大班級程度差異之有效教學：資深國小英語教師教學信念與教學行為之質性研究

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(1)國立台灣師範大學英語研究所碩士論文 Master Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 大班級程度差異之有效教學：資深國小英語教師教學信念與教學行為之質性研究. Effective Teaching in Large Multilevel Classes: A Qualitative Study on the Beliefs and Practices of Experienced EFL Elementary School Teachers. 指導教授: 許月貴 Advisor: Dr. Yueh-Kuei Hsu 研究生: 鄧梅華 Mei-Hua Teng. 中華民國九十八年六月 June, 2009.

(2) 中文摘要. 本研究旨在探討兩位資深國小英語教師對於大班級程度差異的教學信念與教學行為。本研究提出三個問題：<一> 英語教師對於大班級程度差異的教學信念及教學行為為何? <二> 英語教師實施大班級程度差異教學時所面臨的教學困境為何? <三> 英語教師針對大班級程度差異的有效教學行為為何? 為提高研究結果之可信度，本研究採用問卷、訪談、教室觀察、以及研究者反思記錄等多種資料蒐集方式以深入了解兩位資深國小英語教師對於大班級程度差異的教學信念與教學行為。本研究發現顯示兩位資深國小英語教師皆以教育部訂定的九年一貫課程綱要為授課基準，並以班級內中等程度學生－的學習需求(此部份學生占絕大多數) 為教學計畫及活動設計之主要依據。本研究發現，即使大班級內學生之間的英語程度差異甚大，兩位教師仍盡其所能呈現有意義、富彈性、重對話練習的教學活動，如配對活動(pair work)、小組活動(group work)、以及發展不同難度之作業 (multilevel homework)，以提昇班上每一位學生的學習成效。本研究結果顯示： <一> 教師教學行為深受其教學信念之影響，<二> 英語教師實施大班級程度差異教學時所面臨的教學困境主要為班級經營、英語教材的使用、以及家長對於學生學習所抱持的態度，<三> 有效的教學成效取決於教師本身的教學專業及其努力促使每位學生進步的堅定信念。最後，本研究根據研究發現，對於英語教師、家長、學校、行政單位、師資培育中心等提出建議。. i.

(3) Abstract. This study aimed to explore two experienced EFL elementary school teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices in teaching large multilevel classes. Three research questions were addressed: (1) What are the teachers’ beliefs and practices toward teaching English in large multilevel classes? (2) What difficulties do the teachers encounter in the process of teaching? (3) What effective classroom teaching strategies are identified by the teachers to maximize students’ learning in large multilevel classes? Various forms of data were collected to enhance the validity of the study namely, questionnaires, interviews, classroom observations, and the researcher’s reflective journals. Findings showed that both teachers insisted on following the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines and focused their teaching on the needs of the majority. Though students’ varied English proficiency and other contextual factors hindered the teachers in practicing effective teaching, both teachers were still striving to conduct meaningful communicative activities such as pair work, group work, and multilevel homework. Results of this study highlight the importance of teachers’ beliefs concerning their classroom practices. Besides, several difficulties have been indicated by the teachers in the process of teaching such as classroom management, inadequate teaching materials, and parents’ inappropriate attitude towards students’ learning. Finally, it is believed that successful implementation of effective teaching practices relies on the teachers’ competence and perseverance in balancing their practices between benefiting the majority and facilitating the individual. Pedagogical implications for frontline teachers, parents, school administrators, teacher training programs, and educational authorities are discussed.. ii.

(4) Acknowledgment. First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my adviser, Professor Yueh-Kuei Hsu, who inspired me in researching on teachers’ beliefs on teaching large multilevel classes. I would never be able to finish writing my thesis without her constant encouragement and professional instructions. There is no doubt that Professor Hsu has put enormous efforts in guiding me throughout my writing process, and I am very grateful for having such a conscientious and inspiring teacher as my adviser. My deepest gratitude also goes to Professor Ho-Ping Feng and Professor Chin-Kuei Cheng, who agreed to be my committee member without a minute of hesitation. I really appreciate their enlightening and professional suggestions and sincere concern for my writing. Furthermore, I would like to devote my appreciation to Ms. Chou and Ms. Yin, who generously offered to participate in this study. I thank them for sharing such substantial teaching beliefs and creative teaching strategies. I thank them for believing in me and supporting me throughout this research process. Finally, I would like to say “Thank you and I love you!” to my dearest parents, who gave me strengths and accompanied me with their affable love during “bottleneck” times.. iii.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS 中文摘要………………………………………………………………………….. i. Abstract…………………………………………………………………………... ii. Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………. iii. Table of Contents………………………………………………………...………. iv. List of Tables………………………..……………………………...……………. ix. 1. Introduction……………………………………...……………………………. 1. 1.1 Background of the Study………..…………………………………….... 1. 1.2 Purpose of the Study…………..……………………………...……….... 6. 1.3 Research Questions……………..…………………………………….... 8. 2. Literature Review………….………………………………………………….. 10. 2.1 Teaching in Large Multilevel Classes………..………........................... 10. 2.1.1 Definition of Large Multilevel Classes……..…………………. 10. 2.1.2 English Teaching in Elementary Schools ….…..………...……. 11. 2.1.3 Benefits and Challenges in Teaching Large Multilevel Classes…... 13. 2.1.3.1 Large Class Size………………………………………. 14. 2.1.3.2 Individual Differences……………………………….... 14. 2.1.3.3 Limited Class Time…………………………………… 15 2.1.3.4 Teaching Materials……………………………………. 16 2.1.3.5 Teaching Strategies……………………………………. 17. 2.1.3.6 Teaching and Assessment……………………………... 18. 2.1.4 Summary of the Section..…………..…………………………... 19. 2.2 Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices…………...……...……........................... 20. 2.2.1 The Nature of Teachers’ Beliefs…………..…….…………….... 20. iv.

(6) 2.2.1.1 Definitions of Teachers’ Beliefs………………………. 20. 2.2.1.2 Experienced Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices………..... 21 2.2.2 Significance of Teachers’ Beliefs on Their Practices….…..... 24. 2.2.3 Factors Affecting Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices…..……… 25 2.2.4 Summary of the Section…………..…………...…..........…... 28. 2.3 Research on Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices…..…..……….................. 29 2.3.1 Research on Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in Taiwan….... 29. 2.3.2 Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in Teaching Large Multilevel Classes in Taiwan………………………………...............…... 31. 2.3.3 Summary of the Section……….....…...………………...…... 33. 2.4 Effective Teaching in Large Multilevel Classes…..………...…………. 33. 2.4.1 Effective Teaching Practices for Large Multilevel Classes…. 34. 2.4.1.1 Cooperative Learning…………………………………. 36. 2.4.1.2 Differentiated Instruction………………………..….... 36. 2.4.2 Research on Effective Teaching in Large Multilevel Classes in Taiwan………..………………….……………………. 37. 2.4.3 Summary of the Section…….....…………...……...………... 39. 2.5 Summary of the Literature Review…………....……………….…….... 40. 3. Methodology…………………………………………………………………... 42 3.1 Participants…………………………………………………...……….. 42. 3.1.1 Ms. Chou………..……………...………………...…………. 42. 3.1.1.1 The School Context…………….……………………... 44. 3.1.1.2 The Classes……………………………………………. 44. 3.1.2 Ms. Yin…………...…..………………………..……………. 46. v.

