavior can effectively lead to increasing job offers (Lambert, Eby & Reeves, 2006; Saks, 2006). The ability of a foreign student to engage in networking behavior can also help foreign student in their career advancement, since individuals who performed well at networking will be more likely to succeed in their careers (Wang, 2008). It should be taken into account that interacting with the locals is one of the main reasons for success for expatriates in MNC’s (Lee & Suyoco, 2008). This is because references from locals would serve as a social credential to enter an organization and social relations may make an individual to be noticed (Alfred, 2009). 15.

(25) Based on social capital theory foreign students need to understand that the relations that are established through networking behavior are based on trust and often shared values (Alfred, 2009) for a flow of information regarding job opportunities to arise (Lambert, Eby & Reeves, 2006). Foreign students just like expatriates have a minimum amount of social capital that can be increased over time. They are in disadvantage regarding the needs of the labor market since they are not localizing yet (Friedberg, 2000). This can change over time with expatriates, foreign students on the other hand, are not always willing to make this change (Villar & Albertin, 2010) and this lack of willingness to engage in networking behavior can be crucial to their career prospects, thus Hypothesis 4a: Networking behavior positively influences perceived career prospects of highskilled foreign students in Taiwan. Most literature regarding intention, place it as a predictor of behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen, Brown & Carvajal, 2004; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1995; Van Hooft, et al., 2006). In turn intention is predicted by the positive or negative evaluation that a person has towards a behavior, in this study’s case networking behavior (Van Hooft., et al., 2004). Students need to be aware of the importance of networking behavior regarding their career prospects because too often students do not feel comfortable to engage in networking practices and feel pressure to take action regarding the course of their careers, therefore lacking the job search intention that may provide better career outcomes (Villar & Albertin, 2010). Research shows that informal job search behaviors like networking behavior lead to more job offers and better jobs (Saks, 2006). If this is the case, foreign students’ evaluation or attitude towards engaging in networking behavior as an effective tool for job attainment in Taiwan, will most likely increase their job search intention in the country (Conner & Armitage, 1998; Van Hooft., et al., 2004). According to Lin’s (2010) normative norms, specifically social pressure and the influence family and friends have on the foreign student as also the perception they have on career opportunities will greatly influence foreign student’s job search intention. This means that if the right social capital is available, it can encourage foreign students into possible engagement in job search activities due to information obtained through networking (Ajzen, 1991). 16.

(26) Ajzen, Brown & Carvajal (2004) present a model that shows attitude towards a behavior will predict intention to perform this behavior. Foreign students’ attitude towards a behavior will influence job search intention. Foreign students who do not have job search intention will not engage in networking behavior, following Azjen (1991) model of theory of planned behavior. For the purposes of this study foreign students who engage in networking behavior are assumed to have strong job search intention and good attitude towards the behavior, thus Hypothesis 4b: Networking behaviors positively influence job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan.. Perceived Career Prospects Studying abroad is not a decision taken lightly, when students study abroad they take in consideration the benefits a degree abroad may provide, among the benefits is the perception that the degree in question will enhance their career prospects (Binsardi & Ekwulugo, 2003; Bourke, 2000). Choosing a school to study is important but equally important is the image the country has regarding the job opportunities or career prospects it can provide to foreign students (Peng, et al., 2000). Perception that studying in a country may enhance the career prospects of a foreign student (Qureshi, 1995) will be more likely to increase their job search intention based on external and internal factors (Ajzen, 1991; Conner & Armitage, 1998). The perception of career prospects could refer to the foreign student’s home country or Taiwan. Depending on the foreign students’ country of origin, perception of Taiwan educational quality may differ (Bilkey and Nes, 1982). The perceived career prospects of foreign students will be based on the university they go to (Kotler & Fox, 1995) and the foreign students’ country of origin (Bilkey & Nes, 1982). Foreign students may have a higher job search intention when they consider international companies, since they may regard it as workplaces that will provide better opportunities to fulfill their career aspirations (Chapman et al., 2005). Concepts of proactive career behaviors explain how a person’s decision to take action regarding his career will increase his/her job opportunities (Claes & Quintanilla, 1998), this would mean that individuals will nurture resources that are under their control and can be 17.

