第五章 綜合討論
第三節 臨床應用
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
向較高，以及該部件分離作業中無關動作的重演得分與無意義物體動作得分達相 關，是因為兩種動作分別作用於外表不具空間連續性的兩個物體上，察覺兩個分 離物體中的目標動作或許較為困難，導致自閉症類兒童在部件分離作業中的有關 動作重演表現較佳；為了釐清在兩個分離物體中知覺動作的目標是否比在兩個相 連物體中困難，未來研究或許能納入分別作用於兩個分離物體上的無意義物體動 作，檢驗同時呈現兩個缺乏目標的動作是否能提升自閉症類兒童動作重演的表 現，才能與部件分離作業中的有關動作與無關動作研究結果作對照。
另一個本研究設計可以更完美的地方是無意義物體動作作業。由於無意義物 體動作作業分為單一物體作業與結合物體作業，各別由三種物體情境所組成，這 三種物體情境之間應該達到高相關，才能反映研究的構念，這是內部一致性信度 的缺失。另一方面，無意義物體動作作業中的動作仍具有部分的物體慣用效應，
像是在桌面上拿方塊以水平方向推鉛筆筆桿，並沒有排除鉛筆筆桿在桌面上水平 滾動的物體效應，可能無法完全符合研究的構念，這是作業設計中效度的缺失。
未來研究或許須進一步設計無意義物體動作作業的各個物體情境，以作為信效度 皆佳的實驗材料。
整體而言，我們的研究須要仔細配對一般發展兒童的生理年齡與心理年齡，
選擇更能適度引發自閉症類兒童興趣的酬賞物，納入分別作用於兩個分離物體上 的無意義物體動作情境，以及謹慎修訂無意義物體作業的信效度。然而，本研究 的結果仍對於自閉症類兒童在重演動作的障礙提出新證據，這有利於在未來臨床 上形成對於自閉症類兒童心理病理的早期療育想法。
第三節 臨床應用
首先，自閉症類兒童在部件相連作業中重演的有關動作較少，可能是部件的 空間連接性導致自閉症類兒童抑制無關動作較困難，較不易將注意力轉移至有關 動作的重演，於是有關動作得分較低。若部件的空間連接性會影響自閉症類兒童 在重演有關動作與無關動作的注意力轉移，在部件分離作業中重演有關動作的表
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
現沒有較另二組差，或許將示範的動作元素分散在沒有互相接觸的物體脈絡上，
對於加強自閉症類兒童重演有關動作的表現會有幫助。
其次，無意義物體動作與物體提供的功能效應不符，自閉症類兒童重演的無 意義物體動作表現較差，可能是抑制已形成的習慣有困難，導致自閉症類兒童較 少重演與過去習慣不符的動作。若對於過去慣用動作的抑制困難會限制自閉症類 兒童嘗試其他的可能性，或許須要在教導的過程中適時打斷自閉症類兒童習以為 常的慣例，一步步培養對於事物或程序轉換的彈性。
另一方面，自閉症類兒童並非無法區辨無關動作、有關動作與無意義物體動 作三者的不同，而是只有在有關動作與無意義物體動作有重演困難，兩種動作的 表現有相關，而重演無關動作沒有困難，這或許表示自閉症類兒童能夠察覺到示 範動作中的目標動作，但是較不易將察覺到的目標動作重演出來，導致自閉症類 兒童重演有關動作與無意義物體動作的表現不及無關動作。如果重演察覺到的目 標動作有困難是自閉症類兒童在社會學習表現上的障礙，也許在互動過程中著重 引發自閉症類兒童重演目標動作的興趣，會是早期療育的課題之一。
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
參考文獻
Aldridge, M. A., Stone, K. R., Sweeney, M. H., & Bower, T. G. R. (2000). Preverbal children with autism understand the intentions of others. Developmental Science, 3, 294–301.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Baker, C. L., Saxe, R., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2009). Action understanding as inverse planning. Cognition, 113, 329–349.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bavelas, J. B., Black, A., Lemery, C. R., & Mullett, J. (1986). “I show how you feel.”
Motor mimicry as a communicative act. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 322-329.
Bekkering, H., Wohlschläger, A., & Gattis, M. (2000). Imitation of gestures in children is goal-directed. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53A, 153–164.
Berument, S. K., Rutter, M., Lord, C., Pickels, A., & Bailey, A. (1999). Autism screening questionnaire: Diagnostic validity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 444-451.
