東北亞非傳統安全議題: 以中國及日本為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際事務學院外交學系國際關係組 International Relations Master’s Program at the Department of Diplomacy, College of International Affairs, National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 政治大東北亞非傳統安全及日本為例為例東北亞非傳統安全議題非傳統安全議題以中國及日本立議題:. ‧ 國. 學. GOVERNANCE IN NORTHEAST ASIA IN NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY: FOCUSED ON CHINA AND JAPAN. n. er. io. sit. y. ‧. Nat. 指導教授：李明博士 a Advisor: Dr. Ming Lee. iv l C n hengchi U 研究生：菲莉卡碩士. Student: Mgr. Monika Filipová. 臺北. 中華民國一百年十二月 Taipei. December 2011.

(2) A Master’s Thesis presented to the Graduate Faculty of the Diplomacy Department and the Faculty of the Graduate College at National Chengchi University Taipei, Taiwan. Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree “Master of Arts” (M.A.) in International Relations National Chengchi University. 立. 政治大 by. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Mgr. Monika Filipová. sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. Graders:. Dr. Ming Lee 李明博士 v. Ch. i n U. Dr. Kao-Cheng e n gWang c h i 王高成博士 Dr. Yeh-Chung Lu 盧業中博士. 臺北. 中華民國一百年十二月 Taipei. December 2011..

(3) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat. n. a. l C THESIS DECLARATION. hengchi. i n U. v. I hereby declare that the whole of this diploma thesis is my own work, except where explicitly stated otherwise in the text or in the bibliography.. I also declare that all. information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct and that I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work.. In Taipei, December 2011. Mgr. Monika Filipová …..…………………..............

(4) 政治大. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS a. n. iv l C n hengchi U Hereby, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Dr.. Ming Lee, advisor of my. diploma thesis, Dr. Kao-Cheng Wang and Dr. Yeh-Chung Lu, for their patience, useful comments and suggestions given to me during the process of researching and writing this diploma thesis. Furthermore, I would also like to thank all my professors and helpful staff at NCCU for sharing their knowledge, enthusiasm and for encouraging me during my studies at the Department of Diplomacy.. An honest and deep appreciation to Professor Martin. Slobodník for his incessant support, trust and encouragement. Last but not least, I would like to express my greatest and deepest acknowledgements to my family and my true friend Mangu Zsuzsanna, who have become the greatest support and recognition to me during the past strenuous but meaningful years of studies and have given me the strength and reason to come this far..

(5) ABSTRACT. Mgr.. Monika FILIPOVÁ: “Governance in Northeast Asia in Non-Traditional. Security: focused on China and Japan,” M.A. Diploma thesis, Department of Diplomacy, International Relations Program, National Chengchi University. Thesis advisor: Dr. Ming Lee, Taipei, pp. 85.. The purpose of this master thesis is to study the degree and significance of role played. 政治大. by unconventional security problems in the Northeast Asian security dilemma and understand the reason behind continuous failures to formalize and/or institutionalize security governance. 立. in the region.. ‧ 國. 學. The author in the following research sets out multiple tasks, which include the following principal goals: provide a comprehensive but simplified conception on non-. ‧. traditional security issues adherent to the region’s security dilemma and threatening its stability; offer a concrete case-study of unconventional security based on policy-analysis of. sit. y. Nat. selected countries, which helps to understand and acknowledge its significance; analyze instititionalism against the backdrop of Northeast Asia’s specificity concerning the lack of. io. n. al. er. strictly formal organizations; and last but not least develop an idea of how and whether. i n U. v. cooperation in non-traditional security issues can lead to the improvement of security governance in the region.. Ch. engchi. KEYWORDS: non-traditional security, unconventional security, NTS, energy security, Northeast Asia, China, Japan, security cooperation, security governance, multilateralism, institutionalism, national energy security policy, Northwest Pacific Action Plan, NOWPAP..

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS. ABBREVIATIONS ____________________________________________________________________________ 1 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ___________________________________________________________________ 2 CHAPTER II: RESEARCH OBJECTIVE, METHODOLOGY, THEORY & LITERATURE REVIEW ___________________ 3 1.1. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE _____________________________________________ 3. 1.2. RESEARCH PROBLEM ____________________________________________________________ 5. 1.3. RESEARCH METHOD ____________________________________________________________ 6. 1.4. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE _______________________________________________________ 7. 1.5. LITERATURE REVIEW ___________________________________________________________ 10. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 1.5.1 NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY: THE GENERAL CONCEPTION AND THE NORTHEAST ASIAN ASPECT. ‧. ________________________________________________________________________ 10 REGIONAL SECURITY COOPERATION AND GOVERNANCE ___________________________ 13. sit. y. Nat. 1.5.2. n. al. er. io. CHAPTER III: NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY IN CHINA AND JAPAN___________________________________ 15. i n U. v. 2.1. DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN ‘HARD’ AND ‘SOFT’ SECURITY PROBLEMS ___________________ 15. 2.2. CASES OF NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY ISSUES IN NORTHEAST ASIA ____________________ 19. 2.2.1. 2.3. Ch. engchi. ENERGY SECURITY ___________________________________________________________ 20. i.. The Concept of Energy Security ______________________________________________ 21. ii.. Assessing Energy Security Situations and Energy Security Institutions in China and Japan 24. iii.. Comparative Policy Analysis: the cases of China’s and Japan’s NESP _________________ 37. iv.. Implications and Challenges to Regional Co-operation ____________________________ 43. CHAPTER SUMMARY ___________________________________________________________ 44.

(7) CHAPTER IV: REGIONAL SECURITY COOPERATION AND MULTILATERALISM ___________________________ 46 3.1. COMPARING THE WESTERN CONCEPTION WITH THE ASIAN TRADITION _________________ 46. 3.1.1 3.2. DIVERSE ACTORS INVOLVED _____________________________________________________ 49. DEVELOPMENTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS IN SECURITY COOPERATION & GOVERNANCE IN NEA 50. 3.2.1. UNDERSTANDING NORTHEAST ASIA’S SECURITY ARCHITECTURE _____________________________ 51. 3.2.2. ACHIEVEMENTS IN REGIONAL SECURITY COOPERATION ___________________________________ 53. 3.3. i.. Multilateral Security Cooperation in NEA_______________________________________ 53. ii.. The Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP) ___________________________________ 55. 政治大. CHAPTER SUMMARY ___________________________________________________________ 59. 立. CHAPTER V: PROSPECTS OF SECURITY GOVERNANCE VIA NTS ______________________________________ 61 NEGOTIATING SECURITY ARRANGEMENTS IN NORTHEAST ASIA ________________________ 62. 4.2. CHAPTER SUMMARY ___________________________________________________________ 63. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 4.1. CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION ___________________________________________________________________ 65. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. BIBLIOGRAPHY ____________________________________________________________________________ 70. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(8) ABBREVIATIONS Asian Cooperation Dialogue Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum ASEAN Plus Three ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN Security Community Association of South-East Asian Nations ASEAN Institute of Strategic and International Studies The British Petroleum barrels per day Central Committee of the Communist Party of China Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific East Asia Summit Exclusive Economic Zone International Energy Agency International Governmental Organization International Non-governmental Organization Korean Energy Development Organization liquefied natural gas Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (Japan) North American Free Trade Agreement North Atlantic Treaty Organization National Development and Reform Commission, China Northeast Asia Northeast Asian Cooperation Dialogue Northeast Asia Economic Forum National Energy Security Policies Northwest Pacific Action Plan non-traditional security Regional Security Complexes Theory South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Shanghai Cooperation Organization Tripartite Environment Ministers Meetings United Nations Environment Programme. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. ACD APEC APT ARF ASC ASEAN ASEAN ISIS BP BPD CPC CSCAP EAS EEZ IEA IGO INGO KEDO LNG METI NAFTA NATO NDCR NEA NEACD NEAEF NESP NOWPAP NTS RSCT SAARC SCO TEMM UNEP. Ch. engchi. 1. i n U. v.

