英語課堂之情境溝通意願與其相關因素的初步探討

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(1)中文摘要本研究是旨在探討外語學習者的情境溝通意願與其相關因素做初步探討。研究者在台灣北、中、南三區選取三個都會與三個非都會區縣市後，根據學校於各區錄取分數，選取前段排名與後段排名各一間，總計 12 間學校。在各校中，隨機選取一班高二學生作為研究樣本。研究工具包括「英語情境溝通意願問卷」、「英語課堂害羞問卷」、「英語學習動機量表」、「英語自信心量表」、「英語課堂氣氛量表」、「學生覺知的英語教師立即親近行為量表」，與「個人背景資料問卷」。研究工具在經過計量分析，並確立信、效度後，進行正式問卷施測。刪除無效問卷後，共計回收 459 份有效問卷，並進行敘述統計、t 考驗、皮爾森積差相關、多元迴歸分析等統計分析。本研究的發現，簡述如下: 一、都會區學生和英語能力較高的學生，比其他學生擁有較高的情境溝通意願，且有顯著差異。二、高二學生有中等程度的情境溝通意願。他們有中等的英語課堂害羞、與學習動機。另外，他們覺得有中等的良好課堂氣氛、與教師立即親近行為。然而，他們有相對較低的英語自信心。雖然他們覺得有中等的英文閱讀能力，但是他們覺知的英文寫作、聽力、口說能力，和英語學習的動機強度並不高。三、在學生個別因素中，英語情境溝通意願與「英語學習動機」、「英語自信心」，皆呈現顯著正相關。但是「課堂害羞」和英語情境溝通意願卻呈現顯著負相關。四、在情境因素中，英語情境溝通意願和「教師立即親近行為」、「課堂氣氛」，皆呈現顯著正相關。五、經逐步多元迴歸分析後發現，英語情境溝通意願之顯著預測變項依序為課堂氣氛、學習動機、課堂害羞、教師立即親近行為。研究結果顯示，情境溝通意願與其相關的因素之間，確實存有複雜但是有系. i.

(2) 統的關係。研究者建議，教師必須了解低英語能力的學生溝通意願很可能較低，值得特別注意。此外，同時要了解學生的溝通需求與期望，展現高度的即時親近行為，以提昇學生的英語情境溝通意願。教師應建立友善的課堂氣氛、有效提升學生的英語自信心、英語學習動機與能力(特別是動機強度與覺知的溝通能力)，並瞭解造成學生害羞、焦慮的原因，以期增強進學生的英語情境溝通意願。. ii.

(3) Abstract This study was carried out to investigate three primary research questions. They were addressed to explore the relationships between senior high students’ situational willingness to communicate (SWTC) and such learner factors as motivation, confidence, and shyness, and those between SWTC and such situational factors as teacher immediacy and climate. Another aim was to investigate what factors might best predict situational willingness to communicate (SWTC) among the chosen learner factors (i.e., motivation, confidence, and shyness) and situational ones (i.e., teacher immediacy and climate) in an EFL context. To answer the research questions, six scales were developed in the pilot tests. Among them, the scale on SWTC was author-tailored and defined by positive feedback and topic familiarity. The other five instruments on the predictors of SWTC were revised and developed according to related theories on shyness, motivation, confidence, climate, and teacher immediacy. To ensure the reliability and construct validity of the instruments, reliability tests, item analyses, and principal component analyses were conducted. In the main study, a total of 459 valid questionnaires were collected. The data were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics, t-tests, Pearson product-moment correlation analyses, and stepwise multiple regressions. There were five major findings in this study. First, significant differences of SWTC existed between high and low-proficiency students and between those in metropolitan and non-metropolitan schools. In contrast, gender and schools’ prestige could not predict the diversity of SWTC among students. Second, students in this study were found to have moderate SWTC, motivation, shyness, teacher immediacy, and climate, but they had low confidence. They had moderate reading proficiency, but. iii.

(4) low levels of L2 writing, speaking, and listening proficiency. In addition, their motivational intensity was low. Third, among the learner variables, shyness was negatively related to SWTC while the others (i.e., motivation and confidence) were positively related to SWTC. Fourth, among the situational variables, teacher immediacy and climate were positively related to SWTC. Fifth, based on the results of multiple regression analyses, climate was found to have the best prediction of SWTC, followed by motivation, shyness, and teacher immediacy. It suggested that there was a linear correlation between SWTC and the above mentioned predictors. At the end of the study, several pedagogical implications and suggestions for future studies were given.. iv.