(7) 3.1.2.1 The School Context………………………………….... 47. 3.1.2.2 The Classes……………………………………………. 48. 3.2 Data Collection…………………….…...…………………………….. 49. 3.2.1 Teacher Questionnaire……..…..………………………….... 50. 3.2.2 Teacher Interviews………..……………...………………..... 50. 3.2.2.1 Semi-structured Interviews………………………….... 50. 3.2.2.2 Post-observation Interviews…………………...……... 51. 3.2.3 Classroom Observations……….…………...………………. 51. 3.2.4 Researcher’s Reflective Journals……………...……………. 52. 3.3 Data Collection Procedures….…………….…...…………………….. 53. 3.4 Data Analysis………………..……….………….……………………. 56. 4. Findings…………………………..………………………………...…………. 59. 4.1 Ms. Chou……………………………………………………………... 59. 4.1.1 Findings from the Teacher Interviews…………………….... 59. 4.1.1.1 Beliefs on Elementary School English Education……. 59. 4.1.1.2 Beliefs on Language Learning……………………….. 61 4.1.1.3 General Principles for Teachers Teaching Large Multilevel Classes……...……………..…………… 62 4.1.1.4 Difficulties in Teaching Large Multilevel Classes…… 66 4.1.1.5 Beliefs on Effective Teaching Practices for Teaching Large Multilevel Classes……………………………... 69. 4.1.1.6 Suggestions to Improve Elementary School English Education…………………………………………... vi. 71.

(8) 4.1.2 Findings from the Classroom Observations………………... 72. 4.1.2.1 Teaching Processes………….…………..……………. 72. 4.1.2.2 Classroom Practices in Large Multilevel Classes……. 73. 4.2 Ms. Yin...……………………………………………………………... 76. 4.2.1 Findings from the Teacher Interviews…………………….... 76. 4.2.1.1 Beliefs on Elementary School English Education……. 76. 4.2.1.2 Beliefs on Language Learning……………………….. 76 4.2.1.3 General Principles for Teachers Teaching Large Multilevel Classes…….…………………………… 79 4.2.1.4 Difficulties in Teaching Large Multilevel Classes……. 82. 4.2.1.5 Beliefs on Effective Teaching Practices for Teaching Large Multilevel Classes…………..………………... 84. 4.2.1.6 Suggestions to Improve Elementary School English Education………………………...……………….... 86. 4.2.2 Classroom Practices in Large Multilevel Classes………….. 87 4.2.2.1 Teaching Processes……………………………...……. 87. 4.2.2.2 Classroom Practices in Large Multilevel Classes.…… 88 4.3 Conclusion……………………………………………………………. 91. 5. Discussion…………………....…………………………..……………………. 93. 5.1 Teachers’ Beliefs Toward Teaching English in Large Multilevel Classes.... 93. 5.1.1 Teachers Should Teach Towards the Majority………………. 93. 5.1.2 Teachers Should be Flexible in Their Teaching Methods...… 95 5.2 Difficulties Teachers Encountered in the Process of Teaching….…… 99 5.3 Teaching Strategies Identified by the Teachers as Effective…………... 102. vii.

(9) 5.3.1 Establish Class Rules and Teaching Routines………………. 103 5.3.2 Carry Out Guided Practices………………………………..... 1103 5.3.3 Practice Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Group Work….... 104. 5.3.4 Assign Multilevel Homework……………………………….. 105. 5.4 Researcher’s Reflection……………………………………………… 1105. 6. Conclusion and Implications………………………………………………... 108 6.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………… 108 6.2 Pedagogical Implications…………………………...………………... 109. 6.3 Limitations of the Research………………………………………….. 111 6.4 Recommendations for Future Research………….…..………………. 112. References…………………………………….....………………………………. 114. Appendices…………………………………….................................................... 121 Appendix A: Teacher Questionnaire……………………………..………. 121. Appendix B: Teachers’ Semi-structured Interview Questions…….…….. 123. Appendix C: Teachers’ Post-observation Interview Questions……..….... 125. Appendix D: Teacher Consent Form…………………………………….. 126. viii.

(10) LIST OF TABLES. Table 3.1 Background Information of the Teachers……………….……...…………49. ix.

(11) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION. 1.1 Background of the Study As a result of globalization, English has established its steadfast status as the all-purpose, worldwide language (C. Y. Chen, 2004; Li, 1998). Also, with the use of the World Wide Web and the rapid invasion of English mass media, such as western movies, American literature, TV sit-coms, pop music and advertisements, it seems impossible to avoid using English in every day lives (C. Y. Chen, 2004; Su, 1999). Since English has been acknowledged as the main communication tool worldwide, the importance of English teaching and learning thus becomes a noteworthy issue around the world, especially in EFL countries (Y. M. Chiang, 2003). Several EFL countries, such as South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, China, and Taiwan have long incorporated English teaching and learning into their formal education (C. Y. Chen, 2004; Y. M. Chiang, 2003; Li, 1998). China, aware of the importance of English in the global village, started to promote English learning programs at the elementary school level in Shanghai and Nanking since 1963 (Y. M. Chiang, 2003). In 1997, South Korea also began their formal implementation of English curriculum at grade three in elementary schools (Y. M. Chiang, 2003; Li, 1998). As a solution to boost economic and political competitive status in global events, the practice of English education for young learners has become a popular trend in EFL countries worldwide (Y. C. Chen, 2004; Y. M. Chiang, 2003; Li, 1998). Similar to other EFL countries, the government of Taiwan also aims to equip our young learners with the ability to communicate in English and to connect with the global village (Y. M. Chiang, 2003). According to the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines, starting in 2001, all public elementary schools in Taiwan were 1.

(12) to include English as a required curriculum from grade five and six (Ministry of Education, 2006). In 2005, to keep up with the global English learning trend and to meet public expectations, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan revised the Curriculum Guidelines and required elementary school students to receive English education from grade three (Liao, 2007). Nevertheless, a nationwide survey on the English teaching situation in Taiwan conducted by the CitiSuccess Fund in 2003 revealed that 80% of the elementary schools in Taiwan had already started their English programs ahead of the Curriculum Guidelines, especially the schools located in Taipei city, Yi-Lan county, and Hsin-Chu city (Y. C. Chen, 2004). Moreover, the EFL elementary school teachers who participated in the survey reported that approximately one-third of the students in their classes had already learned English in bilingual kindergartens or English private institutes outside of the school curriculums before receiving the official English education at school (Y. C. Chen, 2004). This finding indicated that, despite the established English policy, most parents in Taiwan found it essential to develop children’s English proficiency at younger ages. As “the-earlier-the-better” English learning trend continues to flourish in Taiwan, an increasing amount of children tend to be exposed to English language learning before they attend elementary schools (Chung & Hsu, 2005). Resulting from this English learning fever, more and more children in Taiwan begin to learn English at younger ages; and since children receive English education at different ages, it is inevitable that these young learners have varied English proficiency when they begin their English learning at school. As a result of this language learning trend, the dilemma of teaching English to large multilevel classes, especially in the elementary schools, has been put in the spotlight (Chung & Hsu, 2005; Liao, 2007). When these children start to learn English, their teachers would encounter strenuous challenges of developing and implementing 2.

