影片標註聽力複習機制對於英語聽力理解的影響研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學圖書資訊學數位碩士在職專班碩士學位論文. 影片標註聽力複習機制對於英語聽力理解的影響研究. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. The Effects of Video-Annotated Listening Review Mechanism on Listening Comprehension. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 指導教授：陳志銘博士. 研究生：陳怡君撰. 中華民國105年7月.

(2) 謝辭回顧兩年的研究生活，真的很辛苦但是也很充實。幸好一路上有許多熱心的同儕相互扶持，一起解決課業上的難題，也一起開心出遊抒壓，讓我的求學生涯雖然辛苦卻也裝載的滿滿的回憶。論文寫作期間，真的非常感謝我的指導教授陳志銘教授的指導與勉勵，並且在我遇到瓶頸時對我的耐心與協助，我才能順利完成我的實驗與論文。每當看到老師熬夜辛苦地修改我們的論文，以及強撐著精神聽我們報告，就非常感謝老師對學生的付出，也非常敬佩老師對學術的熱情，在此致上最深的謝意與敬意。. 政治大議，兩位口委精闢的論點，讓我對自己論文能有更多不同思考的面向，也讓我的立另外也非常感謝我的口試委員籃玉如教授與林巧敏教授給我的寶貴意見與建. ‧ 國. 學. 論文更加完善，在此致上最深的謝意。也非常感謝一路上許多幫助我的貴人：明雯助教、圖檔所夥伴、阿貴學長、維媛學姐等人，有你們的幫助與建議，我才能. ‧. 順利度過許多難關。. sit. y. Nat. 最後，由衷的感謝我的家人，感謝你們這兩年對我的包容與支持，你們的鼓. n. al. er. io. 勵是我疲累時最溫暖的倚靠，也是我最堅強的後盾。謝謝你們！. Ch. engchi. i. i n U. v.

(3) 摘要近年來英語教學特別重視聽力對於英語學習的重要性，然而臺灣的英語教育仍以播放 CD 為最廣泛使用的英語聽力練習方法，無法因應個別學習者聽力上的個別差異需求，進行重聽段落的自我調整。隨著科技的進步，電腦輔助語言學習已成為發展趨勢，本研究發展一影片標註聽力複習機制（ Video-Annotated Listening Review Mechanism, VALRM），可輔助學習者依據自己的學習需求，進行英語聽力重聽段落的標註與重聽。為了驗證此一機制對於提升英語聽力的成效，本研究比較使用 VALRM 以及利用 Youtube 進行自主聽力複習機制. 政治大理解成效、學習滿意度、科技接受度，以及認知負荷是否具有顯著差異。此外，立（Self-Determined Learning Review Mechanism, SDLRM）的學習者，在英語聽力. ‧ 國. 學. 也進一步比較不同英語起始能力學習者，以及不同學習風格學習者（場地獨立型與場地依賴型），分別採用 VALRM 及 SDLRM 在英語聽力理解成效、學習滿意. ‧. 度、科技接受度，以及認知負荷上是否具有顯著的差異。. sit. y. Nat. 研究結果發現，使用 VALRM 的學習者，其聽力理解成效顯著優於使用. al. er. io. SDLRM 的學習者。此外，使用 VALRM 的學習者，其學習滿意度與科技接受度. v. n. 高於使用 SDLRM 的學習者；認知負荷度則低於使用 SDLRM 的學習者。最後，. Ch. engchi. i n U. 採用 VALRM 及 SDLRM 之不同英語起始能力學習者，以及不同學習風格學習者的英語聽力理解成效、學習滿意度、科技接受度，以及認知負荷度不具有顯著差異。研究結果顯示，學習者使用 VALRM 輔以英語聽力學習，能有效提昇學習者的英語聽力理解表現。. 關鍵詞：影片標註聽力複習機制（VALRM）、自主聽力複習機制（SDLRM）、英語聽力學習、聽力理解. ii.