(9) Chapter I: INTRODUCTION Northeast Asia 1 , the region chosen for this research, can hardly be characterized as a regional entity in terms of economic, political or security cooperation. While there have been and still are attempts to cooperate in each of these fields, successful results are very modest indeed.. Taking into consideration the European Union, the most successful. transnational organization of our era, it has been proved that cooperation of economic, political or even security scope among different countries of a region is possible and can be worthy and efficient. The question remaining is, that despite all efforts, why has Northeast Asia been unable to establish a stable ground for regional integration in any of these major issues.. ardently emphasize the need to. 政治大 initiate and establish some. coordination and cooperation.. Furthermore, the rapid increase of technological. The spread of interconnectedness, interdependence and globalization even more. 立. sort of framework for. ‧ 國. 學. modernization, the development of transportation in the region and the continuously transforming socio-economic conditions urge the need to solve problems, which are. ‧. emerging as a consequence of interdependence, on a multilateral basis.. Provided that. y. Nat. nowadays numerous problems are of transnational character, solutions also require. sit. transboundary approaches. Problems concerning the social state of this region, maritime. er. io. and environmental threats or human security problems cannot and should not be tackled on. al. n. v i n agenda while on the other hand, C they htranscend e n g cboundaries h i U and thus capabilities and often the eligibility of nation-states. Despite efforts to cooperate in solving these problems, a unilateral basis for different reasons. On one hand, they have become part of the political. mutual distrust prevent key actors from further improvement of relations and hinders effective solutions to transnational security challenges. The focus of this diploma thesis is multiple, involving the analysis of non-traditional security threats in Northeast Asia, looking deeper into the achievements and viability of security institutions in the region and last but not least elaborating on the significance and possibility of future security governance initiated through cooperation in non-traditional security matters. 1. In this study, the author uses a broader concept of the Northeast Asian region referring to traditionally included countries such as North Korea, South Korea and Japan in addition to other key actors such as China (PRC) and Russia (taking up the Russian Far East) which, considering their important political and strategic role and influence, should not and cannot be left out from this research (Fukushima, 2004).. 2.

(10) Chapter II: RESEARCH OBJECTIVE, METHODOLOGY, THEORY & LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Study Objectives and Significance In the following thesis I will attempt to examine possible future aspects of cooperation in Northeast Asia via non-traditional security issues.. There are many. arguments for believing that these problems may represent a more viable and efficient grounds for cooperation in the region than traditional security issues. The involvement of key actors in Northeast Asia to develop efficient security governance and come closer to integration may be achieved through mutual trust-building and cooperation in less sensitive. 治政 building is politically more feasible through non-traditional 大 security matters. “While traditional security involves立 the prevention and defense from attacks by organized, statebut similarly urgent issues. It is often believed that regional integration or institution-. ‧ 國. 學. controlled armed forces, non-traditional security encompasses a wide range of threats to national and human security as well as the responses to them”(Wirth, 2010).. Non-. ‧. traditional or soft security 2 problems (Lomagin, 2001; Swanström, 2010; Akaha, 2003; Fatić 2002) are incentives for states and governments to cooperate in a way, which will. Nat. sit. y. jeopardize their own national interests to the least extent and will not create distrust.. io. er. Moreover, such cooperation is believed to build trust among states and has the ability to mitigate enmity and enhance regional security governance. Traditional security threats or. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. also known as hard security threats, as I will interchangeably refer to them, can be. engchi. characterized loosely as threats to a nation emanating from other nations and involving a military component (Lomagin, 2001; Fatić 2002; Craig, 2007). For example, although the most discussed threat concerning China’s territory and sovereignty is a declaration of independence by Taiwan, many academics and politicians find even the possibility of such act completely unlikely. This is just an example of the problem as to which actors must be involved and which issues are (not) to be securitized. While military deterrence and diplomatic skill have managed traditional threats to be successfully postponed so far, they are completely insufficient and fruitless for tackling non-traditional security threats. These threats furthermore have not been precisely defined, 2. “Soft security” threats will be used in this thesis interchangeably with “non-traditional security” (NTS) threats/issues or also “unconventional security” threats/issues.. 3.

(11) are considered to transcend national boundaries, go beyond the military sphere, are unpredictable and unexpected, have both internal and external elements and are frequently interlinked with traditional security threats. There is a long list of non-traditional threats which are challenging the region’s stability. China being one of the key actors is not an exemption and so far had to tackle such NTS threats as bird flu, terrorism, proliferation, drug trafficking, AIDS and piracy. “Mitigating non-traditional threats therefore requires serious internal reforms. China’s non-traditional threats are more menacing than traditional ones because they require China’s leadership not only to look outward in efforts to foster cooperation, but also to look inward and make serious internal reforms as well. As some experts interestingly commented the distinction between traditional and non-traditional threats lays in the means for resolving them, and that military means cannot resolve non-. 治政大 list of issues that belong to lies in defining non-traditional threats and providing a definite 立 these threats. According to General Xiong, a PLA General in China, the following four. traditional issues” (Craig, 2007). One of the major impediments in researching this topic. ‧ 國. 學. features of non-traditional threats can be distinguished: “(1) they transcend national boundaries and are thus transnational in nature; (2) they go beyond the military sphere; (3). ‧. they often are sudden and unexpected; and (4) they are frequently interwoven with traditional security threats” (Craig, 2007). He concludes that non-traditional threats are. y. Nat. al. er. This assumption not only supports a possible regional integration in security. io. means.. sit. threats that more than one nation faces and cannot be solved by one country or by a single. n. governance but also calls for it.. Ch. i n U. v. As for regional institutionalization and securitization, 3 the difference between a. engchi. Western and Asian approach towards institutions has now long been the topic of research and debates. While, according to the Western conception, institutions are based on rules and regulations that are binding, Asian states have a more laissez-faire approach. There is 3. Securitization in international relations is a concept connected with the Copenhagen School. In contrast to materialist approaches of classical security studies, securitization is a process-oriented conception of security. Classical approaches of security focus on the material dispositions of the threat including distribution of power, military capabilities, and polarity; securitization examines how a certain issue is transformed by an actor into a matter of security (Wikipedia). “(...) the securitization approach is first and foremost a processes tracing tool that helps the security analyst determine when there is/was a process of securitization and/or desecuritization, how this came about. and who were the actors involved. The securitization approach is an important tool for the analysis of security (…)”. The securitization theory offers a three-step process of tracing that what constitutes a case of securitization: 1) identification of existential threats, 2) emergency action and 3) effects on inter-unit relations by breaking free of rules (Floyd, 2007).. 4.