(13) effective teaching to meet their diverse English learning experiences and proficiency (Liao, 2007). Besides the difficulties in meeting students’ various needs in large multilevel classes, studies on EFL teaching revealed that such classes caused fortifiable teaching dilemmas for teachers in several aspects, such as lesson planning (Hu, 2007; Huang, 2003; Huang, Cheng & Lin, 2004), teaching strategies (Hsu, 2005; Huang, 2003; Liao, 2003), classroom management (Y. M. Chiang, 2003; Y. Z. Chiang, 2003; Kuo, 2005), and learning assessment (Chen, 2003; Hsu, 2003; Hsu, 2005). Reported in the above studies, the EFL teachers claimed that they feel powerless and incapable of developing classroom practices to meet individual student’s need when teaching large multilevel classes. Lin’s (2003) survey on the teaching situations of 175 elementary schools in Pin-Tung also showed that 90% of the teachers regarded students’ varied English proficiency as the main obstacle to implement effective teaching. Besides students’ varied proficiency, limited class time and difficulties in classroom management also prohibited teachers from meeting individual student’s learning needs (Lin, 2003). In response to the above teaching difficulties, researchers and educators in Taiwan have been active in developing various effective teaching practices or strategies as solutions for teaching large multilevel classes, such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) (Liao, 2003; Lin, 2002), cooperative learning (Huang, 2003; Liang, 2002; Yeh, 2003), and flexible ability grouping (Y. M. Chiang, 2003). Researchers and educators believed that different types of classroom practices, such as pair work or group work, tend to determine the amount of students’ participation in learning and therefore affect students’ learning outcomes (Chung & Hsu, 2005; Golombek, 1998; Richards, 1998; Tomlinson, 1999, 2003; Tsui, 2003). Though most EFL teachers held positive attitudes towards the effective teaching practices 3.

(14) mentioned above, Y. Z. Chiang’s (2003) study on eight first-year elementary school teachers’ classroom management in relation to children’s individual proficiency differences showed that the EFL teachers still encountered difficulties in integrating the above effective teaching practices into their lesson plans and sometimes preferred to adopt whole-class teaching for the sake of more disciplined classroom management (Y. Z. Chiang, 2003). Notwithstanding the efforts made by the researchers and educators, successful implementation of effective teaching practices still relies on English teachers themselves. Teachers’ beliefs, among other factors, play the crucial role in their decisions for classroom practices (Bailey, 1996; Borg, 2003; Chiang, 2006; Fang, 1998; Golombek, 1998; Richards, 1998; Woods, 1996). As Pajares (1992) suggested, teachers’ beliefs “influence their perceptions and judgments, which, in turn, affect their behavior in the classroom” (p. 307). Thus, to teach English effectively in large multilevel classes, frontline teachers play fundamental roles in implementing effective teaching practices in their classrooms. If EFL teachers were inclined to develop effective teaching strategies to teach large multilevel classes, the students would eventually be the ones directly benefited. Researches in teaching effectiveness have also shown that teachers’ beliefs influence their teaching and their development of classroom practices (Borg, 2003; Richards, 1998; Woods, 1996). Subsequent researches emphasized that teachers’ beliefs and practices are context-sensitive, dynamic, and open for change (Golombek, 1998; Richards, 1998; Woods, 1996). According to Golombek (1998), teachers’ “personal practical knowledge” (p. 448) will develop and change when encountering various exigencies in their classes. Golombek noted that teachers’ teaching “tensions” (p. 452) caused from contextual factors, such as the need to live up to the school policies and parental expectations, will influence their beliefs in teaching and their 4.

(15) choice of classroom practices. As Borg (2003) noted, teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices “are mutually informing, with contextual factors playing an important role in determining the extent to which teachers are able to implement instruction congruent with their cognitions” (p. 81). In addition to the effect of the contextual factors on teachers’ beliefs, other researches showed that teachers will reconstruct and reform their beliefs and practices through teaching experiences (Breen, Hird, Milton, Oliver & Thwaite, 2001; Fang, 1998; Richards, Tung & Ng, 1992). According to Feikes (1995), teachers are seen as active learners who constantly improve their teaching as they reflect upon their experiences. That is to say, the more experienced the teachers become, the more they are able to adjust their classroom practices to better meet their students’ learning needs (Richards et al., 1992). Agreeing with Feikes, Tsui (2003) also suggested that teachers have to reflect on their practices and learn from their experiences since “experience will only contribute to expertise if practitioners are capable of learning from it” (p. 13). According to the aforementioned researches, teachers’ beliefs influence their teaching practices, but in turn are affected and modified by contextual factors and teaching experiences (Borg, 2003; Breen et al., 2001; Golombek, 1998; Richards et al., 1992). In Taiwan, similar researchers have noted that one of the major contextual factors that may affect English teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices is the challenge of teaching in large multilevel classes (Y. H. Chen, 2004). Therefore, in an effort to facilitate the implementation of effective teaching in large multilevel classes, the present study hopes (1) to explore the beliefs and practices of EFL teachers, (2) to gain a deeper understanding of the difficulties the teachers encounter in teaching, and (3) to identify effective teaching strategies employed by the teachers when instructing large multilevel classes. It is hoped that the findings of 5.

(16) this study could offer helpful suggestions for other EFL teachers who are also pondering on similar teaching dilemmas. If teachers are able to solve the problems they encounter in their teaching, it is expected that their students would consequently be assured with the opportunity to achieve more optimal learning outcomes.. 1.2 Purpose of the Study Teachers’ beliefs shape their choice of classroom practices, and their practices influence students’ learning outcomes (Fang, 1998; Tomlinson, 1999, 2003). In order to promote teaching effectiveness in large multilevel classes in the elementary school level, this study aimed to explore the experienced EFL elementary school teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching large multilevel classes. Based upon individual teaching experiences, teachers tend to adopt classroom practices that they consider as effective, and avoid those they experienced as futile or ineffectual (Borg, 2003). Moreover, experienced teachers tend to have developed a domain of knowledge in effective classroom teaching practices by learning and improving their teaching skills throughout the many years of practice (Tsui, 2003). Therefore, the first purpose of this study is to investigate experienced teachers’ beliefs and effective practices they have developed towards teaching large multilevel classes. Through in-depth interviews, the teachers were asked to reflect on their teaching practices and to articulate the beliefs for their instructional decisions. And through classroom observations, the researcher hopes to gain a more objective view of the teachers’ decision-making processes and how they display their beliefs in their practices. Second, teachers’ beliefs and practices are affected and adjusted to their teaching contexts. As Borg (2003) noted, studies on teachers’ beliefs and practices without 6.

