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第四章、 巴黎協定下的談判策略分析: 調適行動 及損失與損害
第一節、 小島嶼國家聯盟立場與談判歷程
在每年參與 COP 會議要求世界各國減緩已達到 1.5°C 目標的同時，小島嶼 發展中國家內每天都面臨著氣候變遷日漸加劇所帶來影響。學者 Martin Bush 指 出即便溫室氣體排放量降為零，小島嶼發展中國家的貢獻之於全球排放量可說 是無關痛癢，並認為相較於減緩計畫，調適行動及無法透過調適解決的損失與 損害議題對小島嶼國家面對氣候變遷的內部影響更加重要。191本節蒐集整理 AOSIS 自 2011 年至 2015 年 UNFCCC 締約國會議的高級別會議、ADP、SBI 等 會議中的立場聲明以及各學者、研究單位針對聯盟談判代表的訪問內容及談判 會議紀錄，歸納出其所強調的核心訴求。
調適行動議題因發展中國家在調適策略與其資金的需求，要求已開發國家 提供協助而在氣候變遷多邊談判早期進入談判議程中。學者 Harjeet Singh 及 Indrajit Bose 指出即便 IPCC 以提供充足的科學報告佐證調適的急迫性，因已開 發國家不願意提供資金執行調適計畫，導致國際氣候談判場域中仍多聚焦是否 具調適的需要與採何種方法調適，而非實際執行調適計畫。192從 1992 年至 2000 年間的調適談判多聚焦調適行動的方法與資金來源安排，並在 COP13 峇 里島路線圖下將調適行動列為 AWG-LCA 的眾多議程之一193；2001 至 2007 年 間為執行調適行動，著手設立相關計劃與組織，包含 NAPAs194 、協助指導及
191 Martin J. Bush, Climate Change Adaptation in Small Island Developing States, (Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2018), 75.
192 Ibid., 9.
193 IISD, “Summary of the thirteenth conference of parties to the UN framework convention on climate change and third meeting of parties to the Kyoto protocol: 3-15 December 2007,” Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), 18 December 2007, https://enb.iisd.org/vol12/enb12354e.html, (16 September 2020).
194 UNFCCC, “National Adaptation Programmes of Action”, December 2001,
https://unfccc.int/topics/resilience/workstreams/national-adaptation-programmes-of-action/introduction,(3 June 2020).
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員會 (Adaptation Committee)197及設定中長程調適目標的國家調適計畫 (National Adaptation Plan, NAP)198等。199損失與損害議題則在初期被視為調適行動的子議題之一，自 1990 年代起由
195 UNFCCC, “Least Developed Countries Expert Group”, December 2001, https://unfccc.int/Adaptation-Fund, (3 June 2020).
196 UNFCCC, “Cancun Adaptation Framework”, December 2010,
https://unfccc.int/process/conferences/pastconferences/cancun-climate-change-conference-november-2010/statements-and-resources/Agreements, (4 June 2020).
197 UNFCCC, “Adaptation Committee.”
198 UNFCCC, “National Adaptation Plans”, December 2010, https://unfccc.int/topics/adaptation-and-resilience/workstreams/national-adaptation-plans, (1 July 2020).
199 Harjeet Singh and Indrajit Bose, History and Politics of Climate Change Adaptation at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 9-13.
200 INC, “Vanuatu: Draft annex relating to Article 23 (Insurance) for inclusion in the revised single text on elements relating to mechanisms (A/AC.237/WG.II/Misc.13) submitted by the Co-Chairmen of Working Group II,” A/AC.237/WG.II/Misc.13, (17 December 1991),
https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/a/wg2crp08.pdf, (20 October 2020).
201 Harjeet Singh and Indrajit Bose, History and Politics of Climate Change Adaptation at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 11.