(4) Abstract In recent years, English instruction has emphasized the importance of listening comprehension; however, playing CDs in class is still the most widely-used approaches to practicing English listening in Taiwan. This training approach does not vary the process of learning to meet individual needs and learning styles of various learners. Owing to technological advancements, the use of computers for supporting. 政治大. language learning has grown increasingly for its diversity. Thus, the study proposes a. 立. novel video-annotated learning review mechanism (VALRM), which can assist. ‧ 國. 學. individual learners to mark the section that cannot listen clearly for review, to enhance. ‧. learners’ English listening performance and perceptions. To confirm whether the. Nat. io. sit. y. proposed VALRM can improve effectively learners’ listening comprehension, this. er. study examines the effects of learners in the experimental group applying the VALRM. al. n. v i n C h Youtube withUself-determined learning review and those in the control group adopting engchi mechanism (SDLRM) on English listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load. Furthermore, the effects of learners of both groups with different English proficiency, and learning styles, including field independence and field dependence, on the English listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load were also examined. iii.

(5) Analysis results show that learners using the VALRM achieved markedly better listening comprehension performance than those using the SDLRM. Additionally, learners’ learning satisfaction and technology acceptance induced by the VALRM were also significantly higher than those by the SDLRM, while learners’ cognitive load caused by the VALRM was lower than that by the SDLRM. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in listening comprehension performance, learning. 政治大. satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load for learners of both groups. 立. with different English proficiency, and learning styles. The research results confirm. ‧ 國. 學. that the proposed VALRM could effectively assist learners in enhancing English. ‧. listening learning achievement.. io. sit. y. Nat. er. Keywords: video-annotated learning review mechanism (VALRM), self-determined. al. n. v i n mechanism C(SDLRM), h e n g cEnglish h i Ulistening. learning review comprehension. iv. learning, listening.

(6) CONTENTS Acknowledgments ………………………………………………………………….. i Abstract in Chinese …………...............………………………....…………….…… ii Abstract ………….……..……………………………..……….….…….…..…….. iii Contents ……..…..………………………………………………….…….…….……. v List of Figures ………………………………………………..…………..……..... vii List of Tables ……………………………………………….…...…..……......……... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………...…………….. 1 1.1 Background and Motivation ………………………………………...…………… 2 1.2 Purpose of the Study ………………………………………………...…………... 5 1.3 Research Questions ……………………………………………………...………. 7 1.4 Limitations of the Study ……………………………………………...………….. 8. 立. 政治大. 1.5 Definition of Terms …………………………………………………...…………. 9. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………..….. 14 2.1 English Listening Learning ……………………………………..……………… 14 2.2 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) ………………………………. 19 2.3 Cognitive Load ………….....…….…………………………….....…………….. 24. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY …………………........…...……….. 27 3.1 Research Design ……...……………..…..…....……….………………….. 27 3.2 Research Participants ...…...…………..…..…………..…………....................... 31 3.3 Research Instruments .…………..…..………..........…...…………..…………... 32 3.4 Research Procedures ...…………………………………………….……………. 39 3.5 Data Analysis Schemes ………..…..……….…....................….……………….. 43. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ............................................................. 45 4.1 Analysis of Learners’ English Proficiency before the Experiment....................... 45 4.2 Comparisons of Listening Comprehension Performance between Two Groups . 46 4.3 Comparisons of Listening Comprehension Performance within and between Two Groups with Different Learning Styles ……………………………………….... 50 4.4 Comparisons of Listening Comprehension Performance within and between Two Groups of Learners with Different English Proficiency……………….…...…... 52 4.5 Comparisons of Learning Satisfaction, Technology Acceptance and Cognitive Load between Two Groups ……………….......……………………………....... 54 v.