(17) considering the teaching contexts “will provide partial, if not flawed, characteristics of teachers’ teaching” (p. 106). Therefore, the second purpose of this study is to identify the contextual factors which hinder the teachers’ teaching and how they influence the teachers’ beliefs and decision making procedure. Third, in addition to notifying the instructional difficulties, this study also hopes to generalize some effective teaching strategies the teachers identified as beneficial to students’ learning.. It is hoped that by exploring the teachers’ beliefs and practices,. teachers could propose solutions to ameliorate the quality of their practices, promote professional development, and ultimately facilitate students to achieve optimal learning outcomes. Though many studies on teachers’ beliefs and practices have pointed out that large multilevel classes caused formidable difficulties for teachers to practice effective teaching (eg., Hu, 2007; Liao, 2003; Lin, 2002), little research has been done to look for solutions to overcome such dilemma. This study, therefore, hopes to provide in-depth and workable references for EFL teachers who are teaching large multilevel classes. By interpreting the beliefs and practices of the experienced EFL elementary school teachers, the researcher hopes that the findings not only can serve as useful references for other EFL teachers, but can also gain insights into some effective classroom practices suitable for teaching large multilevel classes. In fact, it is hoped that if the government, administrators and parents understand the overwhelming difficulties and challenges teachers have in their work, they could all participate in helping students achieve better language learning outcomes (Y. M. Chiang, 2003; Y. Z. Chiang, 2003; Huang, Cheng, & Lin, 2004). It is anticipated that the MOE would be able to refine the Curriculum Guidelines to better meet the teaching situation in Taiwan (Y. Z. Chiang, 2003). Also, administrators can support frontline teachers by providing teacher training programs and implementing 7.

(18) remedial programs for lower achievers in the class (Chang, 2006; Y. H. Chen, 2004). Furthermore, parents are encouraged to actively take part in their child’s English learning process and provide immediate remedial support or additional input for their children at home (Y. H. Chen, 2004). Finally, the researcher hopes that more studies, more solutions, and more support can be contributed to teaching large multilevel classes. If administrators, teachers, and parents could all help in meeting students’ learning needs, large multilevel classes would no longer be considered an insolvable teaching obstacle for EFL teachers in Taiwan.. 1.3 Research Questions Teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching are developed from previous learning experiences, present teaching contexts, and years of teaching experiences (Borg, 2003). In other words, different teachers have different preferences in classroom strategies which tend to be constructed and reconstructed in response to the various contextual needs of the teaching environment and to their reflective thinking (Borg, 2003; Golombek, 1998). In Taiwan, teaching English to large multilevel classes has become one of the major contextual factors which challenge EFL teachers’ beliefs in effective teaching and their decision-making in the classroom (Y. Z. Chiang, 2003; Huang, 2003). Since researchers have pointed out that teaching expertise is developed through many years of experience (Tsui, 2003), the present study, thus, aimed to explore the experienced EFL elementary school teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices in teaching large multilevel classes within different school contexts in Taiwan. More specifically, this study intends to address the following research questions: 1. What are the teachers’ beliefs and practices toward teaching English in large multilevel classes? 8.

(19) 2. What difficulties do the teachers encounter in the process of teaching? 3. What effective classroom teaching strategies are identified by the teachers to maximize students’ learning in large multilevel classes? In answering these questions, the researcher hopes to gain a better understanding of the experienced EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices, and to identify the teaching challenges and difficulties teachers encounter. More importantly, the present study hopes to provide teachers with effective teaching strategies when teaching large multilevel classes to promote students’ maximum learning.. 9.

(20) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW. The present study investigates EFL elementary school teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices in teaching large multilevel classes. There are five main sections of this chapter, including an introduction of English teaching in large multilevel classes, an overview of educational theories of teachers’ beliefs and practices, and finally, the related studies on teachers’ beliefs and practices and their effective teaching strategies for large multilevel classes.. 2.1 Teaching in Large Multilevel Classes 2.1.1 Definition of Large Multilevel Classes The issue of teaching large multilevel classes has long been acknowledged and widely discussed by teachers and educators globally (Y. Z. Chiang, 2003; Hess, 2001; Kou, 2007; Mathews-Aydinli & Horne, 2006; Rees, 2003; Sands & Kerry, 1982; Tomlinson, 1999; Wang, 2006). Balliro (1997) suggested that “any classroom is really multilevel, because we all bring a range of abilities and aptitudes with us to any learning situation” (p. 6). According to the Australian Universities Teaching Committee (2003, p. 3), there are three main characteristics of a large multilevel class: (1) the number of students in a group, (2) the teaching and learning activities, and (3) the facilities and physical environment. For example, two hundred students in a lecture may not be considered as a large class; however, forty students in a conversation activity will most likely be regarded as a very large class (Peterson, Hittie & Tamor, 2005). Furthermore, students learn at different pace; in a class of approximately thirty students, some may improve faster than the others, soon creating a multilevel class (Hess, 2001; Peterson et al., 10.

(21) 2005). As referred above, the definition of large multilevel classes is complex and not clear-cut; students not only differ in language acquisition ability, but also in motivation, intelligence, self-discipline, literacy skills, attitudes, and interests (Hess, 2001). This study follows Hess’s (2001) definition of large multilevel classes: …classes of thirty or more students in elementary, secondary, adult, and tertiary settings. …the kinds of classes that have been roughly arranged according to ability, or simply classes that have been arranged by age-group with no thought of language ability. These are classes in which students vary considerably in their language and literacy skills and are in need of a great deal of personal attention and encouragement to make process. (Hess, 2001, p. 2). 2.1.2 English Teaching in Elementary Schools In 2005, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan announced that all public elementary schools were to include English as a required curriculum in grade three and above. The Outline Protocol of the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines, proposed by the Ministry of Education, listed three curriculum goals for English teaching and learning in the elementary school level (Ministry of Education, 2006): 1. Cultivating students with basic communication ability in English. 2. Arousing students’ interests in learning English. 3. Providing students with the knowledge of both domestic and foreign culture and customs. According to the Curriculum Guidelines, English instruction in the elementary school should emphasize on the development of students’ basic competence in all four skills needed to master the language, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In addition, special attention on the development of English speaking and listening in elementary learning stage should be underlined (Ministry of Education, 2006). Teachers are to help students learn English meaningfully and purposefully through communicative activities (Liao, 2003). For that reason, classroom instructions should 11.