(12) a so-called “organization gap” in this region of the world. One of my goals in this study is to find out the origins and leitmotifs for security institution-building in Northeast Asia, the reasons for continuous failures to achieve a meaningful degree of success in the field and whether institutionalization of security governance is in the real interest of any of the relevant actors in the region. The concept of human security emerged from late Cold War era debates about the interconnection between development and national security (Wishnick, 2002; Prezelj, 2008; Dalby - Brauch - Spring, 2009). According to Floyd, security threats now potentially lurk in all dimensions of life and human security encompasses some seven different ‘domains’ of security such as economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community, and political (Floyd, 2007). With the publication of the 1994 UNDP Human Development. 治政 (basic income), food security (access to food), health大 security (freedom from disease), 立 environmental security (a non-degraded ecosystem), personal security (protection from. Report, a broad conception of human security was elaborated, including economic security. ‧ 國. 學. physical violence and threats), community security (ability to pursue one’s cultural identity), and political security (basic rights and freedoms). Thus, in the following paper I will. ‧. elaborate on non-traditional security and describe what unconventional security issues are and which ones are the most urgent problems challenging Northeast Asian security.. y. Nat. sit. Further, I will examine the institutional aspect of security governance in the region,. al. er. io. multilateral institutions that are available and will attempt to understand the future. n. prospects and obstacles of non-traditional security cooperation in the region.. 1.2 Research Problem. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Having studied in Taiwan, I find it a great opportunity and also challenge to become acquainted with and understand regional issues more into depth. The research topic of my diploma thesis has been built upon contributions from different seminars that I had the chance to attend and upon personal observations, readings, research and following the latest news attentively. Listening to various perspectives and differing opinions helped to form my own ones and hopefully these will find their relevant place in my diploma thesis. As for the specification of my research, I will concentrate on a recently popularized and modern issue of non-traditional security threats.. Northeast Asia is a special region. considering that traditional and non-traditional security issues are difficult or often 5.

(13) impossible to separate. Are states willing to make concessions and how will a future transformation in security governance shape the face of Northeast Asia are interesting questions yet awaiting to be answered. This diploma thesis focuses on the development, status and current issues regarding security governance in Northeast Asia with a special focus on the emergence and importance of non-traditional security issues in the region and their possible involvement in creating a relatively stable security environment in the region. On one hand, it aims at discussing a possible improvement in non-traditional security cooperation among Northeast Asian states with concrete examples; while on the other hand it will examine the attempts to institutionalize security governance and evaluate the outcomes and achievements of these attempts. The objective is to examine the gravity of non-traditional security threats in the. 治政大 that non-traditional security specificity of the region, the author examines the argument 立 threats have a better chance to become a leitmotif for achieving successful security region and understand how states involved perceive and tackle these threats. Provided the. ‧ 國. 學. governance among countries in Northeast Asia. To discuss NTS is essential for countries in the region both politically and strategically as well. Furthermore, the author would like to. ‧. understand the future prospects of such cooperation with regards to traditional security issues also aiming at achieving good governance in the region. All in all, after a general. y. Nat. sit. introduction required for a better understanding of the topic, this study attempts to research. al. er. io. cases of non-traditional security issues concerning Northeast Asia and understand their. n. significance for further security cooperation in the region. Unconventional security threats. Ch. i n U. v. carry the ability to lay down a solid basis for security governance and cooperation among. engchi. states in Northeast Asia, which due to historical, political and economic reasons have now long struggled to achieve efficient and long-lasting relations. Provided the scarcity of research on unconventional security problems in the region, this paper focuses upon selecting the most urgent and common cases suitable for the region.. 1.3 Research Method Provided that the main focus of this master thesis is directed towards the examination and understanding of unconventional security problems, their governance and future prospects in Northeast Asia it is essential to choose carefully the most appropriate research method and methodology accompanied by a relevant theoretical perspective. 6.

(14) As the purpose of this study is to explore and understand how non-traditional security issues transcend national borders in the region and thus possibly provide a platform for efficient cooperation and good governance, the qualitative research method appears to be the most viable and appropriate way for further research (Creswell, 2009). Strategies of research will include case studies of national policies focusing on selected non-traditional issues in concrete countries, which are the most relevant in terms of region, necessity and viability as for governance. The author will apply content analysis with the emphasis on researching and analyzing relevant policies and national strategies, academic articles, and announcements of state representatives involved etc… Furthermore, the author finds it essential to include statistics provided by regional and international organizations and institutions, official reports and. 治政大 analysis focusing on selected outcome, the author will make use of the comparative policy 立 national policies of relevant countries in the region. Historical analysis will serve as a tool 學. ‧ 國. data in the research in order to make the literature more comprehensive. For a more precise. for understanding the failure of institutionalism in security issues and as a lesson for future governance models in the region.. Therefore the author would like to analyze the. ‧. establishment, functioning and work of relevant security institutions in NEA with an accent on their contributions in security issues that have been achieved so far. Last but not least,. y. Nat. sit. the research will also include a comparative analysis based on the comparison between. al. er. io. western governance models and that of Asian institutions focusing on differences and. n. possible similarities in the hope of achieving a reforming conclusion in the Asian organization gap.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 1.4 Theoretical Perspective Formulating a theoretical background for my research, I would like to connect this study with the ideas of two key figures of the so-called Copenhagen School, namely Barry Buzan and Ole Wæver emphasising their ‘regional security complex theory’ (RSCT). The RSCT proposed by Buzan and Wæver emphasizes the centrality of territoriality in the study of security dynamics.. They believe that regional perspective is the most appropriate. approach for studying conflict and co-operation in contemporary security affairs (Buzan and Wæver, 2003: 10). The relevance of their concept and theory for this research is further supported by an emphasis on the significance of ‘unconventional’ security threats. 7.

(15) “Typical securitisations from the non-liberal perspective on globalization have been in the ‘new’ non-military areas of security” (Buzan and Wæver, 2003: 9). The theory focuses on a regional level of analysis and securitization. “The concept of regional security complexes covers how security is clustered in geographically shaped regions and does not travel well over distances and therefore threats are most likely to occur in the region than outside” (Ciută, 2008). The security of each actor in a region interacts with the security of other actors. There is often intense security interdependence within a region, but not between regions, which is what makes regional security an interesting area of study. They believe that the state itself is not the only and primary unit of analysis or agent of power and point to the importance of regions rather. To emphasize their idea, Buzan and Wæver developed a hierarchy of powers – a three-tiered scheme. 治政 Japan, China, Russia and Britain/France/Germany - EU 大 and a multitude of regional powers 立 (Buzan and Wæver, 2003: 36). The main characteristics of the RSCT are that regions are. including one superpower – the US (after the Cold War only the USA), four great powers –. ‧ 國. 學. the appropriate levels of analysis of security studies; regions provide a useful organisation of and structure for empirical studies; and that regions provide analytical scenarios for. ‧. testing possible developments in the future. The authors also mention the main difference between Huntington’s ‘regional civilizations’ (Huntington, 1996) and their regionalism. y. Nat. sit. pointing to their main influential factor for division, that is patterns of security practice and. al. er. io. not cultural differences/similarities. In addition, the authors of ‘Regions and Powers’ place. n. particular emphasis upon the social aspects of security (any collectivity that defines its. Ch. i n U. v. survival as threatened in terms of identity), which has not avoided criticism: “Buzan himself. engchi. has collaborated in an analysis of security which purports to develop his analysis of 198391 but, in fact, subverts it, without enhancing our understanding of the problems of security” (McSweeney, 1996). As for theoretical perspective, this paper will first explore if and why cooperation in non-traditional security issues may be easier to achieve than cooperation in traditional security issues. It has been suggested that co-operation in NTS might be better because of different reasons such as: suitable for individual politicians to serve as diplomatic tools to bring positive contributions into high-level meetings;. 8.