(5) Acknowledgements During my dissertation writing, I was indebted to many people. Without their help, I might not finish this academic research. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Hsi-nan Yeh for his kindness and willingness to inspire me and give me feedback in conducting this study. I would not forget his patience through the process of revising and directing my dissertation. Without the sacrifice of his free time to instructing me and giving me advices, I might not have the chance to complete my academic work. I would also express my special thankfulness to Dr. Chiou-lan Chern, Dr. Yuh-Show Cheng, Dr. Feng-min Wang, and Dr. Ya-ming Tai, the committee of my oral examination for their helpful advice on the statistical analyses and critical suggestions to my dissertation. Moreover, I would not forget their patience to read my drafts of the chapters and help me with better organizations of my research. I will keep in mind for ever for their kindness and positive expectations of me in search for the enhancement of my academic expertise. I would offer my sincere thanks to four high school teachers in the pilot study, and twelve in the main study, who allowed me to distribute copies of questionnaires to their students. I am grateful to all of the teachers as well as their students for the cooperation in the questionnaire surveys. Without their help, it is impossible to make the dissertation to be published eventually. I must thank Dr. Vincent W. Chang, Dr. Cherry Ing Li, Dr. Tzyh-lia Huang, Dr. Chih-Cheng Lin, Dr. Hsi-Chin Chu, Dr. Chung-tien Chou, Dr. Kuang-Hsiung Grover Yu, Dr. Doris C. Chen, Dr. Hui-me Chu, and Dr. Lillian Meei-jin Huang for their advice on the enhancement of my independent thinking ability and charity to encourage me to overcome the difficulties in my doctoral study. I really appreciate. v.

(6) their willingness to help me enter the research garden and find out the secrets. I would also show my thankfulness to Dr. Wen-Da Tseng and Dr. Ying-Chi He in National Taiwan Normal University for their help me with the statistical problems. Besides, special thanks go to Dr. Tung-Hsien He in National Taipei University of Educational, Dr. Bing-wen Huang in National Chung-Hsing University, and Dr. Hsin-Liang Li in Tung-hai University for their advice on the scale development and statistical analyses of my study. I must thank Dr. Christopher Weaver for the kind assistance with sending me his articles on L2 willingness to communicate (WTC) by e-mails. His advice on item constructions helped me develop the finalized questionnaires in my study. I also pay special thanks to Yi-qian Cao, a WTC researcher, generously e-mailing some relevant research on willingness to communicate in L2 to me, and giving me suggestions on my list of recent WTC research. I am indebted to Professor Marilyn Baker in Providence University for proofreading drafts of my dissertations and making them refined. I am grateful to Jun-jie Tseng, Hsiu-chuan Chen, Min-jen Tsai, Hsin-chou Huang, Wen-hui Sa, Wen-Yu Shieh, Me-ling Li, Chi-fen Tseng, and Clair Jia-hsing Pan for their precious friendship and encouragement in my dissertation writing. I am particularly thankful to my parents, parents-in-law, and my husband for their encouragement and support when I started studying at National Taiwan Normal University. I am also deeply indebted to my sister and her family, who took care of my son when I had meetings with my advisor. Finally, I sincerely thank my friends and those who helped me complete the dissertation again. Although I have not mentioned all names, I would not forget their kindness and help in my life.. vi.

(7) Table of Contents Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………1 Background …………….……….………………………………………..1 Statement of the Problem…….…………………………………………...3 Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………….. 8 Research Questions……………...……………….……………………….8 Significance of the Study ………………………….………………...........9 Definition of Terms ….…………………….……..……………….……. 10 Organization of the Study ………………………………………....…….12 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………….. 13 Theoretical Foundations of Developing WTC Construct ………………13 Approaches to Defining WTC: Trait-Like, Situational or Interactive…. 14 Trait-like Perspective of WTC ...........................................................14 Situational Perspective of WTC……………………………………..17 Interactive Perspective of WTC …………………………………….17 L2 WTC and Communication Models……...………………………….. 18 MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) Heuristic Model ……………………….... 18 Wen and Clement’s (2003) WTC Model …...…………….……….. 20 Kim’s (2004) L2 Communication Model………………………….. 22 Kang’ (2005) Situational WTC (SWTC) Model …...………………23 Background Variables and WTC ……………………………………… 24 The Role of Gender …………………………………........……….. 24 The Role of School Variables: Locations and Prestige…………….. 25 The Role of Students’ Perceptions of Language Proficiency….…… 25 Learner Factors and WTC……...………………………………………. 27 The Role of L2 Self-confidence………………………………......... 27 The Role of Motivation …...…………… …………………………. 28 The Role of Shyness…………………… ……………………….…. 29 Situational Variables and WTC……..………………………………….. 32 The Role of Climate….…………………….……….……………… 32 The Role of Teacher Immediacy (TI) ……………............................ 34 Empirical WTC Research in the L2 Contexts………………………….. 39 Empirical WTC and TI Studies in Taiwan ……….……………………. 42 Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY……………………………...…………….. 46 Research Design…………..……………………………………………. 46 Participants…………..…………………………………………………. 47 Background Questionnaire……………………………………………... 49 vii.