(27) changed. The ability for an individual to gather information to make correct decisions like choosing the right resources to nurture will have a huge impact on their perceived career prospects (De vos et al., 2009). The perceived career prospects of a foreign students are going to be greatly affected by job opportunities and the labor market (Gottfredson & Becker, 1981), the opportunities available will have to rely on acculturation, already foreseeing contact with Taiwanese employers (Flores ,Ojeda, Huang, Gee & Lee, 2006), and to engage in this type of action, motivation and confidence in a person’s abilities will have a huge effect on a person’s perceived career prospects (Kelly, Gunsalus & Gunsalus, 2009; Marra et al., 2009). The ability to build career prospect from acquaintances will have a huge impact on how successful foreign students are at the early stages in their career (Flap & Boxman, 2000). Hypothesis 5: Career prospects positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan.. Job Search Intention Foreign students have to analyze their personal situation regarding their career prospects. Ajzen (1991) stated that engaging in a certain behavior is based on the resources they have, what is call behavioral control (Van Hooft et al., 2006). Foreign students will decide to engage in job search intention based on the belief that they possess the correct resources (Van Hooft & De Jong, 2009). Concepts of possessing the right resources to engage in job search intention can also be lead by the presence of opportunity. People will be more likely to engage in a certain behavior having the resources available and the opportunity to engage in that behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The reason to focus on job search intention, especially regarding behavioral control (Ajzen, 1985) is because foreign students can decide to be aware of Taiwan labor policies, engage in activities that will increase career decision making self-efficacy, looked for the right strategy of acculturation and decide to engage in networking behavior to increase their career prospects (Ajzen, Brown & Carvajal, 2004), therefore having the motivation necessary to increase their job search intention (Ajzen, 1991). High-skilled foreign student perception that they control their career prospects based on 18.

(28) the resources they possess will make it more likely to increase their job search intention, based on the theory of planned behavior. (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen, Brown & Carvajal, 2004; Van Hooft, et al., 2006). Theory of planned behavior states that the stronger the motivation for engaging in a behavior, the more likely an individual will be to engage in this behavior (Ajzen, Brown & Carvajal, 2004). Job search intention itself is thought to be influenced by factors that motivate an individual to engage in this behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Intentions are the only determinant of human behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1995); this concept sounds logical and is based on the theory of reason action, stating that intention first is determined by a person’s attitude toward a behavior, in this study’s case searching for work. The second determinant is the subjective norm which shows a person’s perception of a certain behavior or situation that will guide his/her intention (Van Hooft et al., 2006). The theory of reason action differs with behavioral control theories in the fact that it assumes people always have control of their behavior (Ajzen, 1985). While logical, it avoids the fact that many times internal and external factors exist that may influence the intention of a person to engage in a behavior (Ajzen,1991). By internal factors, they may refer to availability of information, skills and abilities; and by external factors,the presence of opportunities and resources as also depending on the cooperation of others (Conner & Armitage, 1998). Theory of implementation intention identifies two phases in the formation of intention towards a goal (Gollwitzer, 1990). First, there is the pre-decisional or deliberative phase in which a person decided which goal to pursue. Second, post-decisional or implemental phase which concerns the planning on how to perform a behavior. Unlike other goal related theories, implementation intention bases on the situation and resources of a person, if the right situation as internal and external factors are present, intention will increase and more likely become a behavior (Gollwitzer 1993). The literature presents that even though logical, behavioral control theories do predict intention better than they predict behavior (Bagozzi, 1992). To fill the gap between intention and behavior that explains why people with a certain intention do not engage in a behavior, concepts of implementation intention were introduced (Gollwitzer, 1993). Job search intention will be predicted by the positive or negative perception of a job search behavior, perceived behavioral control and social pressure to look for a job (Ajzen, 1991). 19.

(29) Students need to overcome the different difficulties that arise to have positive career prospects. The need to overcome barriers is directed by the behavioral control that each one of them have on their abilities (Ajzen, 1991). Foreign students need to engage in activities that will increase their career prospects, this being a response to adapting to their current situation, providing a link between motivation according to their perceived career prospects and job search intention, thus Hypothesis 6: Perceived career prospects positively mediates the effect that labor policies, career decision making self-efficacy, acculturation and networking behavior have on job search intention.. 20.