(16) less publicized in the media and is thus less risky for politicians in weak power positions to undertake; it is less controversial because the concerned issues do not directly affect founding myths (historical understandings) of a social group and a particular state; compromising in functional areas is not perceived as reducing the state's own security, because non-traditional security threats do not originate from deliberate state action. easier to find non-controversial areas to engage the other party Technical questions allow it to advance cooperation through small steps because they are often more complicated and can be deconstructed. Then the study focuses on conditions under which political communities are able to. 治政大 such as the commitment to mutual goals or mutual understanding. The argument that is 立 most often invoked with regard to East Asia is the importance of shared functional interests. improve cooperation. There are numerous factors which influence political integration,. ‧ 國. 學. Mentioning of the most well-known neofunctionalists, Haas’ idea is based upon the argument “that cooperation in one sector generates spillover effects and leads to the. ‧. deepening and the broadening of cooperation of other sectors, and eventually makes political loyalties shift to new institutions” (Wirth, 2010). However, this functionalist. y. Nat. sit. approach cannot be applied to Northeast Asia without impediments, which mostly lie in the. al. er. io. diversity of economic, political and cultural backgrounds of relevant countries. “Problems. n. such as the lack of capacity and good governance, as well as the increasing salience of. Ch. i n U. v. transnational phenomena, challenge the conventional notion of states as single providers of. engchi. security for their citizens” (Wirth, 2010). Securitization represents another problematic field where the involvement/exclusion of issues as security problems is to be further discussed. As an example stands out climate change, which is one of the main concerns in Northeast Asia and is being discussed, while other environmental problems have not yet been devoted sufficient attention (these are mostly believed to be and perceived only as technical problems. e.g. environmental degradation, pollution, lack of resources etc…). One is for sure though: these problems are all beyond one state´s borders and thus demand to be addressed on a transboundary, minilateral or multilateral scale. Whilst this fact may invoke the problem of non-interference and state sovereignty, such problems need to be tackled so as not to become an obstacle in problem-solving. This study will attempt to 9.

(17) understand impediments surrounding security governance in the Northeast Asian region under the light of RSCT with an accent on understanding non-traditional security issues.. 1.5 Literature Review The purpose of my literature review is to provide an objective, critical, succinct but comprehensive documentation on the state and extent of research on non-traditional security carried out so far in relation to possible cooperation and existent competition among states in Northeast Asia. In accordance with the scheme of this diploma thesis, this paragraph on literature review shall be divided into two main sections. In addition to this, as the introduction reveals, relevant literature has been selected to become acquainted with the main research problem, research method and theoretical background. This chapter. 治政 security to Northeast Asia (Buzan and Wæver, 2003).大Barry Buzan’s theory and the 立 securitization approach of the Copenhagen School appear to be the perfect combination for analyzes the relevance of Barry Buzan’s theory on regions and the structure of international. ‧ 國. 學. this diploma thesis assuming that they cover both the regional aspect and the non-traditional security aspect (Floyd, 2007).. ‧. 1.5.1. Non-traditional security: the general conception and the Northeast Asian aspect. y. Nat. sit. As it represents the cornerstone of my research, it is inevitable to elaborate on non-. al. er. io. traditional security problems, their concept and understanding, significance and relevance. n. in the Northeast Asian security dilemma. This section involves two different sources of. Ch. i n U. v. literature: general on the concept of NTS and specific on selected NTS issues, such as. engchi. energy security, in the above-mentioned region.. One of the reasons for selecting this topic is also one of the main obstacles of researching it – the scarcity of comprehensive and reliable study provided so far. Nontraditional security issues are becoming more and more popular (Wirth, 2010) and are being researched. There is, however, a lack of understanding of how NTS issues may become an efficient tool for deepening and strengthening cooperation, especially among nations in the Asia Pacific. At first sight it appears that there is abundant literature on non-traditional security itself, which could satisfy one’s knowledge. However, such abundance and variety of literature can lead to confusion when trying to understand a simple concept of the securitization dilemma itself. Similarly, much research focuses on human security issues in 10.

(18) the Asia Pacific which include NTS threats as well (Acharya, 2000; Evans, 2004; Prezelj, 2008; Faber, 2010; Newman, 2010). Human security is a lot broader phenomenon, where non-traditional security threats create only one part of the issue, thus in most cases leaving the reader with a superficial overview on the topic. The next group of literature either focuses on traditional security threats or non-traditional security threats separately (Lomagin, 2001; Akaha, 2002; Akaha, 2003; Thakur and Newman, 2004, Renwick, 2004). While it is essential to understand the concept of both NTS and traditional security separately, this research aims at emphasizing and proving the importance and inevitability of interconnectedness between two security dilemmas.. There is without doubt an. increasing concern over the threat that soft security problems bring to the region (Miao, 2005; Craig, 2007), it is necessary to view and understand the Northeast Asian security. 治政大 one examines, the more one (Fatić, 2002; Swanström, 2010; Wirth, 2010). The further 立 understands the inevitable combination of soft and hard security matters, which is rather dilemma and NTS threats in the light of prevailing traditional security issues in the region. ‧ 國. 學. specific for Northeast Asian countries. While there are such sensitive issues unresolved as the Taiwan Strait, North Korea’s nuclear uncertainty or numerous island disputes, it seems. ‧. extremely difficult for these countries to build deeper mutual political trust and engage themselves in serious collaboration. All in all, while there is abundant literature on certain. y. Nat. sit. specific non-traditional and traditional security problems concerning the region, there. al. er. io. seems to be a gap in explaining and understanding how these two types of security dilemma. n. interact and depend on each other.. Ch. i n U. v. There are various theories on dividing NTS issues into different categories. In the. engchi. following research, the author adopted a division into four categories: environmental security, energy security, maritime security and social security (Dalby-Brauch-Spring, 2009). Provided that this diploma thesis is limited in scope and length, the author has chosen to focus on energy security as an example belonging to urgent non-traditional security threats relevant in the region (Hayes and Zarsky, 1993; Andrews-Speed, 2003; Chanlett-Avery, 2008; Hayes and Von Hippel, 2006; Elliott, 2011). There are different groups of literature focusing on various dimensions of energy security in Northeast Asian countries. While one of these groups emphasizes the environmental aspect of energy security and its possible consequences (Schreurs, 2009), the second deals with the problem of measuring energy security in the region (Sovacool, 2010; Vivoda, 2010; Sovacool and 11.