202 Maxine Burkett, “Reading between the red lines: Loss and Damage and the Paris outcome,” 3-4.
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識之前，AOSIS 須先與其他發展中國家達成對調適行動的共識，包含減緩與調 適行動的相同重要地位，對發展中國家的特殊情形與脆弱性的認可與接受的延 續，增加調適行動所需的資訊流通透明度，及當小島嶼國家到達面對氣候變遷 的能力極限時，需認知到損失與損害的真實存在。203在 L&D 議題則在 2011-2015 年間經歷了激烈的討論， L&D 議題談判因各國發展程度差異產生不同立 場，在意見分歧的情況下，多數論述圍繞著以下 3 點做討論。204
1. 共同分攤管理氣候影響、L&D 風險與賠償規劃的費用；
2. 意識到人類與自然系統對氣候變遷的敏感度與侷限並採取嚴格的氣候 減緩政策以限制升溫幅度在 1.5 °C 或 2 °C；
3. 支持進一步降低風險與風險管理的干預措施以增強氣候變遷調適行動 與建立氣候韌性。
即便談判過程相當膠著，小島嶼國家仍積極推動設立 L&D 機制，並爭取進入 新的協定中。205
調適行動基於各國家天然資源、人口條件、社會經濟發展狀況等的差異而 尤其需要科技資訊、在地經驗與政策等各層級的交流，學者 Anju Sharma 與 Sara Venturini 所整理 2001-2015 年公約下為調適行動所設立的機構與工作流，
包含初期為界定 LDCs 急切調適需求的 NAPAs 及協助指導及執行 NAPAs 的 LEG，到中長程調適目標的漸進執行策略與落實計畫的 NAP 進程、科技與經驗 資訊分享的工作流如調適通訊 (Adaptation Communications)、奈洛比氣候變化 之衝擊脆弱性與調適工作計畫及促進上述工作流以強化調適相關區域、次區 域、國家、國際組織及網絡交流與串聯的調適委員會。此外，2016-2020 年間尋 求強化韌性、降低脆弱性與深入了解調適行動的調適相關技術審查程序
203 Pasha Carruthers and others, “Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS),” in Negotiating climate change adaptation: The Common position of the Group of 77 and China, ed. María del Pilar Bueno Rubial and Linda Siegele, (Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2020), 42.
204 Reinhard Mechler and others, “Science for Loss and Damage. Findings
and Propositions,” in Loss and damage from climate change : concepts, methods and policy options, Reinhard Mechler and others, (Cham : Springer International Publishing 2019), 9-10.
205 Ibid., 9-11.
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(Technical examination process on adaptation, TEP-A)及針對未來相關調適行動透 明度調查的 2 年期透明度報告 (Biennial transparency reports, BTRs)等都是在巴 黎會議後能持續確保調適行動有效運作的維繫網絡，如下表。
表 4-1 UNFCCC 調適機構與工作流列表
資料來源: Anju Sharma and Sara Venturini, Pocket Guide to Adaptation under the UNFCCC, (Oxford: European Capacity Building Initiative, 2019), 24.
相較於 2001 年初的零星聲明，經過多次會議的討論，2011 年 G77+China 提出 NAP 應在國內層級、具彈性且由國家推動的概念後，小島嶼國家也開始在
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206 Pasha Carruthers and others, “Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)”, in Negotiating climate change adaptation: The Common position of the Group of 77 and China, 42.
207 Dessima Williams, “Statement delivered by Grenada on behalf of the the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) made at the opening of the High-Level Segment at COP 17/CMP 7,” (speech, UNFCCC COP17, Durban, 6 December 2011).
208 Anju Sharma and Sara Venturini, Pocket guide to adaptation under the UNFCCC, (Oxford: European Capacity Building Initiative, 2019), 21-23.
209 Alliance of Small Island States, “Submission by Grenada on behalf of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS): Views on the work programme to consider approaches to address loss and damage,”
Submission to the SBI34, Bonn, February 2011,
https://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/cancun_adaptation_framework/application/pdf/aosis_28_february _2011.pdf, (11 Janurary 2021).
210 IISD, “SB34 and AWG highlights: Thursday, 9 June 2011,” Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), 10 June 2011, 10, http://www.iisd.ca/climate/sb34/, (16 November 2020).
211 Elisa Calliari, “Loss and damage: a critical discourse analysis of Parties’ positions in climate change negotiations,” Journal of Risk Research, 21, no. 6, 733.
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行動報告 (The State of Adaptation under the UNFCCC)216。在 L&D 議題上，2012 年 9 月代表 AOSIS 的諾魯提出的機制草案中，強調須在公約下設立一個處理氣 候變遷負面影響的國際機制。且 AOSIS 連同非洲集團與 LDCs 都提出賠償212 UNFCCC, “Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010,” FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1 (15 March 2011), para 27-28,
https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf, (10 August 2020).