(7) 4.6 Comparisons of Learning Satisfaction, Technology Acceptance and Cognitive Load within and between Two Groups of Learners with Different Learning Styles………………………………………………………………………...…...54 4.7 Comparisons of Learning Satisfaction, Technology Acceptance and Cognitive Load within and between Two Groups of Learners with Different English Proficiency…………………………………………………………………….... 57 4.8 Correlations Analysis among Listening Comprehension Performance, Learning Satisfaction, Technology Acceptance, and Cognitive Load within Two Groups………………………………………………………………….……….. 60 4.9 Results of Semi-Structured Interview ………………………………………….. 64 4.10 Discussion .......................................................................................................... 68 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ………………………....... 71 5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 71 5.2 Suggestions for Enhancing the VALRM.............................................................. 73. 立. 政治大. 5.3 Future Research Directions .................................................................................. 74. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. References ………………….....……………………………...……………………...78 Appendices .....………………………………………………...……..………………84 Appendix A. Listening Comprehension Test ……. …………………………..……. 84 Appendix B. Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT) ……..……..……………...….. 94. y. Nat. sit. n. al. er. io. Appendix C. Questionnaire Survey .......…………………………………...……….. 96 Appendix D. Cognitive Load Scale ………………………………………..…….. 100 Appendix E. Semi-Structured Interview .................................................................. 102. Ch. engchi. vi. i n U. v.

(8) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Summary of Empirical Studies on Taiwanese Students’ Problems During Performing English Listening Training .................................................…. 17 Table 2.2 Summary of Studies Associated with CALL in listening …….........…… 20 Table 2.3 Summary of Empirical Studies on the Effects of Captions on Listening Comprehension ………………………………………………...........…… 22 Table 3.1 Participants of the Experimental Group and the Control Group ..……….. 32 Table 3.2 The Comparison of the VALRM and the Voicetube …………………. 36 Table 4.1 The Independent-Samples t-test Results of the Pretest for Both Groups ... 46 Table 4.2 Results of One-Way ANCOVA in Four Listening Comprehension Performance for Both Groups .................................................................... 47 Table 4.3 Results of One-Way ANCOVA in the Posttest for Both Groups .............. 49 Table 4.4 Results of One-Way ANCOVA in Average Listening Comprehension Performance for Both Groups ………………………………………….... 50. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Table 4.5 The independent-samples t-test results of the posttest within both groups of learners with different learning styles......................................................... 51 Table 4.6 The independent-samples t-test results of the posttest between both groups of learners with different learning styles ………….…………………….. 52 Table 4.7 The independent-samples t-test results of the posttest within both groups of learners with different English proficiency……………………………..... 53. y. Nat. sit. n. al. er. io. Table 4.8 The independent-samples t-test results of the posttest between both groups of learners with different English proficiency………………………….... 53 Table 4.9 The independent-samples t-test results of learning satisfaction, technology acceptance and cognitive load for both groups………………………….54 Table 4.10 The independent-samples t-test results of learning satisfaction, technology acceptance and cognitive load within both groups of learners with different learning styles…………………………………………………………..... 55 Table 4.11 The independent-samples t-test results of learning satisfaction, technology acceptance and cognitive load between both groups of learners with. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. different learning styles…………………………………………………. 57 Table 4.12 The independent-samples t-test results of learning satisfaction, technology acceptance and cognitive load within both groups of learners with different English proficiency…………………………………………………....... 58 Table 4.13 The independent-samples t-test results of learning satisfaction, technology acceptance and cognitive load between both groups of learners with different English proficiency …………………………………………... 60 Table 4.14 Results of Pearson Correlation among Learning Satisfaction, Technology vii.

(9) Acceptance, Cognitive Load and English Listening Performance in the Experimental Group ................................................................................. 61 Table 4.15 Results of Pearson Correlation among Learning Satisfaction, Technology Acceptance, Cognitive Load, and English Listening Performance in the Control Group .......................................................................................... 63. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. viii. i n U. v.

(10) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Technology Acceptance Model ………………..….……….…................. 12 Figure 2.1 Relationships among Three Types of Cognitive Load ..…........................ 25 Figure 3.1 Research Architecture of the Study ………………………...……............ 28 Figure 3.2 Function setting interface of the VALRM …............................................ 33 Figure 3.3 Customized Review Section of the VALRM ………….…...…...………. 35 Figure 3.4 Caption Button of the VALRM…………….……..…..………….….….. 36 Figure 3.5 Experimental procedures of the study…………………………...….…. 42 Figure 3.6 The Experimental Group Learners Using the VALRM ……...…………. 43 Figure 3.7 The Control Group Learners Using the SDLRM …….............…………. 43. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. ix. i n U. v.