(30) CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter will explain the research framework, research hypotheses, research procedure, data collection, sample, measurement and data analysis methods. This study uses the quantitative approach to achieve the proposed target goals and analyzes the relationship between the abilities foreign students must possess and their influence on their career prospects and therefore their job search intention.. Research Framework Concepts of abilities that foreigners must possess represent the independent variables in this study. The perceived career prospect of high-skilled foreign students is the mediating variable and job search intention will be the dependent variable.. Awareness of Taiwan's labor policies Career decision making selfefficacy. Perceived career prospects. Acculturation. Networking behavior Figure 3.1 Research framework. 21. Job search intention.

(31) Hypothesis Hypothesis 1a: Awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies positively influences perceived career prospects of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 1b: Awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 2a: Career decision making self-efficacy positively influences perceived career prospects of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 2b: Career decision making self-efficacy positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 3a: Acculturation positively influences perceived career prospects of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 3b: Acculturation positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 4a: Networking behavior positively influences perceived career prospects of highskilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 4b: Networking behaviors positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 5: Career prospects positively influences job search intention of high-skilled foreign students in Taiwan. Hypothesis 6: Perceived career prospects positively mediates the effect that labor policies, career decision making self-efficacy, acculturation and networking behavior have on job search intention.. 22.

(32) Research procedure This section explains the procedure that it was followed for the completion of this study, and the procedures are as Figure 3.2 shows. Identifying a research topic based on literature was the first step. Development of research background and support literature to identify viable areas of interest related to our topic was the second step. After we narrowed the areas we would like to research, the writing of the research questions and hypothesis was the following step. The research questions and hypothesis were developed based on the literature review performed before. After the research questions were developed, a research framework was developed to understand the relationship between the variables. Based on the literature review, a questionnaire was developed to retrieve the information that this research seems necessary to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. A pilot study was done to test the reliability of the questionnaire. After the pilot study, the collection of data was performed. Once all data was gathered, data analysis, testing and interpretation of meaning were done. Finally, results, conclusions and future research were proposed to answer the research questions and purpose of this research.. 23.

(33) Identification of the research topic. Research background and literature review. Defining research questions and hypotheses. Development of research framework. Design of research instruments. Pilot study and collection of data. Analyze of data. Results, conclusions and future research Figure 3.2 Research procedure. 24.

(34) Data Collection The participants were contacted through the office of foreign affairs of different universities. The study was performed with students from Minchuan University, National Taiwan Normal University, Tsing Hua University, Yuan-zi University, Tamkang University, National Chiao Tung University, National Cheng Kung University, National Sun Yat-Sen University, TungHai University, I-Shou University, and National Chengchi University, with foreign students from other universities welcomed to join the study as long as they fit the criteria. In person contact or through phone contact were made with the universities explaining the purpose of the study, followed by a recruitment e-mail that was passed to the students through the office of international affairs. The e-mail explained to the participants the purpose of the study, and possible benefits of the study for the academic community and all foreign students in Taiwan. The e-mail also provided a link to the questionnaire. The questionnaire was placed on the Gmail survey service website, for quick access and quick data collection.. Sample Sample Criteria The participants were foreign students who were studying in Taiwan their bachelor’s degree, master’s degree or doctoral degree. No distinction of majors or genders was made with the goals of determining overall trends. The participants were located in Taiwan. It was the goal of this study to obtain at least 200 samples, representing about 2% of the 8,801 students based on the statistics of the ministry of foreign affairs. A pilot study was done to test the questions with 47 participants. Sample Descriptive Statistics In this research an approximate 1543 surveys were sent to foreign students among different universities, through their office of international affairs. This total number of surveys sent was measured by adding the total number of foreign students the universities approached had in total. At the end of data collection period, 206 surveys were collected and the final return rate was 13.3%. Eight items were designed in the survey questionnaire to collect demographic information, including gender, age, education currently pursuing, current major, language currently proficient in, nationality, number of months studying in Taiwan and number of months until expected graduation. From 206 respondents, 79 (38.3%) participants were undergoing their Bachelor studies, 91 (44.1%) master studies and 36 (17.4%) doctoral 25.

(35) studies. The sample was divided between male and female, with 119 (57.7%) of the respondents being male and 87 (42.2%) being female. As for current majors, 45 (21.8%) of the participants were studying humanities & social sciences, 56 (27.2%) business, 63 (30.6%) science & engineering, 13(6.3%) agriculture, and 29(14.1%) other fields of study. It was found that 98 (47.6%) participants of the total sample perceived themselves as being proficient in the Chinese language. As for their nationality, 5.8% of the population came from North America, 18% Central America, South America or the Caribbean, 11.7% African countries, 50.5% Asian countries, and 12.1% Europe or Oceania. Table 4.1 shows the descriptive statistics of the sample for this study.. 26.