213 UNFCCC, “Report of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation on its
thirty-fourth session, held in Bonn from 6 to 17 June 2011”, FCCC/SBI/2011/7, (12 August 2011), para 109-112, https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2011/sbi/eng/07.pdf, (10 August 2020).
214 IISD, “Bangkok climate change talks highlights: Thursday, 30 August 2012,” Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), 31 August 2012, http://www.iisd.ca/climate/ccwg17i/, (26 November 2020).
215 UNFCCC Adaptation Committee, 25 Years of Adaptation: under the UNFCCC, 20.
216 UNFCCC Adaptation Committee, The State of Adaptation under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2013 Thematic Report, (Bonn.: UNFCCC, 2014),
https://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/cancun_adaptation_framework/adaptation_committee/applicatio n/pdf/ac_2013_report_low_res.pdf, (2 July 2020).
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(Insurance)，回復與賠償 (Rehabilitation and compensation)及風險管理 (Risk management)。217然而部分已開發國家，如美國，拒絕以歷來排放作為賠償的理217 Malia Talakai, “AOSIS views on loss and damage,” report, SIDS Expert meeting on loss and damage, Barbados, 9-11 October 2012,
http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/cancun_adaptation_framework/loss_and_damage/application/pdf/
aosis_session_1_barbados_2012.pdf, (16 October 2020).
218 Ibid., 244.
219 UNFCCC, “Report of the Conference of the Parties on its eighteenth session, held in Doha from 26 November to 8 December 2012,” FCCC/CP/ 2012/8/Add.1 (28 February 2013), para 9-10,
https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2012/cop18/eng/08a01.pdf#page=19, (3 July 2020).
220 Ibid., para 7.
221 IISD, “Warsaw highlights: Monday, 11, November 2013,” Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), 12 November 2013, http://www.iisd.ca/climate/cop19/enb/, (4 November 2020).
222 Marlene Moses, “Statement delivered by Nauru on behalf of the The Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) made at the SBI Opening Plenary,” (speech, UNFCCC SBI 39, Warsaw, 11 November 2013).
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Alliance of Latin America and the Caribbean, AILAC)支持。224但此議題受到 AOSIS 部分亞太區域島國反對，認為基於各國發展程度差異，全球調適目標將 過於籠統，形同虛設。225 此提議也在受到澳大利亞、挪威、美國等國批評受技 術限制無法達成後，由 ADP 聯合主席 Kishan Kumarsingh 邀請非洲集團與美國 等反對方就此草案進行磋商。226 L&D 議題上，AOSIS 則在會議中強調小島嶼LDCs、AOSIS 及多數開發中國家達成共識，由 G77+China 提出以 L&D 機制協 同減緩及調適作為氣候變遷議題的三大主軸的草案，受到已開發國家的大力阻 撓，並在談判末期達到高峰，使 G77+China 代表在會議中離席表示抗議。229 最終 COP19 會議達成共識，認知到部分源於氣候變遷影響的 L&D 情形無法以
223 Nina Hall and Åsa Persson, “Global Climate Adaptation Governance: Why Is It Not Legally Binding?” 551-552.
224 Harjeet Singh and others, Global Goal on Adaptation: From Concept to Practice, (Johannesburg, Geneva, Gland: ActionAid International, CARE International, WWF-Singapore, 2016), 7-8.
225 Nina Hall and Åsa Persson, “Global Climate Adaptation Governance: Why Is It Not Legally Binding?,” 551-552.
226 IISD, “Warsaw highlights: Friday, 15 November 2013,” Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), 16 November 2013, http://www.iisd.ca/climate/cop19/enb/, (11 September 2020).
227 Ibid., 2.
228 Alliance of Small Island States, “Submission of Nauru on behalf of the Alliance of Small Island States: Views and information on elements of an international mechanism to address loss and damage from the adverse effects of climate change,” Submission to Conference of the Parties, Nineteenth session, Warsaw, 11–23 November 2013, (12 November 2013), 2.
229 Karen Elizabeth McNamara, “Exploring loss and damage at the international climate change talks,”
International journal of disaster risk science 5 (2014): 245.