(11) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Globalization has become a trend, and it is inevitable that modern people nowadays have to learn foreign languages to meet the developing trend. Due to English is the most widely used language nowadays around the world, many countries plan to or have determined English as one of their official languages, and have devoted to developing effective and efficient approaches to facilitating English. 政治大. language learning performance. Owing to the importance of English education, the. 立. government of Taiwan has worked hard on developing English curricula to enhance. ‧ 國. 學. students’ English language competence for several years. In Taiwan, students start to. ‧. learn English from elementary school through university; however, the importance of. Nat. io. sit. y. listening competence has long been neglected so that most students only have little or. er. even no listening training (Chung, 1999). Moreover, the listening test was not. al. n. v i n included in the high school orCcollege examination in Taiwan until 2015 h e nentrance gchi U (Chung, 1999; Wu, 2004). In 2012, Taiwan’s Ministry of Education announced to conduct Comprehensive Assessment Program (CAP), which aims to assess all junior high graduates’ proficiency in basic subjects. In 2015, English listening test was first included in the CAP for junior high school students (Ministry of Education, 2008) due to a number of educators’ efforts and approval. To students in Taiwan, it is good news that the 1.

(12) government has realized and emphasized the importance of English listening acquisition, whereas some educators are worried about the fairness of the listening test for village students and students with low academic achievement level. Therefore, the essentiality and urgency of developing an instructional design which is suitable for dissimilar students to enhance English listening should be emphasized.. 1.1 Background and Motivation. 立. 政治大. Wilt (1950) indicated that many teachers considered listening less important than. ‧ 國. 學. reading. Nunan (2002) even called listening the “Cinderella skill”. In Taiwan, English. ‧. listening learning has been overlooked for many years; in addition, whether or not the. Nat. io. sit. y. listening test should be included in the joint entrance examination for the high school. n. al. er. and the college has long been argued. Not until 1970s did listening gain its attention,. Ch. engchi. and was highly paid attention in 1980s when. iv n Krashen's U. (1982) ideas about. comprehensible input were widely accepted (Morley, 1984; Nunan, 2002). In these decades, listening has played a significant role in the language acquisition process and has gradually become a prime concern to many language teachers (Brett, 1997; Chung, 1999). A number of language experts have claimed that English listening learning is more and more important (Nunan, 2002). Rost (1994) pointed out that listening ability provides input for the learner in the language 2.

(13) communication and is thus essential and fundamental to speaking. Sung, Yao-Ting, Professor of National Taiwan Normal University, who has given his full support to enforce the English listening test, indicated that holding English listening tests has been an international trend, and many Asian countries have already adopted it. It will definitely influence Taiwan’s world competitiveness if we stop moving forward. Although many language experts have emphasized the importance of English. 政治大. listening learning, it has long been ignored by most teachers and learners in Taiwan. 立. for its learnability. Different from reading practice, it is inconvenient to go back and. ‧ 國. 學. listen again the previous part while listeners lose to hear some contents in the listening. ‧. practice (Graham, 2006). In addition, the major method that Taiwanese teachers adopt. Nat. io. sit. y. in schools to train listening is to play the cassettes or CDs repeatedly. This method is. er. used commonly in the big-sized classroom for its convenience and simplicity to. al. n. v i n operate players. However, the C effectiveness h e n g candh efficiency i U may not be satisfactory because there are students with dissimilar English competences in one class. Various types of students require different learning methods. In addition, since it is difficult to consider individual student’s need, some students’ learning time or opportunities to review certain contents may be deprived; moreover, the victims are usually the lower proficiency learners. Smidt and Hegelheimer’s (2004) indicated that lower proficiency learners do not perform well on tests may be due to the fact that these learners’ 3.