(36) Table 3.1 Descriptive Statistics of the Sample (N=206) Item. Frequency. Percentage (%). Under 30 years old. 177. 85.9. Between 30 and 40 years old. 26. 14. Older than 40 years old. 3. 0.1. Male. 119. 57.8. Female. 87. 42.2. Education. Bachelors. 79. 38.3. Currently. Master. 91. 44.2. pursuing. PhD. 36. 17.5. Current major. Humanities & Social sciences. 45. 21.8. Business. 56. 27.2. Science & Engineering. 63. 30.6. Agriculture. 13. 6.3. Others. 29. 14.1. Language. Speak Chinese. 98. 47.6. proficiency. Does not speak Chinese. 108. 52.4. Nationality. North America. 12. 5.8. Central, South America and. 37. 18. Africa. 24. 11.7. Asia. 107. 50.5. Europe Oceania. 26. 12.1. Under 24 moths. 131. 63.5. Over 24 months. 75. Under 24 moths. 160. 77.6. Over 24 months. 46. 22.3. Age. Gender. the Caribbean. NMST. NMEG. 27.

(37) Measurement A survey questionnaire was developed to collect data needed for this research. This section describes how the independent variables, mediator and the dependent variable were measured. Perceived Career Prospect This study defined perceived career prospects as the perception of opportunities that a person has access to based on his own abilities, labor conditions and other external factor that represent opportunity of career advancement or lack of it (De Vos et al., 2009; Lai, Tian & Meng, 2011; Lindberg, 2009; Thomas & Dykes, 2011). The measure of perceived career prospects contains 4 items. The first item asked “There are a lot of job opportunities for you in Taiwan” to measure how foreign students perceive their general career prospects in Taiwan (Yang, Chen & Fan, 2010). The second and third item asked the belief they have of having a professional career in Taiwan and if they believe that studying in Taiwan lead to more job offers (Sangganjanavanich, Lenz & Cavazos, 2011; Stahl, Miller &Tung, 2002). The fourth Item “You possess the abilities that companies in Taiwan are looking for” looks into the level of understanding of students regarding what they believe companies expect from them. (Yang ,Chen & Fan, 2010). This measure uses a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The questions were tested during the pilot and modified according to the results obtained. The items selected are shown in appendix A Career Decision Making Self-Efficacy This study defined career decision making self-efficacy as a person’s belief about her or his capability to perform tasks related to the career decision making process (Bullock, Andrews & Buzzetta, 2011; Grier & Skaar, 2010; Stacy, 2003). The career decision making self-efficacy scale (DCMSE) was designed by Taylor and Betz (1983), and was retrieved from Nasta (2007). The short form of the DCMSE (DCMSE-SF) is a 25-question test divided into 5 subscales. The subscales of the DCMSE-SF are divided into accurate self-appraisal (You are confident that you can accurately assess your abilities), gathering occupational information (You are confident that you can find information in the library about occupations you are interested in), goal selection (You are confident you can determine what your ideal job would be), making plans for the future (You are confident that you can make a plan of your goals for the next five years) and problem solving (You are 28.

(38) confident you can prepare a good resume). The participants were asked to provide their responses on a 5-point Likert scale, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The reliability of the test is commonly high among the literature; it was reported that internal consistency is in the ranges of 0.73 to 0.83 with a total alpha score of 0.94 (Betz & Voyten, 1997; Betz, Klein & Taylor, 1996). Acculturation Acculturation is defined in this study as a group of events phenomena which happens when groups of individuals having different cultures interact with each other resulting in changes in the original cultural patterns of one of the groups or both of them. (Buchemi, 2011; Choi, 2001; Williams & Berry, 1991). This study measured acculturation based on the general ethnicity questionnaire (GEQ) which was design by Tsai,Ying & Lee (2000). The questionnaire was designed to measure the level of acculturation of an individual toward the local culture. The original questionnaire was retrieved from Stanford University’s database, see General Ethnicity questionnaire (2011). The reason to choose the general ethnicity questionnaire was because it was design to be adapted to different cultures with the purpose of measuring the level of acculturation of a specific group or individuals in a host country. The questions in the test target subjects regarding language use (8 items), social affiliation (1 item), engagement in cultural practices (2 items) and cultural identification (4 items). The general ethnicity questionnaire has two version, this study will use the abridged version of the questionnaire that includes 38 items from which 15 items were chosen for this study to address specific topics that are considered the most important with a Likert scale from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”. In our study the test was modified changing the terms from “American” to Taiwanese and the language from “English” to Chinese”. The 8 items regarding language used were changed from questions to statements to fit the Likert scale. The questionnaire has not been used in Taiwanese culture, so the questions were tested during the pilot test. The literature has reported the reliability of the GEQ as high as .92 for the GEQC (China) and.92 for the GEQA (America) (Tsai,Ying & Lee, 2000; Tsai, Ying, & Lee, 2001).. 29.