(22) switch from traditional teacher-centered teaching to a more communication-oriented teaching. Finally, English education in the elementary school phase is to develop students’ interests in learning English and further increase their appreciation and respect for the foreign culture and social customs (Ministry of Education, 2006). As shown by the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines, elementary schools are encouraged to organize and accommodate the school-based curriculum upon consideration of individual school conditions, parental expectations, and students’ needs (Ministry of Education, 2006). However, what seems to be a positive curriculum innovation becomes a general concern for English teaching in Taiwan. Y. H. Chen (2004) reported that the implementation of the school-based curriculum has led to a problematic urban-rural gap in students’ English ability. Schools in cities have budgets to provide extra English resources while those in the country sides depend only on school textbooks. Moreover, Wang (2006) noted that the disparity among students’ English proficiency not only appeared between urban and rural schools, but was found within the classrooms as well. Wang pointed out that students come from different learning backgrounds. Within a class of thirty students, some may have been learning English since preschool while others have never been acquainted with the language before entering elementary schools. Some may be able to communicate in fluent English whereas others may still have trouble reciting the ABCs. Research on the implementation of the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines showed that large multilevel classes have caused major obstacles for teachers when they try to enforce the new curriculum goals (Chen, 2003). Although the Curriculum Guidelines aims to cultivate students with basic communication ability in English, teachers reported that large class sizes caused difficulties for them to carry out student-centered communicative approaches. Also, they faced problems in 12.

(23) selecting appropriate teaching materials and assessment strategies suitable for their diverse students in the class. In order to promote the Curriculum Guidelines in elementary schools in Taiwan and to benefit English teachers in performing more effective teaching in large multilevel classes, the present study aimed to investigate experienced EFL elementary school teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching large multilevel classes and to identity teachers’ difficulties and their effective strategies in teaching.. 2.1.3 Benefits and Challenges in Teaching Large Multilevel Classes A number of researches have identified both benefits and challenges in teaching large multilevel classes (Y. Z. Chiang, 2003; Hess, 2001; Kou, 2007; Tomlinson, 1999; Wang, 2006). One of the benefits is that there are always enough students for classroom interactions. Also, each child being different in learning proficiency and personality brings a variety of interesting human resources into the large multilevel class (Hess, 2001). Moreover, since students differ in their interests and abilities, teachers can provide group work opportunities for students to learn through cooperation instead of competition. In this case, students with lower English proficiency can learn from advanced learners while the more proficient English learners can practice their English skills by helping others in the class (Mathews-Aydinli & Horne, 2006). Notwithstanding the advantages in teaching large multilevel classes, many teachers still reported that they encounter more difficulties than benefits in their teaching. In such classes, teachers are challenged to enhance individual learning outcomes in the classes, especially when the students possess diverse English proficiency and learning priorities (Y. Z. Chiang, 2003; Hess, 2001). The following part of this section looks into six commonly reported difficulties that teachers have 13.

(24) encountered when teaching large multilevel classes (Hallam & Ireson, 2005; Hess, 2001; Mathews-Aydinli & Horne, 2006; Sands & Kerry, 1982; Shih & Chu, 1999; Tomlinson, 1999).. 2.1.3.1 Large Class Size According to Su (2001), the optimum class size for effective teaching is about twenty students, however, the number of students in a normal large class ranges from thirty-one to forty per class. Though it is important that teachers provide equal learning opportunities for students in the classroom; however, due to the large amount of students in each class, the openings for individual teacher-student interactions are seriously reduced (Li, 1998; Reid, Clunies-Ross, Groacher, & Vile, 1983; Su, 2001). Besides insufficient individual attention, it is also difficult for teachers to adopt communicative teaching approaches in large multilevel classes (Hess, 2001). Y. Z. Chiang (2003) indicated that many teachers hesitated in adopting communicative approaches such as group work and role play in their classes because it was hard for them to determine if students were really learning or just chatting with peers in these activities. Y. Z. Chiang concluded that when teaching large classes, some teachers seem to be more concerned about maintaining classroom order than implementing communicative activities (Y. Z. Chiang, 2003; Hess, 2001).. 2.1.3.2 Individual Differences Difficulties in teaching large multilevel classes in regards to students’ individual differences are due to (1) students’ different exposure to the language and (2) students’ individual learning interests (Y. -Z. Chiang, 2003; Hess, 2001; Mathews-Aydinli & Horne, 2006; Tomlinson, 1999). In Taiwan, the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines aims to arouse students’ interests in learning English (Ministry of 14.

(25) Education, 2006). However, English is regarded as a foreign language which is not actively used in the context of Taiwan. Teachers, therefore, become the main input of the foreign language for students (Li, 1998; Liao, 2007). If teachers do not provide students with enough attention and help, students may easily be discouraged and lose interest in learning the language. Nevertheless, faced with a large class of individual differences, it is challenging for teachers to accurately aim their teaching goals to meet every individual’s learning needs and interests (Tye, 1984). Students’ entry behaviors include factors such as students’ learning ability, learning experience, learning styles, and exposure to English (Sands & Kerry, 1982). To practice effective teaching in large multilevel classes, teachers should first interpret each student’s entry behavior and interact with them in accordance with their aptitudes, and avoid re-teaching what they already know while simultaneously planning their lessons on what students need to know (Sands & Kerry, 1982). Besides different entry behaviors, students also have versatile personalities and hold different interests towards English learning. Teachers should respect individual differences and interests and allow students to express their own ideas in class (Hess, 2001). It is teachers’ responsibility to provide versatile learning tasks to meet individualized learning styles and interests (Hess, 2001; Sands & Kerry, 1982).. 2.1.3.3 Limited Class Time As pointed out by several EFL teachers, time constraint is one of the setbacks in teaching large multilevel classes in Taiwan (Y. C. Chen, 2004; Huang, 2003; Lin, 2003). According to Y. C. Chen (2004), elementary schools in Taiwan arranged an average of two English lessons a week, forty minutes per class. Within the 15.

(26) forty-minute English lesson, teachers are expected to teach the school textbooks, to engage students in meaningful communicative interactions, to prepare them for school exams, and to introduce students to extra English input, such as English songs, poems, picture books, or movies. A lot of EFL teachers complained that it is extremely challenging, if not impossible, to try to include all of the activities within limited class time (Huang, 2003; Y. W. Lin, 2003). The Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines emphasizes the importance of creating authentic English learning environments for students to practice the language through meaningful conversations (Ministry of Education, 2006). However, due to the fact that English is not commonly used in Taiwan, the classroom may be the only environment for students to practice meaningful communication (Y. C. Chen, 2004; Crawford, 2003). Developing students’ competence in a foreign language takes time and practice, which is why many English teachers complain that eighty minutes a week is not enough to develop students’ real proficiency in the language (Crawford, 2003). Within the limited amount of time, elementary school English teachers in Taiwan are still pondering for better teaching strategies to provide sufficient time for their students to practice English meaningfully (Crawford, 2003).. 2.1.3.4 Teaching Materials Besides students’ individual differences, educators and researchers have also stressed that students can’t learn well when they are bored or unmotivated by the subject content. That is to say, students are more enthusiastic in learning things that are related to their life experiences or are connected to their background knowledge (Hess, 2001; Huang, Cheng, & Lin, 2004; Shih & Chu, 1999; Tomlinson, 1999). According to the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines, elementary schools in Taiwan are given the authority to select their own English textbooks from 16.