(19) Mukherjee, 2011; Sovacool-Mukherjee - Drupady - Ira - D’Agostino, 2011), a third group focuses on the current situation of energy security and possible consequences (Hayes and Von Hippel, 2008; Von Hippel-Suzuki-Williams-Savage-Hayes, 2009), a fourth group look into various political and strategic dimensions of energy security (Hassig, 2001; Toichi, 2003; Calder, 2004, Zha, 2005; Zhao, 2007; Liao, 2009), and last but not least a fifth group is engaged in researching institutional possibilities of energy security (Maull, 2007; Ye, 2008; Harris, 2008; Aggarwal, 2008). Nevertheless, there is usually one common feature mentioned in each of these groups on which the author shall focus in this study: the possible cooperative dimension of security issues, especially unconventional security issues (Akaha, 2002, Akaha 2003; Herberg, 2004-05; Schreurs and Hyun, 2007; Aso, 2007; Ahn, 2010). In order to understand the significance and scope of energy security in the region,. 治政大 besides using data from the national energy security policies. For this part of the research, 立 International Energy Agency (IEA) and KPMG, the author looks into both countries’ the author has chosen to use the comparative analysis method between China’s and Japan’s. ‧ 國. 學. energy policies and assesses existent literature researching these policies (Arruda and Li, 2003/2004; Downs, 2006; Evans, 2006; Fan, 2006; Miyagawa, 2007; Downs; 2008;. ‧. Blumenthal, 2008; Bo, 2010; Kanekiyo and Ishimura, 2011; Leung, 2011; Murakami – Motokura – Kutani, 2011).4 Once again, while there is more than abundant literature on. y. Nat. sit. different aspects of energy security in the region, the author presumes a lack of research on. al. er. io. the significance of cooperation in such urgent and transboundary non-traditional security. n. issues as energy security. These politically less sensitive topics may be the jumping board. Ch. i n U. v. for building mutual trust among long-time adversaries in the region.. engchi. Applying a. comparative analysis on China’s and Japan’s national energy security policies, the author would like to point out deficiencies in both countries’ policies which are caused by different factors. It shall be the strength of this research to argue and prove that despite. 4. Action Plan for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Northwest Pacific Region; Northwest Pacific Action Plan, 1994; Basic Act on Energy Policy - Act No. 71, enacted on June 14, 2002; Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Laws of Japan; Basic Energy Plan, enacted in 2003 (revised in 2007); Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Laws of Japan; Report of the Fourth Intergovernmental Meeting of the Northwest Pacific Action Plan; Beijing, People’s Republic of China, 6-7 April 1999; Strategic Energy Plan of Japan (revised in June, 2010); Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Laws of Japan; The Outline of 11th Five-Year Plan (2011-2015) for National Economic and Social Development, National People's Congress (NPC) of China (中華人民共和國國民經濟和社會發展第十一個五年規劃綱要); The Outline of 12th Five-Year Plan (2011-2015) for National Economic and Social Development, National People's Congress (NPC) of China (中華人民共和國國民經濟和社會發展第十二個五年規劃綱要).. 12.

(20) such differences, the most possible solution to security problems may still be similar: the opening up and strengthening of cooperation within the region through unconventional security matters.. In sum, understanding the basic concept and significance of non-. traditional security threats requires more detailed and argumentative writings, which could focus more on the possible utilization of NTS to build cooperation.. 1.5.2. Regional security cooperation and governance. This section of the following diploma thesis in its first part focuses on already existing regional institutions coping with security issues, pointing out circumstances around their establishment and development, forms of organization, achievements and the degree of success in problem-solving, while again emphasizing the role of NTS issues (Banlaoi, 2004;. 治政大As institutionalism has become 2010; Arase, 2010; Caballero-Anthony, 2010; Rees, 2010). 立 stronger in Asia, numerous minilateral and some multilateral organizations have appeared Lanteigne, 2006; Sheldon, 2007; Acharya and Goh, 2007; Chu, 2007; Andrews-Speed,. ‧ 國. 學. in order to tackle various, but mostly regional problems. To understand the development and especially the functioning of these organizations, it is important to make a difference. ‧. between Asian and Western institutionalism and regionalism, therefore the author compares and evaluates various understandings and theories focusing on forms of institutionalism. y. Nat. sit. (Dend, 1998; Kang, 2003; Calder and Ye, 2004; Namkung, 2006; Ciută, 2008; Aggarwal. al. er. io. and Min, 2008; Tsunekawa, 2008; Aggarwal – Min – Lee - Moon, 2009; Tow and Taylor,. n. 2010). In addition to the above-mentioned, a core part of the research looks into the. Ch. i n U. v. possibility of enhancing regional cooperation and building an institutional framework to. engchi. coordinate cooperation among Northeast Asian states.. Authors focusing on regional. cooperation in Northeast Asia have discussed into depth results achieved so far, prospects for future cooperation and also challenges facing successful cooperation (Choo, 1999; Chung, 2000; Kent, 2003; Chu, 2007). Besides the general conception of cooperation to mitigate and avoid traditional security threats, some authors also focused on more specific matters, meaning here the possibility to collaborate in energy security or other nontraditional issues (Akaha, 2003; Choo, 2006; Len and Chew). Most of these articles point out how essential it is to build trust through strengthening relations in politically less sensitive matters like NTS issues, however, there are deficiencies when it comes to concrete examples, models and results of cooperation. It has been acknowledged that Northeast 13.

(21) Asian countries are more apt to work together in less sensitive matters, however, it is also a fact that such collaboration is hindered immediately after a political misunderstanding appears between formerly cooperating countries. Therefore, the author finds it important to emphasize the interconnection and dependency between traditional and non-traditional security issues. While one can serve the other to deepen trust and strengthen relations, the other can easily become an obstacle in the way of further advancement. It is not surprising therefore to meet a rather numerous volume of literature on possible novelization of Asian security institutionalism, which so far has not fulfilled its goals (Katzenstein, 2004; Gilson, 2007; Namkung, 2006; Frost and Kang, 2008; Kim, 2008, Van Ness, 2008). Last but not least, the author finds it essential to mention the most important web portals of security institutions or organizations relevant in the Northeast Asian region,. 治政大 Security Studies in Asia, Non-Traditional Security Studies, Consortium of Non-Traditional 立 Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific, The Institute of Energy Economics. which contributed to this research: ASEAN Plus Three, The British Petroleum, Centre for. ‧ 國. 學. Japan, International Energy Agency, Northeast Asia Economic Forum, Northeast Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Northwest Pacific Action Plan, Tripartite Environment Ministers. ‧. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. Meetings.. Ch. engchi. 14. i n U. v.

(22) Chapter III: NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY IN CHINA AND JAPAN 2.1 Distinguishing between ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ Security Problems This chapter examines ‘non-traditional security’ (NTS) issues first in general followed by NTS problems specific to Northeast Asia.. As for the region to which I refer as. Northeast Asia, in addition to the traditionally viewed Northeast Asian states such as Japan, North Korea and South Korea, I also include two more key actors – Russia and China. These two countries are often included in the region to the extent of their interests and policies which concern Japan and Korea as well and therefore I find it necessary to involve. 治政 relationship between NTS and security in its traditional大 meaning. The author argues that 立 issues can hardly be separated from traditional aspects non-traditional aspects of security them in this study. In the following, the main goal is to recognize and understand the real. ‧ 國. 學. and what is more, they should not be perceived as separate dimensions but rather treated as overlapping, complementary factors in the role of solving security problems.. ‧. Recently, the need to differentiate between so-called traditional (also called hard, conventional or military) and non-traditional (also called soft/unconventional or non-. Nat. sit. y. military) security issues (Fatić, 2002: 93; Akaha, 2002, 2003: 3; Lee, 2010: 227) has. io. er. become widely accepted, however not much or not sufficient research or attention has been devoted to the latter one. The simplest way to refer to ‘soft’ security threats is to refer to. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. those threats which are of non-military origin (Lomagin, 2001: 1). There are some trends to. engchi. emphasize the ‘newly emerged’ soft security threats, but there has been a failure to understand both: the scope of problems involved and “in what way old and new security threats overlap and in many ways in fact reinforce each other” (Swanström, 2010). 5 Therefore, it is important to study NTS problems in the continuous presence of traditional security problems thus achieving a better understanding of their significance. Provided the lack of a precise and generally accepted definition of ‘non-traditional security’ problems, the author will focus on introducing her own understanding in accordance with various. 5. Source of information: “Traditional and Non-Traditional Security Threats in Central Asia: Connecting the New and the Old.” From: www.isdp.eu.. 15.