(8) Measurements Utilized in the Study………………...…………….…… 49 Criteria for Item Selection……………..….……………………….49 Developments of Instruments………..…….………………………51 Situational Willingness to Communicate (SWTC) Questionnaire………………………………………….… 52 Teacher Immediacy Questionnaire………………………….. 57 Climate Questionnaire………………………………………..59 Motivation Questionnaire ……………………………………62 Confidence Questionnaire…………………………………... 64 Shyness Questionnaire……………………..…………………67 The Finalized Questionnaire Utilized in the Main Study……….....70 Data Collection and Data Analysis ......……………………………........71 Chapter 4 RESULTS And DISCUSSION ………………………………..75 Levels of SWTC and Its Predictors......……………………………........75 SWTC ………….…………………………………….……………..76 Shyness…………………………………………….……………..... 78 Motivation …………………………………….…………..……….. 79 Confidence ………………………………………………………….82 Climate……..…………………………….……………….…………84 Teacher Immediacy……….……...………………………………….86 Language Proficiency ……………………………………………....90 SWTC and Background Factors…………….……………….……….... 91 SWTC and Language Proficiency…...…………………………….. 91 SWTC and Gender …………............................................................93 SWTC and Schools’ Locations/ Prestige……….………………..…94 SWTC and Learner Factors..…...…….……………………………….. 96 SWTC and Shyness……..…….……………………………………. 96 SWTC and Motivation….……….………………………….……… 98 SWTC and Confidence….……….……………………..…………. 100 SWTC and Situational Factors……………………………………….. 103 SWTC and Teacher Immediacy ……...………………………….. 103 SWTC and Climate………………………………………………..105 Relations among SWTC and Its Predictors…..……..………..…….. ..107 Stepwise Multiple Regression of SWTC on Predicting Variables...110 Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS ………………..…………………………. .115 Summary of the Findings ……………………………………………. 115 Pedagogical Implications………..…………………………………….122 Suggestions for Future Studies……………………….……..…….….. 123 viii.

(9) References……………………………………………………………..... .126 Appendices………………………………………………………………. 153. ix.

(10) List of Tables Table 1 Approaches to Defining WTC: Trait-Like, Situational or Interactional Perspectives …..………………...….………………………………15 Table 2 Wen and Clement’s (2003) Identification of Cultural Origins of Unwillingness to Communicate in Chinese Society……..…………20 Table 3 Chinese Teacher Immediacy Scale Items and Factor Loadings…..…….. 35 Table 4 Approaches to Researching Teacher Immediacy (TI)..……………......... 37 Table 5 Summary of the Selected WTC Research in L1 …………………........... 39 Table 6 Summary of the Selected Studies of WTC in L2 Outside Taiwan….........41 Table 7 Summary of the WTC and TI studies in Taiwan …………………...........45 Table 8 Summary of the Student Sample Selected in the Study………………….47 Table 9 Numbers and Percentages of Males and Females in Metropolitan and Non-metropolitan Areas…………………………………................48 Table 10 Summary of Item Analyses for SWTC Scale………………...................54 Table 11 Summary of Item analyses for Teacher Immediacy (TI) Scale................58 Table 12 Summary of Item Analyses for Climate Scale………………………….60 Table 13 Summary of Item Analyses for Motivation Scale…………………........64 Table 14 Summary of Item Analyses for Confidence Scale…………………….. 66 Table 15 Summary of Item Analyses for the Revised Shyness Scale ……………69 Table 16 Mean and Standard Deviation of SWTC Scale…….…..……………….76 Table 17 Mean Score and Standard Deviation of SWTC Scale Items…………………76 Table 18 Mean Score and Standard Deviation of Shyness Scale…………............78 Table 19 Mean Score and Standard Deviation of Shyness Scale Items …….........79 Table 20 Mean and Standard Deviations of Motivation Scale ……..…………….79 Table 21 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Motivation Scale Items……..........80 Table 22 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Confidence Scale Items……......... 82 Table 23 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Confidence Scale Items……......... 82 Table 24 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Climate Scale ………..………….. 84 Table 25 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Climate Scale Items……................85 Table 26 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Teacher Immediacy Scale ………..86 Table 27 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Teacher Immediacy (TI) Scale Items………………………………………………………………88 Table 28 Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Perceptions of Language Proficiency……….…………………………………………………90 Table 29 Results of T-tests on Students’ Perceptions of Language Proficiency and SWTC…..………………………………………………………….. 91 Table 30 Measures of Associations…………………………………………………92 x.