(39) Networking Behavior It is defined in this study as one person’s individual attempts to develop and maintain relationships with other people who may assist them in their work or career (Forret & Dougherty, 2001). To measure networking behavior, this study selected 2 items based on the time spent engaging in networking behavior. The items were designed by Van Hoye, Van Hooft, and Lievens,. (2009). The test used a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly. agree”. The intercorrelation of the items is high (r = .83, p < .01). Awareness of Taiwan’s Labor Policies This research defines awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies as the knowledge that a foreign student has about the regulations and policies that abide his/her intention to work in Taiwan. This study created a survey regarding policies and job opportunities awareness to measure the knowledge the participants have regarding the different regulations and policies in place in Taiwan regarding foreign labor. The questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”.. The questionnaire has 6 items that. address the most important subjects regarding job market realities of foreign students in Taiwan. The questions were tested during the pilot study and adjusted according to the results obtained. Job Search Intention Job search intention is defined in this study as the motivation to engage in job seeking ( Van Hooft, et al., 2006). For measuring job search intention, this study designed 4 items based on Ajzen’s (2001) theory of planned behavior, focusing on perceived behavioral control items only. The items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The first two items “I intend to find work in Taiwan before graduation” and “I intend to find work in Taiwan after graduation” were based on Ajzen (2001). The third and fourth items “I will put a lot of effort to look for work in Taiwan” and ” I am ready to do a job search in Taiwan” are based on Van Hooft and De Jong’s (2009) explanation of behavioral control and item 2 in the job search intention section found in their questionnaire. The questions were tested during the pilot study.. 30.

(40) Demographics The participants were asked basic questions regarding age, major of studies, nationality and highest degree of study and others with the purpose of understanding the sample profile and exploring how demographics affect major research variables. Control Variables Age, gender, and languages are presented because they present differences regarding networking behavior (Flap & Boxman, 2000; Forret & Dougherty, 2004; Van Hooft & De Jong, 2009), for career decision making self-efficacy the major of choice also proved to show differences among the samples (Stacy, 2003) for acculturation, age, gender, education, length of stay (NMST, NMEG) and language influence greatly a person’s acculturation process (Berry, 1980; Berry, 1997). For awareness of Taiwan’s labor policies in regard to high-skilled foreign students, age and education are expected to influence the individuals (Shumilova & Cai, 2011). Validity and Reliability To test the internal consistency of the instruments, Chonbach’s alpha was selected. Reliability analysis was performed on the 6 measures. In order to be considered acceptable, Cronbach’s has to be larger than 0.7 (Guieford, 1965; Nunnally, 1978). Pilot Test The pilot test included 47 foreign students currently undergoing their degree studies in Taiwan as 2012. Due to the small number of participants in the pilot test, only internal consistency was tested. Reliability testing showed severe problems with the initial 3 items used in the survey to measure perceived career prospects. The items showed Cronbach’s of -.216. This possibly was because the measure combined different concepts, instead of asking different areas of one concept. Items number 2 and 3 were removed from the survey to look for items that fit the purpose of perceived career prospects better. The changes in this dimension are described in Table 3.3. The Cronbach’s. for awareness of labor Policies (.864), career decision making self-. efficacy (.893), acculturation (.860), networking behavior (.835) and job search intention (0.900) were all found to be above the 0.70 Cronbach’s. value to be considered acceptable. (Guieford,1965; Nunnally, 1978). Table 3.2 shows the reliability for all six variables in the pilot. 31.