Brugger, A., Lariviere, L. A., Mumme, D. L., & Bushnell, E. W. (2007). Doing the right thing: Infants’ selection of actions to imitate from observed event sequences.
Child Development, 78, 806–824.
Bugnyar, T. & Huber, L. (1997). Push or pull: An experimental study on imitation in marmosets. Animal Behaviour, 54, 817-831.
Byrne, R. W. (1994). The evolution of intelligence. In P. J. B. Slater & T. R. Halliday
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
(Eds.), Behavior and Evolution (pp. 223-265). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Call, J., Carpenter, M. & Tomasello, M. (2005). Copying results and copying actions in the process of social learning: Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 151-163.
Carpenter, M., Uebel, J., & Tomasello, M. (2013). Being mimicked increases
prosocial behavior in 18-month-old infants. Child Development, 84, 1511-1518.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years – Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries, 63, 1-21.
Charman, T., Baron-Cohen, S., Swettenham, J., Baird, G., Cox, A., & Drew, A. (2000).
Testing joint attention, imitation, and play as infancy precursors to language and theory of mind. Cognitive Development, 15, 481-498.
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The Chameleon effect: The
perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910.
Chevallier, C., Kohls,G. Troiani, V., Brodki, E. S., & Schultz, R. T. (2012). The social motivation theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 231-239.
Corsello, C., Hus, V., Pickels, A., Risi, S., Cook, E. H., & Leventhal, B. L., et al.
(2007). Between a ROC and a hard place: Decision making and making decisions about using the SCQ. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 932-940.
Custance, D. M., Whiten, A. & Fredman, T. (1999). Social learning of artificial fruit processing in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of comparative Psychology, 113, 13-23.
Dawson, B. V., & Foss, B. M. (1965). Observational learning in budgerigars. Animal
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Behavior, 13, 470-474.
Dewey, D., Cantell, M., & Crawford, S. (2007). Motor and gestural performance in children with autism spectrum disorders, developmental coordination disorder, and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 246-256.
Dowell, L. R., Mahone, E. M., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2009). Associations of postural knowledge and basic motor skill with dyspraxia in autism: Implication for abnormalities in distributed connectivity and motor learning. Neuropsychology, 23, 563-570.
Galef, B. G., Manzig, L. A. & Field, R. M. (1986). Imitation learning in budgerigars:
Dawson and Foss (1965) revisited. Behavioural Processes, 13, 191-202.
Gergely, G. & Csibra, G. (2006). Sylvia’s recipe: The role of imitation and pedagogy in the transmission of human culture. In N. J. Enfield & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), Roots of Human Sociality: Culture, Cognition, and Human Interaction (pp.
229-255). Oxford: Berg Publishers.
Gergely, G., Nadasdy, Z., Csibra, G., & Biro, S. (1995). Taking the intentional stance at 12 months of age. Cognition, 56, 165-193.
Gleissner, B., Meltzoff, A. N., & Bekkering, H. (2000). Children’s coding of human action: cognitive factors influencing imitation in 3-year-olds. Developmental Science, 3, 405–414.
Hamilton, A. F. (2008). Emulation and mimicry for social interaction: A theoretical approach to imitation in autism. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 101–115.
Hamilton, A. F. (2009). Research review: Goals, intentions and mental states:
challenges for theories of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 881-892.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Hammes, J. G., & Langdell, T. (1981). Precursors of symbol formation and childhood autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder, 11, 331–346.
Heyes, C. M., & Saggerson, A. (2002). Testing for imitative and nonimitative social learning in the budgerigar using a two-object/two-action test. Animal Behavior, 64, 851–859.
Hopper, L. M. (2010). Ghost experiments and the dissection of social learning in humans and animals. Biological Reviews, 85, 685-701.
Horner, V., & Whiten, A. (2005). Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation
switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 164-181.
Huang, C. T. & Charman, T. (2005). Gradations of emulation learning in infants’
imitation of actions on objects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92, 276-302.
Huang, C. T., Heyes, C. M., & Charman, T. (2002). Infants’ behavioral re-enactment of failed attempts: Exploring the roles of emulation learning, stimulus
enhancement, and understanding of intentions. Developmental Psychology, 38, 840–855.
Huang, C. T. (2012). Outcome-based observational learning in human infants. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 126, 139-149.