(27) all of the different versions approved by the MOE (Ministry of Education, 2006). As a result, many publishers have been active in developing various versions of textbooks. including. topics. and. activities. to. develop. students’. English. communicative proficiency (Huang et al., 2004; Wang, 2006). However, even with the availability of the various English textbooks on the market, English teachers in Taiwan still reported to have problems in choosing textbooks suitable for multilevel classes (Chiu, 1997; Wang, 2006). In Wang’s (2006) study on utilizing effective teaching strategies to promote curriculum articulation, some seventh-grade English teachers complained that most published English textbooks in Taiwan are not consistent in the language levels and topics. The teachers reported that, in the same textbook, some lessons are too easy, while others are too difficult or unrelated to students’ daily lives. Also, the teachers mentioned that the activities provided in the textbooks are too complicated or too time-consuming to practice in large multilevel classes (Wang, 2006). For many of the English teachers in Taiwan, what to teach and how to teach is greatly influenced by the content and format of the school textbooks (Wang, 2006). Though teachers are encouraged to introduce diverse teaching materials such as videos and songs in their classes, school textbooks are still the main source of their lesson plans because they have to prepare their students for exams (Chiu, 1997). For this reason, though it is difficult, it is still important that teachers assess and select textbooks which follow the Curriculum Guidelines and are suitable for their students’ learning needs.. 2.1.3.5 Teaching Strategies According to the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines, the communicative approach, focusing on the speaking and listening language skills, plays the chief role in 17.

(28) English teaching practices (Ministry of Education, 2006). Consequently, teachers should cultivate students’ English proficiency through interactive practices such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and cooperative learning (Huang, 2003; Huang et al., 2004; Liang, 2002). However, many teachers have come to face strenuous challenges when selecting activities suitable for the levels of all students in a large multilevel class (Chen, 2003; Huang, 2003; Y. -W. Lin, 2003). Y. W. Lin’s (2003) study on the English teaching situation in Pin-Tung elementary schools showed that the teachers tried to implement student-centered approaches such as CLT in their classrooms but were soon discouraged on account of students’ varied proficiency, limited class time, and difficulty in classroom management. Besides difficulty in classroom management, the washback effect also has great influence on teachers’ teaching strategies in large multilevel classes (Huang et al., 2004; Liu, 2004). In Taiwan, due to the test-oriented culture as well as parental expectations, teachers are expected to prepare their students for numerous exams and to help them achieve high test grades. Under this pressure, teachers often plan their lessons focusing on the English textbooks selected by the school. As for classroom practices, they tend to adopt activities which are more teacher-centered, textbook-based, and test-oriented rather than the recommended communicative activities (Li, 1998; Liu, 2004).. 2.1.3.6 Teaching and Assessment In Taiwan, English teachers are encouraged to design multiple classroom assessments to evaluate students’ learning achievements according to their diversified proficiency and working efforts (Ministry of Education, 2006). However, teachers reported that setbacks, such as large class sizes, multileveled students, time limitation, and shortage of effective assessment instruments, baffled them from implementing 18.

(29) those assessment strategies in the class (Chen, 2003; Hsu, 2005; Lu, 2003). Teachers’ deficiencies in employing multiple classroom assessment methods, according to Hess (2001), might hinder students’ overall learning. For example, if teachers only assess students’ learning achievements based on their test scores, students with high proficiency may suffer from teachers’ high expectations, and students with low proficiency might not be encouraged to try harder and achieve better learning achievements. Hence, to minimize such setbacks, many researchers suggested to implement multi-component frameworks in assessing students in large multilevel classes, such as classroom participation and portfolios (Chapman & King, 2005; Hsu, 2003).. 2.1.4 Summary of the Section As mentioned in the previous section, every class is multilevel and there are both advantages and challenges in teaching large multilevel classes (Balliro, 1997; Hallam & Ireson, 2005; Hess, 2001). However, when instructing a class of students with diverse English proficiency, teachers tend to experience more teaching difficulties than benefits, namely, large class sizes, students’ individual differences, inadequate teaching materials, ineffective teaching strategies, and inadequate assessment measures. When teaching such classes, teachers should adopt classroom practices which meet students’ learning needs and also maintain students’ learning motivation and interests. As Reid et al. (1983) noted, teachers’ different interpretations about teaching large multilevel classes are related to their personality and beliefs in teaching. Some English teachers might think teaching large multilevel classes is challenging but at the same time very stimulating. On the contrary, other teachers may regard teaching large multilevel classes as stressful and frustrating (Y. C. Chen, 2004). In hope to achieve 19.

(30) the goals of the Nine-year Integrated Curriculum Guidelines and to decrease the discrepancy of students’ English proficiency levels; this study aims to explore EFL elementary school teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching large multilevel classes.. 2.2 Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices 2.2.1 The Nature of Teachers’ Beliefs Teachers’ beliefs will influence their planning of classroom practices; accordingly, the effectiveness of teachers’ classroom activities will affect students’ learning outcome (Borg, 2003; Golombek, 1998; Woods, 1996). Hence, we must first understand the nature of teachers’ beliefs and how they are developed to help EFL teachers teach English more effectively in large multilevel classes. This section describes the nature of teachers’ beliefs, significance of teachers’ beliefs on their practices, and the factors affecting teachers’ beliefs and practices.. 2.2.1.1 Definitions of Teachers’ Beliefs In the past two decades, educational researches on teachers’ beliefs have been widely discussed within various conceptions (Borg, 1999; Burns, 2001; Golombek, 1998; Johnson, 2001; Richards, 1998; Woods, 1996). These studies have used multiple terms in their literature to characterize the concept of teacher beliefs, such as teacher cognitions, teacher perspectives, teachers’ “beliefs, assumption, and knowledge” (BAK) (Woods, 1996, p. 185), and teachers’ “personal practical knowledge” (PPK) (Golombek, 1998, p. 448). Notwithstanding the different terminologies, studies on teachers’ beliefs have contributed the conception that teachers’ beliefs are “personally relevant, situational, oriented toward practice, dialectical, and dynamic as well as moralistic, emotional, and consequential” (Golombek, 1998, p. 452). 20.