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提各國交流承諾的方式應以國家通訊 (National Communications, NatCom)及其兩 年更新一次的更新報告為例，強調應建立在現有模式上以免為發展中國家添增 負擔。235 此外，大會決定在 2015 至 2020 期間持續對與調適行動、健康與永續 發展相關的可能減緩方式進行技術審查。236 COP20 訂定利馬氣候行動呼籲（Lima Call for Climate Action）237，要求 2015 年新協定談判草案中應平衡囊括 減緩、調適、資金、技術開發與轉移、能力建置與氣候行動與支持的透明度，
包含建立全球調適行動整體目標、增加由已開發國家所提供的調適資金、強化 NDCs 中調適需求與實質行動的溝通管道、強化調適制度安排，包含執行附屬
230 UNFCCC, “Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Nineteenth Session, Warsaw, 11–23 November 2013, Addendum,” FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1, (January 2014), decision 2,
https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2013/cop19/eng/10a01.pdf#page=6, (12 November 2020).
231 UNFCCC, “The Executive Committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage,” November 2013, https://unfccc.int/wim-excom, (13 October 2020).
232 UNFCCC, “Report of the Conference of the Parties on its nineteenth session, held in Warsaw from 11 to 23 November 2013”, FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1 (January 2014), 1(b),
https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2013/cop19/eng/10a01.pdf#page=3, (7 July 2020).
233 UNFCCC, “Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Nineteenth Session, Warsaw, 11–23 November 2013, Addendum,” decision 2.
234 UNFCCC, “Lima Call for climate action”, para 12.
235 IISD, “Lima highlights: Wednesday, 3 December 2014,” Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), 4 December 2014, http://www.iisd.ca/climate/cop20/enb/, (6 November 2020).
236 Ibid., para 19.
237 UNFCCC, “Lima Call for climate action,” December 2014,
http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/lima_dec_2014/application/pdf/auv_cop20_lima_call_for_climate_ac tion.pdf, (8 July 2020), para 13.
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238 UNFCCC, “Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twentieth session, held in Lima from 1 to 14 December 2014,” FCCC/CP/2014/10/Add.1, (2 February 2015),
https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2014/cop20/eng/10a01.pdf#page=2%22, (8 July 2020).
239 Anju Sharma and Sara Venturini, Pocket guide to adaptation under the UNFCCC, 23.
240 IISD, “Summary of the Lima climate change conference: 1-14 December 2014,” Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), 16 December 2014, http://www.iisd.ca/climate/cop20/enb/, (13 November 2020).
241 UNFCCC, “Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts,” FCCC/CP/2014/10/Add.2, (13 December 2014), para 13,
https://unfccc.int/files/bodies/election_and_membership/application/pdf/decision_2_cp20_loss_and _damage_committee.pdf, (5 October 2020).
242 UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and Subsidiary Body for Implementation, “Report of the Executive Committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts*,” FCCC/SB/2014/4, (24 October 2014) Annex II, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/2014/sb/eng/04.pdf, (5 October 2020).
243 Maxine Burkett, “Reading between the red lines: Loss and Damage and the Paris outcome,” 4-5.
244 Pasha Carruthers and others, “Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS),” in Negotiating climate change adaptation: The Common position of the Group of 77 and China, 44.
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方意見，雖 AOSIS 與其他發展中國家對調適行動的要求有所不同，但已可看出 大會對於巴黎協定中第七條關於調適行動的雛型，如調適行動的全球目標、巴 黎協定整體目標與調適行動的連結、調適行動的執行準則及調適行動需求及全 球普遍優先事項溝通步驟等。245 11 月的 ADP 會議中締約國達成共識，認為 2015 年新協定應反映出調適行動的急迫性並向國際機構、捐助國及私部門傳達
方意見，雖 AOSIS 與其他發展中國家對調適行動的要求有所不同，但已可看出 大會對於巴黎協定中第七條關於調適行動的雛型，如調適行動的全球目標、巴 黎協定整體目標與調適行動的連結、調適行動的執行準則及調適行動需求及全 球普遍優先事項溝通步驟等。245 11 月的 ADP 會議中締約國達成共識，認為 2015 年新協定應反映出調適行動的急迫性並向國際機構、捐助國及私部門傳達