Huang, C. T. (2013). Contexts of a person’s prior intentions facilitate observational learning in 2.5-year-old children. Cognitive Development, 28, 374-385.
Huber, L., Range, F., Voelkl, B., Szucsich, A., Viranyi, Z. & Miklosi, A. (2009). The evolution of imitation: What do the capacities of non-human animals tell us about the mechanisms of imitation? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364, 2299-2309.
Hume, D. (1739). A treatise of human nature.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Kenward, B., Karlsson, M. & Persson, J. (2010). Over-imitation is better explained by norm learning than by distorted causal learning. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 278, 1239-1246.
Klein, E. D. & Zentall, T. R. (2003). Imitation and affordance learning by pigeons (Columbia livia). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 117, 414-419.
Lakin, J. L., Jefferis, V. E., Cheng, C, M., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). The Chameleon effect as social glue: Evidence for the evolutionary significance of nonconscious mimicry. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 145-162.
Laland, K. N., Atton, N. & Webster, M. M. (2011). From fish to fashion: Experimental and theoretical insights into the evolution of culture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 366, 958-968.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (1999). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). LA: WPS.
Lyons, D. E. (2009). The Rational Continuum of Human Imitation. Mirror Neuron Systems, 2, 77-103.
Lyons, D. E., Damrosch, D. H., Lin, J.,K., Simeone, D. M., & Keil, F. C. (2011). The scope and limits of over-imitation in the transmission of artifact culture.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 366, 1158-1167.
Lyons, D. E., Young, A. G. & Keil, F. C. (2007). The hidden structure of overimitation.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 19751–19756.
McGuigan, N., Whiten, A., Flynn, E. F., & Horner, V. (2007). Imitation of causally necessary versus unnecessary tool use by 3- and 5-year-old children. Cognitive Development, 22, 356-364.
McGuigan, N. & Whien, A. (2009). Emulation and ‘overemulation’ in the social learning of causally opaque versus causally transparent tool use by 23- and 30-month-olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 104, 367-381.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
McGuigan, N., Makinson, J., & Whiten, A. (2011). From over-imitation to
super-copying: Adults imitate causally irrelevant aspects of tool use with higher fidelity than young children. British Journal of Psychology, 102, 1-18.
Meltzoff, A. N. (1985). Immediate and deferred imitation in fourteen- and twenty-four-month-old infants. Child Development, 56, 62-72.
Meltzoff, A. (1995). Understanding the intentions of others: Reenactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 31, 838-850.
Mullen, E. (1995). Mullen Scales of Early Learning. Cranston, RI: T.O.T.A.L. Child, Inc.
Nagell, K., Olguin, R. S. & Tomasello, M. (1993). Processes of social learning in the tool use of chimpanzees (Pantroglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens).
Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 174–186.
Nielsen, M. (2006). Copying actions and copying outcomes: Social learning through the second year. Developmental Psychology, 42, 555-565.
Neilsen, M. & Blank, C. (2011). Imitation in Young Children: When who gets copied is more important than what gets copied. Developmental Psychology, 47,
1050-1053.
Nielsen, M., & Hudry, K. (2010). Over-imitation in children with autism and Down syndrome. Australian Journal of Psychology, 62, 67-74.
Nielsn, M., Moore, C., & Mohamedally, J. (2012). Young children overimitate in third-party contexts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 112, 73-83.
Nielsen, M., & Tomaselli, K. (2009). Over-imitation in the kalahari desert and the origins of human cultural cognition. Psychological Science, 21, 730-736.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: Norton.
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic.
Rogers, S. J., Hepburn, S. L., Stackhouse, T, & Wehner, E. (2003). Imitation
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
performance in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 763-781.
Royeurs, H., Van Oost, P., & Bothuyne, S. (1998). Immediate imitation and joint attention in young children with autism. Developmental Psychopathology, 10, 441–450.
Rutter, M., LeCouteur, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R-WPS). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Schachner, A. & Carey, S. (2013). Reasoning about ‘irrational’ actions: When intentional movements cannot be explained , the movements themselves as seen as the goal. Cognition, 129, 309-327.
Scott-Van Zeeland, A. A., Dapretto, M., Ghahremani, D.G., Poldrack, R.A., &
Bookheimer, S.Y. (2010). Reward processing in autism. Autism Research, 3, 53–67.
Sigman, M., & Ungerer, J. A. (1984). Cognitive and language skills in autistic, mentally retarded and normal children. Developmental Psychology, 20, 293–302.