(23) definitions, approaches and aspects existent in recent literature.6 As the concept of nontraditional security is a relatively modern one, thus it is liable to further development and continuously changes according to the most recent trends and emerging problems. Furthermore, different countries may regard different NTS problems as threats. For these reasons, it is essential to offer the most exact definition of non-traditional security problems, which will be applied and used in this paper. Many scholars argue that the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on the United States has brought non-traditional security issues into the centre of attention (Wang, 2005: 1) and since then it has become an increasingly popular topic of discussions both internationally and domestically among various actors in the international society including state-actors and non-state actors as well.. The difference between traditional and non-traditional. 治政大 possible solutions to these distinction between certain security issues and also between 立 problems. Traditionally, security issues have been defined in geo-political terms and. security might not be the most accurate appellation, however, it is to emphasize the. ‧ 國. 學. referred to the high politics of a country being included among its most prior national interests (Wang, 2005). It also refers to the relationship among states, which is to be. ‧. measured in military capability and preparedness. Traditional security issues are those. Nat. y. which are to be tackled by various actions (mostly military) and diplomatic tools such as. According to the realist theory, a nation´s security in its. al. er. io. operation and friendship.. sit. deterrence, military strategy, the balance of powers or bi/multilateral contracts on co-. n. traditional form represents one of the most important national interests and depends on. Ch. i n U. v. one´s economic, political and military powers (Kauppi and Viotti, 2009). It comprises. engchi. concepts such as the sovereignty of a nation-state, the non-interference principle or the right to self-defence. In solving traditional security issues there are different ways including unilateral, bilateral or multilateral depending on whether a country relies on itself or cooperates with its allies and friends foe self-protect. To sum up, security in its traditional meaning differs from non-traditional security in the emphasis on actors (inter-state, international scope), possible solutions (military elements), in its geo-political capacity (Fatić, 2002: 93-94) etc...The Cold War is a very specific and characteristic period in international diplomatic history, which may be described by a permanent tension between 6. According to Wang (2005), there are various understandings of the phenomena ‘non-traditional’. With regards to those conceptions which have recently appeared, he refers to as ‘chronological’, while other understandings include all problems and issues other than military.. 16.

(24) the communist and western blogs and the continuous need to focus on and protect one´s national security interests in its traditional meanings which include the protection of territory, people, sovereignty, allies etc…Since the end of the Cold War, however, an increasing attention has been paid to NTS problems (Swanström, 2010: 35). This paper does not presume the weakening or unimportance of traditional security issues, but emphasizes the increasing significance to understand non-traditional security threats and focus on their solution. Supposing that the possibility of wars among major powers or modern societies is less acceptable and expected than ever before, the focus of security debates is more and more concentrated upon the increasing problems of non-traditional security. First of all, when beginning to examine non-traditional security, it is necessary to define what exactly. 治政 the backdrop of the大 recent. these security issues will cover and include in the following study. This term has been adjusted and changed against. 立. strengthening trends of. globalization and includes a varying and growing number of issues beginning with. ‧ 國. 學. environmental problems, drug-trafficking, new terrorism and developing to internet hacking and piracy or health and food security (Wang, 2005; Akaha, 2003; Fatić, 2002). The. ‧. number of non-traditional issues has not been fixed and keeps growing. However, there are some common characteristics, which define non-traditional security threats in general and. y. Nat. sit. distinguish them from other traditional or ‘hard’ security issues. First of all, non-traditional. al. er. io. security problems are transboundary issues (Fatić, 2002: 95) thus it is almost impossible. n. and irrelevant to solve them on domestic grounds excluding the involvement of other. Ch. i n U. v. actors.7 For example according to Lomagin (2001), civil society has a very important role. engchi. in solving non-traditional security problems supposing that the state itself is unable to provide all the necessary information for solution. Furthermore, these threats are best to be tackled on a bilateral or multilateral basis supposing the co-operation and efficient coordination among states and other relevant actors such as non-state actors and international institutions (IGOs, INGOs). It is almost required and inevitable to involve other actors than governments and their institutions, as these do not always have the capability, information, eligibility and willingness to cope with such security issues. Therefore, this may as well represent another feature of non-traditional security issues: the difference in solutions from 7. Transboundary or also ‘trans-border’, ‘trans-frontier’ threats are not to be characterized as international issues in its traditional-realist sense, but more as internal problems or inter-regional issues that concern a group of states and their solution is likewise and not necessarily a cradle for conflict amongst them.. 17.

(25) traditional security threats. While the latter requires a stable, powerful military supported by abundant financial background and the involvement of high-level diplomatic approaches, the former requires professional information and knowledge that should be provided by different actors (mostly civilians such as epistemic communities, NGOs or international organizations) and efficient, well-managed co-operation among these actors (Fatić, 2002: 95, Wang 2005: 4). It also demands the willingness to be involved and to participate in problem-solutions and governance. For different reasons, non-traditional security threats have not been on the priority list of states. These reasons include the limited resources that are provided to deal with these problems, the tendency to ignore the significance of NTS issues which do not belong to high political or economic interests and also a wellestablished and organized structure or security governance which would have the capacity. 治政 traditional security issues which is becoming stronger in 大 the 21th century and the possibility 立 of a future security governance based on co-operation in this field with a special focus on to coordinate the management.. This study highlights the necessity of tackling non-. ‧ 國. 學. Northeast Asia. Despite ignorant approaches towards non-traditional security threats and the marginalization of their future consequences, I assume it to be one of our future. ‧. society´s most relevant and urging problem, especially if we are to maintain a sustainable development and also the values and quality of our lives and livelihoods. “In essence,. y. Nat. sit. ‘security’ as a special term always has its extraordinary implications” (Wang, 2005). As. al. er. io. mentioned above, the question is whether the term ‘non-traditional’ refers only to. n. phenomena that have never appeared in the past, or it implies to a new research dimensions.. Ch. i n U. v. While the former refers to “security issues which have appeared recently, such as large-area. engchi. ecological pollution, global financial turmoil or high-tech crimes that could not occur prior to the information age, the latter could mean security issues other than military security or national security, such as some global security threats (e.g. ozonosphere destruction), transnational security threats (e.g. various crimes at high seas) or security threats to minorities (e.g. oppression of vulnerable groups, extinction of rare or endangered species, or marginalization of ethnic minorities in terms of language and culture)” (Wang, 2005: 4). To come closer to the understanding of the phenomenon ‘non-traditional security’, in 2003, a conference on NTS issues was held in the People´s republic of China under the international bureau of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, for the sake of international cooperation, where scholars defined six categories of non-traditional issues: money 18.