(31) Nespor (1987) noted that teachers’ beliefs developed through personal and affective experiences, which are sometimes inflexible for change. Agreeing with Nespor, Borg (1999) described teachers’ beliefs in language teaching as a set of personally-defined, practically-oriented understandings of teaching and learning which exert a significant influence on instructional decisions. He specially noted that teachers’ beliefs, developed from their prior language learning experiences, were mostly resistant to change even if they were confronted with contradictory evidence. Richards (1998) shared a similar view with Borg and delineated teachers’ beliefs as a structured set of principles that are derived from teachers’ learning experiences, school practices, personalities, teaching programs, reading and other sources. Besides teachers’ prior learning experiences, teachers’ beliefs are also changed and redirected by teachers’ experiences in teaching (Borg, 1999; Dewey, 1938; Golombek, 1998; Johnson, 2001; Richards & Lockhart, 2000). Based on Dewey’s (1938) theory of the continuity of experience, Golombek (1998) substituted the term “teachers’ beliefs” with “personal practical knowledge” (PPK) (p. 448) to emphasize how teachers’ knowledge and beliefs in teaching are “reshaped by the reconstruction of their experiences” (p. 448). Teachers’ PPK, according to Golombek, was categorized into four interactive parts: knowledge of self, knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of instruction, and knowledge of context. Furthermore, Golombek shed light on the relations of teachers’ beliefs and their teaching practices in a more holistic matter, considering all possible elements, such as moral, affective, and consequential, that may evolve and influence teachers’ decisions in developing classroom practices, personal practical knowledge informs practice, first, in that it guides teachers’ sense-making processes; that is, as part of a teacher’s interpretive framework, it filters experience so that teachers reconstruct it and respond to the exigencies of a teaching situation. Second, it informs practice by giving physical form to practice; it 21.

(32) is teachers’ knowledge in action. Because teachers use this knowledge in response to a particular context, each context reshapes that knowledge. In this way, L2 teachers’ personal practical knowledge shapes and is shaped by understandings of teaching and learning (Golombek, 1998, p. 459).. The concept of teachers’ beliefs was also extended by Woods (1996). Woods accentuated the influence contextual factors have on redirecting teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices. Woods suggested that teachers interpret their teaching situation based on a network of “beliefs, assumptions and knowledge” (BAK) (p. 185). Teachers’ BAK is dynamic and is negotiated with both teachers’ experience and their teaching contexts. Similarly, Burns (2001) explored the intercontextuality of teachers’ thinking and beliefs. Burns categorized teachers’ beliefs about the classroom into three contextual levels, namely institutional focus, classroom focus, and instructional focus. These interactions in the classroom will influence the teachers’ original beliefs in teaching and learning, and will reconstruct their beliefs and classroom practices according to both the needs of the students and the constraints of various contextual factors. Burns noted that the natures of teachers’ beliefs are “immensely complex and emerged from interrelated contexts, networks and levels of thinking” (p. 157). Therefore, teachers have different beliefs and teaching priorities in accordance with their experiences and teaching contexts, and teachers may choose to implement diverse classroom practices to achieve specific teaching objectives (Burns, 2001). To sum up, teachers’ beliefs are personal, changeable, and contextual-sensitive (Borg, 1999; Burns, 2001; Golombek, 1998; Johnson, 2001; Woods, 1996). In other words, teachers’ beliefs are established not merely by their prior learning experiences but are also modified and reconstructed based on their teaching experiences and teaching contexts.. 22.

(33) 2.2.1.2 Experienced Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices Kennedy (1996) noted that “Real and effective change in teachers’ practices can only occur through change in their beliefs...[beliefs shape] the way teachers behave” (cited from Peacock, 2001). That is to say, experienced teachers tend to make different types of decisions according to their teaching contexts and situations (Tsui, 2003). Researches in teachers’ beliefs have explored in terms of how static beliefs held by teachers can reshape and reconstruct through experience and reflective thinking. Tsui (2003) conducted an in-depth cross-case analysis of four ESL teachers working in the same Hong Kong secondary school, and explored why the teachers differed in their stages of professional development. She explained that the critical difference between expert/experienced and novice teachers was not verified by their teaching experiences, but their development of teaching knowledge, which is how the “teachers relate to their specific contexts of work” (p.276) and make sense of their work as teachers. Moreover, Tsui argued that the critical difference between expert/experienced and novice teachers is due to their teaching experiences, but lies in their ability to engage in conscious reflection and deliberation on their teaching practices. In other words, experiences teachers tend to integrate the different contextual aspects of their knowledge into their teaching practices, allowing them to be more efficient in processing information in the classroom. Tsui (2003) pointed out the nature of teaching as “complex, uncertain, and multifaceted” (p.265). How well the teachers relate their teaching beliefs and knowledge to their specific working context determines their expertise in teaching. In summary, experienced teachers try to understand the contextual factors in their teaching and take them into consideration when planning the lesson (Tsui, 2003). Experienced teachers change their practices to fit the needs of their students, and try to overcome the limitations of the teaching context. Also, they tend to develop a 23.

(34) network of strategies and routines to deal with the unpredictable events that may happen in the classroom and facilitate the process of their teaching. Moreover, in order to achieve effective teaching results, experienced teachers constantly monitor, elaborate, and make interactive decisions in their process of instructing. In the present study, to conceive how experienced teachers plan classroom practices for large multilevel classes and to promote students’ learning, the researcher explored experienced EFL elementary school teachers’ beliefs in teaching and identified effective classroom practices teachers develop when instructing large multilevel classes.. 2.2.2 Significance of Teachers’ Beliefs on Their Practices As mentioned, teachers’ beliefs in teaching are episodic and affective. They are formed by various factors other than their prior experiences as learners (Nespor, 1987; Pajars, 1992). Teaching programs, reference readings, personal teaching experiences, and also life experiences outside the classroom can influence teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching (Nespor, 1987). Since teachers’ beliefs play a substantial role in shaping classroom practices, it is important to understand how teachers’ beliefs influence their teaching practices when teaching large multilevel classes (Nien, 2002; Pajars, 1992). A considerable amount of researches supported that teachers’ beliefs play a crucial role in the decision-making of classroom practices (Bailey et al., 2001). Bailey et al. (2001) noted that teaching is very similar to the concept of “parenting” (p. 15). Parents tend to raise their children the way they were brought up. Likewise, teachers are likely to teach the way they were taught (Bailey et al., 2001). As different teachers have different learning experiences, they will eventually come up with diverse teaching principles and develop a personalized set of preferred classroom practices 24.

(35) (Bailey et al., 2001; Bell, 2005). In addition to Bailey et al. (2001), Woods (1996) also stated that teaching is a decision-making process. Teachers’ BAK influences how teachers conceive the events in their teaching; teachers’ BAK also plays a crucial role in the teaching decisions they make. Similar to Woods, Archer (2000) stressed that experienced teachers may adopt resembling classroom practices to achieve effective teaching. In other words, the same teaching principles may be presented by different teachers through diverse classroom activities (Woods, 1996). Though varied classroom practices were adopted, their goal was the same— to achieve students’ maximum learning. In order to enhance students’ learning, teachers have to promote effective teaching practices in the classroom (Bell, 2005; Hamachek, 1999). However, some researches on the interrelationship between teachers’ beliefs and practices have found that teachers may not be able to implement their teaching beliefs into their classroom practices due to personal or contextual factors (Bell, 2005; Johnson, 2001; Woods, 1996). Possible factors that may influence teachers’ beliefs and practices will be discussed in detail in the following section.. 2.2.3 Factors Affecting Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices Lazaraton and Ishisara (2005) noted that effective teaching is practiced when teachers’ beliefs and their teaching objectives are clearly displayed in their classroom practices. Both internal factors such as teachers’ beliefs and personalities, and external factors such as the education environment influence how teachers present their classroom practices (Johnson, 2001; Smith, 2001; Richards & Lockhart, 2000; Tsui, 2003; Woods, 1996). Smith (2001) investigated how nine experienced teachers approached their decision making in the adult classroom. The teachers were ESL teachers, all with more than eight years of teaching experience, working in three adult 25.