Sparrow, S.S., Cicchetti, D.V., & Balla, D.A. (2005). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Second Edition (Vineland II), Survey Interview Form/Caregiver Rating Form., Livonia, MN: Pearson Assessments.
Stone, W. L., Ousley, O. Y., & Littleford, C. D. (1997). Motor imitation in Young Children with autism: What’s the object? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 475-485.
Thorpe, W. H. (1963). Learning and instinct in animals. London, UK: Methuen.
Tolman, C. W. (1964). Social facilitation pf feeding behavior in the domestic chick.
Animal Behaviour, 12, 245-251.
Tomasello, M. (1990). Cultural transmission in the tool use and communicatory signaling of chimpanzees? In ‘Language’ and intelligence in monkeys and apes:
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Comparative developmental perspectives (eds S. T. Parker & K. Gibson), pp.274-311. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tomasello, M. (1996). Do apes ape? In Social learning in animals: the roots of culture (eds C. M. Heyes & B. G. Galef), pp. 319-346. London, UK: Academic Press.
Tomasello, M., Davis-Dasilva, M., Camak, L. & Bard, K. (1987). Observational learning of tool-use by young chimpanzees. Human Evolution, 2, 175-183.
van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004).
Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71-74.
Whiten, A., Custance, D. M., Gomez, J.-C., Teixidor, P. & Bard, K. A. (1996).
Imitative learning of artificial fruit processing in children (Homo sapiens) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 110, 3–14.
Whiten, A., Horner, V. & de Waal, F. B. M. (2005) Conformity to cultural norms of tool use in chimpanzees. Nature, 437, 737-740.
Whiten, A. Horner, V., Litchfield, C. A. & Marshall-Pescii, S. (2004). How do apes ape? Learning & Behavior, 32, 36-52.
Whiten, A., McGuigan, N., Marshall-Pescini, S. & Hopper, L. M. (2009). Emulation, imitation, over-imitation, and the scope of culture for child and chimpanzee.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364, 2417-2428.
WHO. (1993). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders:
diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Williams, J. H., Whiten, A., & Singh, T. (2004). A systematic review of action imitation in autistic spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 285-299.
Wood, D. (1989). Social interaction as tutoring. In M. H. Bornstein & J. S. Bruner (Eds.), Interaction in human development (pp. 59-80). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Woodward, A. (1998). Infants selectively encode the goal object of an actor’s reach.
Cognition, 69, 1-34.
Wu, C. C., Chiang, C. H., & Hou, Y. M. (2011). A two time point study of imitative abilities in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 24, 29-49.
Zachor, D. A., Inanit, T., & Itzchak. (2010). Autism severity and motor abilities correlates of imitation situations in children with autism spectrum disorders.
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 438-443.
Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149, 269-274.
Zentall, T. R. (2001). Imitation in animals: evidence, function, and mechanisms.
Cybernetics and Systems, 32, 53-96.
Zentall, T. & Akins, C. (2001). Imiation in animals: evidence, function, and mechanisms. In Avian Visual Cognition [On-line](ed. R. G. Cook). Available:
www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/zentall
‧
垂直箱目標動作（target action, TA）
TA1：手拿木棒以水平方向移動圓柱，使圓柱移動距離至少離開某一側的拱形栓 TA2：手拿木棒從上洞口伸入上層箱內部
TA3：手拿木棒以水平方向移動門框，使門框移動距離至少顯露下洞口寬度二分之一 TA4：手拿木棒伸入下洞口
SS（success-solution）：在反應時間內，手拿木棒伸入下洞口（注意：有可能是在目標動作 TA3 未被重演的情況下完成）
‧
水平盒目標動作（target action, TA）
TA1：手抓右盒小門，將小門往後轉九十度到盒子側面，使小門與盒子貼齊
‧
杯子（target action 1, TA1）
示範一：當杯子開口朝上時，實驗者以手掌接觸杯子側面，將杯子橫推過桌面三次
梳子（target action 2, TA2）
示範一：手持梳子保持垂直方向，以梳柄尾端碰撞桌面，在桌面上跳躍四次
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
湯匙（target action 3, TA3）
示範一：手拿湯匙握柄以水平方向，用湯匙的凸面敲打桌面三下
示範一：手拿湯匙握柄以水平方向，用湯匙的凸面敲打桌面三下