(26) trafficking, piracy, excessive poverty, refugees and immigrants, AIDS and environmental security (Xu, 2003). This is just one of the possible divisions of NTS issues; however it gives an appropriate view into the approach to non-traditional security of one of the major actors in the region.8 There are however many more problems included under this term such as: the shortage of water resources, fishery conflicts, traffic congestion, extinction of species, poverty relief, interruption of fibre optic cables, identity ambiguity, loss of language standardization, etc…(Wang, 2005). It appears that almost all issues can be included in the broader definition of non-traditional security as long as they are regarded as serious enough. The attempts to make a clear and distinctive list of problems which create non-traditional security threats may be referred to as ‘securitization’, more precisely the effort to define the subject, object and process of security issues involved and relevant.9. 治政大are threatened (also object) and traditional security threats (also subject), who are those that 立 who possesses the tools to solve and govern these issues. In the following study, the Questions that need to be answered consist of the following: what are the real non-. ‧ 國. 學. phenomena ‘non-traditional’ or ‘soft’ security problems will refer to those non-military issues that create reasonable grounds for co-operation among actors in the Northeast Asian. ‧. region. Provided the abundance of such problems, I have chosen a only a few which will serve as case-studies in order to prove, on one hand, the existence and significance of such. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. threats, and on the other hand the possibility for future co-operation.. n. 2.2 Cases of Non-Traditional Security Issues in Northeast Asia. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Major non-traditional security challenges in Northeast Asia include: environmental deterioration including transboundary pollution problems (environmental security issues); growing pressures on the lack of natural resources, legal and illegal migration (often having both traditional and non-traditional security elements and resulting in ethnic tensions); increasing gaps in wealth and income within and between neighbouring regions; illegal drug trafficking; mismanagement of national economies and their vulnerability to. 8. 9. Since the 2003 Conference there have been numerous meetings that addressed non-traditional security issues such as the Nexus of Traditional & Non-Traditional Security Dynamics: Chinese Experiences Meet Global Challenges, which was held at Zhejiang University National Science Park, Hangzhou, China on 1820 September 2009. It was hosted and organized by the Centre for Non-Traditional Security & Peaceful Development Studies (NTS-PD), Zhejiang University, China. See securitization in terms of the Copenhagen school.. 19.

(27) globalization. Although there are other issues that belong to non-traditional security threats, according to Akaha (2002, 2003) the above-mentioned are those problems that urgently need to be tackled in Northeast Asia and which have the prospect of a future co-operation. The following chapter will emphasize the importance to handle some of these problems and the complexity that surrounds them. For a further simplified use, I would like to divide NTS issues into four major groups:10 1. Environmental security11 (air/water pollution, climate change)12 2. Energy security (generally indicating natural resources such as oil and gas) 3. Social security (migration, human trafficking, income gaps) 4. Maritime security (water pollution, oil spills, marine and coastal environment, fish). 治政大certainly understands that there author and readers with a better understanding. The author 立 are numerous different diversifications of non-traditional security threats based upon other. This division shall serve to achieve the purposes of this study and shall provide the. ‧ 國. 學. grounds and criteria, however, assumes this the most useful in the case of her research paper. The division is based on a number of criteria including the nature of problems,. ‧. subjects and objects, possible solutions and also obstacles to resolving the problem. Furthermore, due to the required vastness of research and insufficient room in a M.A.. y. Nat. sit. thesis, the study will devote attention only to some of the above-mentioned problems thus. er. al. The cases that I have chosen for my research are energy security and. n. the problem.. io. providing the reader with a few study-cases to bring a closer look into the significance of. Ch. i n U. v. maritime security issues. Both these issues have proved to be very significant not only. engchi. politically but also economically; however neither has yet been successfully treated. Both these problems are salient examples displaying the comprehensive meaning of security issues: they carry non-traditional and traditional security aspects as well.. 2.2.1 Energy Security 10 11. 12. To understanding the idea of such a simplification further see: Dalby, Brauch and Spring (2009). As for environmental security problems and social security threats being a dimension of energy security itself, I shall provide a brief summary on the significance and achievements of co-operation in Northeast Asia; however considering the scope of this study, it is inevitable to omit this part from further analysis. Provided that climate change is generally perceived to be a global rather than only regional problem, I will not discuss this topic further, as my main goal is to elaborate on the Northeast Asian region.. 20.

(28) This chapter discusses the concept of energy security in general focusing on its significance and developments in the Northeast Asian region. The author finds of high value to understand ‘energy security’ as a comprehensive term including numerous dimensions which must not be omitted from its definition. Thus, to elaborate on the meaning of ‘energy security’ and attempt a satisfactory definition as a comprehensive security problem is one of the main goals of this section. The reason to ponder on this phenomenon has long-term contributions, most importantly for establishing, if possible, a functioning framework for energy security cooperation in Northeast Asia. Further on, the section shortly elaborates on national policies, perceptions and strategies regarding energy security issues, mainly focusing on three major actors: China, Japan and Russia. After. 治政大 regional cooperation-building. explains Russia’s key role and export potential in possible 立 National energy security policies (further NESP) - where relevant - seem to be one of the. describing the overall trend and current situation in energy security issues, it further. ‧ 國. 學. most difficult obstacles to overcome in the way of regional cooperation. Therefore, further attention is paid to a critical comparative analysis on each state’s energy security policy.. ‧. The final section examines impediments which stand in the way of creating an efficient regional framework for cooperation in energy security among Northeast Asian states. The. y. Nat. sit. questions that need to be answered are: whether there is any possibility for meaningful. al. er. io. cooperation - whether states are willing to do so, into what extent states treat these issues as. n. serious problems, they approach to preferred solution – unilateral or other – and also what. Ch. i n U. v. is the main obstacle for not cooperating – is it the lack of energy policies or rather the. engchi. violent competition fuelled by politico-historical motifs?. i.. The Concept of Energy Security. Energy security and cooperation in energy security are very important and urgent issues for Northeast Asian countries, which I will further discuss as a part of the nontraditional security issues defined above.. An early definition attempts to explain the. meaning of comprehensive energy security and points out three cornerstones according to which “a nation-state is energy secure to the degree that fuel and energy services are available to ensure: a) survival of the nation, b) protection of national welfare, and c) 21.

(29) minimization of risks associated with supply and use of fuel and energy services. What distinguishes [this] definition is its emphasis on the imperative to consider extra-territorial implications of the provision of energy (…)” (Hayes and Von Hippel, 1996).. It is. important to note here the significance of the transboundary character which is granted to energy security. It presumes that efficient solution to energy problems can only be created on a bilateral or multilateral basis. Later on, the definition of ‘energy security’ has been simplified to the need of sufficient and reliable energy supply and cost. According to Andrews-Speed, the traditional view of energy security focused on the need for a “reliable supply of energy at a reasonable price”. Despite its crucial role, ‘energy security’ has not yet been officially defined. As Liao emphasizes, the only consensus on defining ‘energy security’ has been reached on four key elements: accessibility, affordability, reliability and. 治政大 power, and guaranteed sufficient energy supplies, prices commensurate with purchasing 立 safe delivery of energy resources (Andrews-Speed, 2003). Energy security focuses on. sustainability (Liao, 2009: 108). The term ‘energy security’ means the maintenance of. ‧ 國. 學. exploration, development, production, and transportation. Cooperation in this sector is thus rather straightforward assuming that its main purpose is to secure energy supply and. ‧. transportation routes (Choo, 2009). It is further important to clarify the distinction between energy security cooperation and general energy cooperation. While Choo perceives energy. y. Nat. sit. security cooperation as cooperation over issues tend to have a direct impact on national. al. er. io. security, cooperation in energy security in general means securing energy supply at an. n. economical (affordable) rate without disruption, and guarantee of safe deliveries of energy. Ch. i n U. v. resources (Choo, 2009: 47). Considering these facts, the energy security issue, as one of. engchi. the major non-traditional security problem in Northeast Asia, will no doubt represent a main agenda in foreign policies of most consumer countries in the region. There are undoubtedly numerous reasons for Northeast Asian states to achieve an efficient degree of co-operation in energy security issues on a regional level. To list, the most important motives would include the high dependency on Middle East Oil, decreasing energy capacities owing to increasing energy consumption, the high political and economical price which are at stake when considering energy security, etc... Unfortunately, as a matter of fact, not only has the region so far failed to find a middle road to co-operation, but states have also yet a long way to mutual trust and thus persistently struggle to collaborate on a bilateral basis. The current energy production and oil reserves in Northeast 22.