(11) Table 31 Results of the Independent T-tests on Gender and SWTC…………...........93 Table 32 Independent T-tests on Locations, Prestige, and SWTC………..…………94 Table 33 Pearson Correlation Between SWTC and Shyness ……………………….96 Table 34 Pearson Correlation Between SWTC and Motivation………..……………98 Table 35 Pearson Correlation Between SWTC and Confidence……...……………100 Table 36 Pearson Correlation Between SWTC and Teacher Immediacy…………..103 Table 37 Pearson Correlation Between SWTC and Climate ……………….. …….105 Table 38 Correlation Among SWTC and Predicting Variables…………………….108 Table 39 Statistics of Collinearity: Tolerance and VIF …………………………….109 Table 40 Results of Stepwise Multiple Regressions of SWTC on Shyness, Motivation, Confidence, TI, and Climate………...……......... 111 Table 41 A Summary of the Findings … …………………………………….......... 115. xi.

(12) List of Figures Figure 1 A Proposed SWTC Model in This Study……………………………... 6 Figure 2 MacIntyre’s (1994) Proposal of the WTC Model…………………….16 Figure 3 Model of L2 Communication Applied to French as a Second Language Situation in Canada (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996, p. 12)………………………………………………………………...18 Figure 4 Variables Moderating the Relation Between DC and WTC in Chinese EFL Classrooms (Adopted from Wen & Clement 2003; see Figure 4 in Matsuoka and Evans 2005, p 8)………..…….......... 21 Figure 5 Kim’s (2004) L2 Communication Model……………………………. 22 Figure 6 Hashimoto’s (2002) Proposal of the Revised Model of L2 Communication Applied to Japanese ESL Contexts…………………..40 Figure 7 Scatterplot ……………………………………………………………109 Figure 8 Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual………………110. xii.

(13) Appendices Appendix 1 MacIntyre et al’s (1998) Heuristic Model of WTC…………………153 Appendix 2 A Preliminary Construct of Situational Willingness to Communicate (SWTC): Kang’s (2005) Model ………………………………..154 Appendix 3 Senior High School Students’ Situational Willingness to Communicate (SWTC) Scale……………………………………………..……155 Appendix 4 Results of the First PCA for SWTC Scale…………………………157 Appendix 5 Results of the Second PCA for SWTC Scale………………………158 Appendix 6 Cronbach’s Alpha Values of the Finalized SWTC Scale and Its Subscales……………………………………………………...159 Appendix 7 Senior High Students’ Perceived TI Scale…………….……………160 Appendix 8 Results of the First PCA for the TI Scale…………………………..162 Appendix 9 Results of the Second PCA for the TI Scale………………………..163 Appendix 10 Cronbach’s Alpha of the Finalized TI Scale…………….………...164 Appendix 11 Cronbach’s Alpha Values of the Subscales on TI…………………165 Appendix 12 The Foreign Language Classroom Climate Scale ………...............166 Appendix 13 Results of the First PCA for the Climate Scale……………………… 168 Appendix 14 Results of the Second PCA for the Climate Scale ….…………….169 Appendix 15 Reliability of the Revised 15-item Climate Scale ………………...170 Appendix 16 Motivation and Confidence Scales ……………………………..... 172 Appendix 17 The Results of the First and Second PCAs for Motivation Scale….. ………………………………………………………..174 Appendix 18 Reliability of An 18-item Motivation Scale...…………….……….176 Appendix 19 Alpha Values of the Subscales on Motivation ………………….…177 Appendix 20 Results of Factor Analysis for Confidence Scale…..………….…. 178 Appendix 21 Cronbach’s Alpha of Subscales on Confidence………………....…180 Appendix 22 Experts’ Evaluation of Revised McCroskey Shyness Scale……………………………………………….…………… 181 Appendix 23 A Revised McCroskey Shyness Scale ……………..………….….. 183 Appendix 24 Results of the First PCA for the Revised MSS…………………… 184 Appendix 25 Reliability Coefficients of the 8-item Shyness Scale…..…………. 185 Appendix 26 Cronbach’s Alpha Values of the Scale Items on Quietness.............. 186 Appendix 27 Cronbach’s Alpha Values of the Scale Items on Talkativeness……………………………………...................... 187 Appendix 28 Reliability of the Instruments Utilized in the Current Study ……………………………………………………………………. 188 Appendix 29 Finalized Questionnaires for the Main Study……………..……….189 xiii.

(14) Appendix 30 Reliability of the Shyness Scale and its Subscales in the Main Study……………………...………………………………………. 192. Appendix 31 Reliability of the Scale and Subscales on Motivation in the Main Study………………………………………………………….193 Appendix 32 Reliability of the Scale and Subscales on TI in the Main Study …………………………………………………..…….195 Appendix 33 Reliability of the Scale and Subscales on Climate in the Main Study……………………………………...………………….197 Appendix 34 Reliability of SWTC Scale and its Subscales in the Main Study……………………………………………………….. 199 Appendix 35 Cronbach’s Alpha of the Scale and Subscales on Confidence in the Main Study……………………………………………..200. xiv.

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