(36) education institutes in the United States. In the result of her study, Smith identified “teacher characteristics” and “context factors” (p. 197) as two main factors affecting teachers’ beliefs and decision-making. According to Smith (2001), “teacher characteristics” refer to teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, and experience in both language teaching and learning. These characteristics and personally held beliefs will influence their decisions for classroom practices. Woods (1996) also stressed that teachers are inclined to enhance professional development by constantly monitoring, elaborating, and developing their teaching strategies along with their experiences. Agreeing with Woods, Tsui (2003) also reported that experienced teachers tend to develop a more sufficient knowledge of teaching strategies and routines to implement in the classroom, which enables them to perform effective teaching more smoothly (Tsui, 2003). Other than teacher characteristics, the second factor that affects experienced teachers’ beliefs and decision-making in teaching, as identified by Smith (2001), was “context factors.” Context factors mainly referred to the factors besides teachers themselves, such as students’ characteristics and multilevel proficiency, as well as the education environment, administrative requirements, limited class time, and pressure from the school and parents, etc. Recently, research on teachers’ beliefs and practices are active in developing new and effective teaching strategies that are feasible in their local contexts (Chiang, 2006; Li, 1998). Chiang’s (2006) study on the interactive decision-making of an EFL teacher showed how the teacher mended his beliefs and developed classroom practices considering the contextual realities of the teaching environment. Three contextual factors influencing the teacher’s classroom practices were identified: (1) knowledge of students, (2) classroom strategies, and (3) on-going assessment and reflection. The first contextual factor affecting the teachers’ classroom practices was 26.

(37) his knowledge of the students. The teacher believed that the more the classroom practices are related to the students’ interests and life experiences, the more effective students’ learning accomplishments will be. Second, various classroom strategies were adopted by the teacher to motivate students’ learning. The teacher modified his classroom practices in response to the students’ needs. Finally, the teacher also planned and refined the classroom practices based on his on-going judgment of the activities suitable for the particular teaching context. Chiang concluded that EFL teachers should learn to promote their knowledge of their students and of the teaching context in order to “accommodate students’ needs and tailor activities to the specific classroom context” (Chiang, 2006, p. 39). Besides the two factors stressed by Smith (2001), other related studies further addressed that unexpected factors in the teaching process also result in teachers’ improvisational teaching (Bailey, 1996; Chiang, 2006; Richards, 1998; Woods, 1996). Improvisational teaching, or interactive decision-making, is when the teachers choose to make on-the-spot decisions in class, departing from their prior lesson plans (Richards, 1998). Bailey (1996) conducted a study to explore why teachers depart from their lesson plans when teaching. Seven experienced ESL teachers working in the Intensive ESL Program at the Monterey Institute of International Studies were asked to justify their reasons for their change of classroom practices during class. Through interviews and classroom observations, Bailey concluded six main reasons that have caused teachers to perform improvisational teaching in the class: (1) to serve the common good, which means, to benefit students’ overall learning, teachers may choose to abandon their preplanned lessons and spend more time on responding to the questions students posed during class; (2) to teach to the moment, which means teachers depart from their lesson plans and teach students something they think are 27.

(38) more important; (3) to further the lesson, which means teachers change the process of their lessons to help students achieve more effective learning; (4) to accommodate students’ learning styles, which means teachers change and accommodate their classroom practices based on their students’ learning styles and needs; (5) to promote students’ involvement, which means during the teaching, teachers may choose to eliminate a portion of the lesson plan and allow their students to share personals thoughts and opinions in class; and also (6) to distribute the wealth, which means teachers give low-achievers the same opportunities to participate in the classroom activities. Finally, Bailey’s study showed that teaching is a dynamic process. Teachers, especially experienced teachers, constantly make interactive decisions before, during, and after the class, according to the students’ needs and the limitation of the contexts (Bailey, 1996; Richards, 1998; Richards & Lockhart, 2000; Rosenfeld & Rosenfeld, 2004). In summary, factors, both internal and external, affect teachers’ beliefs and urge them to make changes in their classroom practices when encountering inconsistency with what actually happens in the classroom (Bailey, 1996; Richards, 1998; Woods, 1996). To deal with the unpredictable events that m ㎏ ay occur during teaching, teachers are encouraged to develop a network of teaching strategies and routines to facilitate the teaching process (Tsui, 2003).. 2.2.4 Summary of the Section Teachers are “active, thinking-decision makers who make instructional choices by drawing on complex, practically-oriented, personalized, and context-sensitive networks of knowledge, thoughts and beliefs” (Borg, 2003, p. 81). To understand teachers’ classroom practices in a more holistic way, it is important to grasp teachers’ beliefs in teaching and the origins of the factors that mold such beliefs. 28.

(39) In Taiwan, teaching large multilevel classes has been one of the main factors that impede teachers from practicing effective teaching (Y. M. Chiang, 2003; Chung & Hsu, 2005; Hsieh, 2002; Kou, 2007). In order to promote effective teaching in large multilevel classes, this study intended to identify the provoking contextual factors impinging upon the experienced EFL teachers’ teaching processes and to introduce effective teaching strategies demonstrated by the teachers in different contexts.. 2.3 Research on Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices Many studies have shown that teachers’ classroom practices are influenced by teachers’ personal beliefs in teaching, students’ needs, various contextual factors, and other interacting factors (Johnson, 2001; Smith, 2001; Tsui, 2003; Woods, 1996). A wide range of researches exploring the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices have been conducted, extending from qualitative case studies, to quantitative large scale surveys (Breen et al., 2001; Golombek, 1998). These researches have generally agreed that teachers’ beliefs have major influences on their decisions for classroom practices and also on students’ learning (Bailey, 1996; Y. M. Chiang, 2006; Johnson, 2001; Pajars, 1992; Richards, 1998; Smith, 1996; Tsui, 2003; Woods, 1996).. 2.3.1 Research on Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in Taiwan Recently, researchers in Taiwan have also been active in exploring the relations between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom (Kou, 2007; Lai, 2004 ). Lai (2004) investigated a group of EFL high school teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching grammar in Taiwan through the use of questionnaires and follow-up interviews. The study showed that teachers’ beliefs and practices were influenced by formal training, 29.