(30) Asian countries are very unlikely to be sufficient for future energy demands. According to statistics, the Asia Pacific holds only 3.2 percent of the global oil reserves and approximately 8 percent of total gas reserves.13 As for consumption, the Asia Pacific is in demand of 31.1 percent of global oil reserves.14 These facts emphasize the urgent need to deal with energy security issues in the region and not only as rhetoric but more essentially on an active basis. Owing to its vast oil reserves, the cost of its oil and connection for transport, the Middle East is East Asia’s dominant and number one oil supplier causing indeed a high dependency. As a matter of fact, energy imports of countries such as China and Japan are expected to continue to grow, which will cause their dependence on Middle East oil even more serious. According to Calder’s opinion, Northeast Asia lags far behind its counterparts such as North America and Europe, which already have well-developed. 治政大relying on liquefied natural gas industrialized region lacking well-developed gas grids and 立 (LNG). He emphasizes the ecological aspect of natural gas and its growing importance for. regional gas grids for piped natural gas, while Northeast Asia represents the only major. ‧ 國. 學. satisfying energy needs. Northeast Asia due to its lack of pipelines and inefficiency to cooperate thus finds itself reliant on natural gas only to a limited extent, while oil mostly from. ‧. the Middle East and coal are still the main energy sources. It is important to note, however, that the growing concern over environmental and human security issues puts more and. y. Nat. sit. more pressure on Northeast Asian states to seek alternative, more environmentally. al. er. io. attractive energy sources, which could also include natural gas (Calder, 2004). As a. n. solution, Russia as the world biggest gas supplier and second most important oil supplier. Ch. i n U. v. could become an alternative solution to dependency on the Middle East. In the case of. engchi. natural gas, environmental problems caused by coal burning (especially in China) and efforts to replace coal by a more efficient and cleaner energy means, cause that demand for it in the region is inevitably increasing. The Russian Far East is in possession of the world’s biggest gas reserves providing another reason to become an alternative to the Middle East. The oil and natural gas reserves in Siberia and the Russian Far East and their potential exports to China, South Korea, and Japan therefore should become the main focus. 13. 14. The Asia Pacific here includes Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia and also South Asia (Australia, Brunei, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and other countries excluding Russia and Central Asia). Information obtained from: BP (www.bp.com, Statistical review of world energy 2010).. 23.

(31) point of co-operation among Northeast Asian states. There have, indeed, been numerous calls for co-operation through forums and institutions such as ASEAN+3, APEC or the East Asian Summit. The APEC energy ministers’ meeting for example in 1998 initiated the ‘Natural Gas Initiative’, which calls for the investment in the development of natural gas supplies, infrastructure, and trade network in APEC member countries. It states that “the development of a natural gas trade network composed of domestic and cross-border pipelines, LNG terminals, and a distribution system will expand the cooperation and trade among APEC members and promote regional economic development and growth” (Ministry of International Trade and Industry 1998: 106). Despite the importance of energy security in the region, there have neither been significant achievements nor meaningful efforts implemented among Northeast Asian states. 治政大 energy cooperation has halted at a rather preliminary stage. 立. to find a solution either under a bilateral or multilateral framework. Therefore, regional. ‧ 國. 學. ii.. Assessing Energy Security Situations and Energy Security Institutions in China and Japan. ‧. The author in this section focuses the research on analyzing national energy security. y. Nat. sit. policies (NESP) and the development governmental energy institutions in China and Japan.. al. er. io. The main focus is on oil as presently this energy source represents the biggest worry for. n. most major Northeast Asian states such as Japan, South Korea or China, which increasing. Ch. i n U. v. demand raises concerns to secure more and more supplies from various providers. This. engchi. growing oil demand is not only a national security problem but also influences international behaviour of the mentioned states. China and Japan, being the most influential and major consumers of energy in the region, represent the basis for a case-study in this part of the research. CHINA.. “Since the founding of the PRC, the energy sector has played an. important role in the overall economic development of China. (…) The government chose the Soviet-Stalinist model of development as the means to structure further reform over other viable alternatives, the most notable being the Japanese model. The reasons for this included the CCP leadership’s rejection of a market-based economy and their recognition of the value of Soviet aid (…)” (Arruda and Li, 2003/2004). China has been self-sufficient 24.

(32) in energy needs and supplies since the 1960s up to the early 1990s. This has been owing to, on one hand, China’s abundant coal reserves and its coal-centred energy strategy, while, on the other hand, to sufficient oil supplies discovered mostly at Daqing (1959) and other oil fields.15 As for coal, the International Energy Agency (IEA) assumes that it will be the dominant energy source for China through 2030, but its share will slightly decrease between 2002 and 2020, from 69 percent to around 60 percent. In accordance with the 2009 World Energy Outlook, China’s coal demand will annually grow by 2.7 percent in the 2007-2030 period and coal production by 2.5 percent. According to Downs, China’s oil demand doubled, increasing from 3.3 million barrels per day (bpd) in 1995 to 6.6 million bpd in 2005 and it will only continue to grow through 2030. Aside increasing oil demand, another concern is reflected in the capacity of China’s oil fields, which will soon decline.. 治政 million bpd in 2005 to between 6 million and 11 million大 bpd in 2020” (Downs, 2006). In 立 addition, based on the IEA’s 2009 World Energy Outlook, China’s oil demand is expected “Based on demand and supply, China’s oil imports are expected to increase from about 3. ‧ 國. 學. to reach 16.3 million bpd in 2030, which is a 3.5 percent annual increase from 2008 to 2030. However, China’s oil production after a stagnating 3.8 million bpd in 2015 will decline to. ‧. 3.2 bpd by 2030.16 As for gas supplies and demand, China has little to worry about. Both production and consumption of natural gas in China more than doubled between 1995 and. y. Nat. sit. 2005, with production increasing from 17.4 billion to 50 billion cubic meters (bcm) and. er. io. consumption growing from 17.4 to 47 bcm over this period and will continue to grow in the 2007-2030 period by an annual 5.3 percent growth rate.17 Therefore, we can conclude that. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. oil is the most sensitive and urgent issue expecting solution in China’s energy security. engchi. debate. There are numerous reasons to believe this: first of all, oil represents China’s biggest import object and thus fuels its economic growth. Another reason is that gasoline or diesel have no cost-effective and efficient enough alternative in transportation, therefore China is highly dependent on oil imports. What is more, “oil is required to power the military meaning that inadequate supplies could hamper China’s efforts to prevent Taiwan’s permanent separation from the mainland” (Downs, 2006). Last but not least, as oil is a source of both economic and military power, it underpins China’s rise to great 15. 16 17. Daqing 大慶, Shengli 勝利 and Dagang 大慶 are oil fields discovered in Northeast China. Daqing's oilfield is China's largest oilfield, and the world's fourth most productive oil field. Petroleum accounts for 60.8% of GDP (source: wikipedia). International Energy Agency: World Energy Outlook 2009. International Energy Agency: World Energy Outlook 2009.. 25.