(14) processing of the language input is not complete and fast enough. Without enough learning time or timely help, these underachieving learners’ academic performance may be way behind others during class. With the rapid development of information technology, many researchers have paid attention to designing more effective computer-supported approaches to assisting English teaching and learning. Applying information technology to facilitating. 政治大. language learning has become more and more widespread (Brett, 1997). Among many. 立. technology-assisted learning approaches, Computer-Assisted Language Learning. ‧ 國. 學. (CALL) has been widely considered as an effective approach to supporting language. ‧. acquisition. In addition, many previous studies have confirmed that CALL can. Nat. io. sit. y. generate positive effects on enhancing learning and language competency (Almekhlafi,. n. al. er. 2006). Nutta (1998) and Beatty (2013) pointed out that computer-based and. Ch. engchi. computer-assisted language learning approaches. iv n Uare more. effective than the. traditional teacher-directed language instruction as well as can be applied to enhancing autonomous learning. Although CALL is an effective enhancement scheme of promoting listening comprehension, many teachers and learners are still not familiar with it due to the lack of good computer and information literacy. It is important to encourage learners to use CALL instead of merely using the traditional learning instrument to promote language learning performance (Smidt & Hegelheimer, 4.

(15) 2004). Although CALL has been one of the most highly valued and broadly studied approaches in the past decades, many important factors of CALL that may affect language learning performance are still unknown; thereby, in order to improve the current teaching method and develop a better one, there is still a long way to go (Beatty, 2013).. 1.2 Purpose of the Study. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. The traditional listening training approach in the class is to use a CD or a cassette. ‧. player. Although they are convenient to get and easy to operate, there are some. Nat. io. sit. y. shortcomings needing to be overcome. First, the playing speed of a CD or a cassette. er. player is fixed. This will lead to that underachieving learners may generate difficultly. al. n. v i n to catch up with the speed; onCthe learners may catch the h contrary, e n g chigh-achieving hi U meaning with ease. When underachievers hear something unfamiliar, anxiety and nervousness may distract their attention and thus they may miss the next part of the listening text. In addition to the problem of the fixed playing speed, the way to review listening is another defect of a CD or a cassette player. The first problem of reviewing the listening by a CD or a cassette player is that the times and length students need to. review are distinct. Another problem is it is difficult to precisely fast-forward or 5.

(16) rewind the CDs or cassette tapes. There is usually a slight or apparent deviation. Due to the fact that English listening test has been included in the CAP for junior high school students since 2015, English listening comprehension has become an important issue that many language experts attach weight to. Although listening practice has been included in English class in every junior high school, currently, the primary method of performing listening practice in Taiwan’s junior high schools is to. 政治大. utilize CD players, which is not fit for differentiated instruction. Hence, it is important. 立. to develop an individualized instruction for students with different abilities. In order. ‧ 國. 學. to develop appropriate teaching instructions to improve learners’ performance, to. ‧. reduce their cognitive load and to enhance their interest and willingness, more studies. Nat. io. sit. y. are apparently needed.. er. This study aimed to explore how the video-annotated listening review. al. n. v i n C hlearners’ English U mechanism (VALRM) influences e n g c h i listening learning performance,. learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load, as well as whether relationships among these four considered factors exist or not. Results of this study can be regarded as references to further research on computer-assisted listening designs in order to improve teaching qualities and learning effectiveness of English listening acquisition and to decrease time spent using when learners practice listening.. 6.

(17) 1.3. Research Questions The purpose of the study was to assess whether the effects of utilizing the VALRM for English listening learning on listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load are superior to those using the self-determined listening review mechanism (SDLRM), as well as whether the effects of the VALRM and the SDLRM on listening comprehension performance,. 政治大. learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load for learners with. 立. different learning styles and English proficiency are significantly different.. ‧ 國. 學. Furthermore, the study confirmed whether the correlations among learners’ English. ‧. listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance,. Nat. io. sit. y. and cognitive load between the two groups using different listening review. n. al. er. mechanisms exist. On the basis of what have been mentioned above, four primary. Ch. engchi. research questions of the study are listed as follows.. i n U. v. 1. Are there significant differences in learners’ English listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load between the experimental group learners using the VALRM and the control group learners using the SDLRM for English listening learning? 2. Are there significant differences in learners’ English listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load 7.

(18) between the experimental group learners with different learning styles using the VALRM and the control group learners with different learning styles using the SDLRM for English listening learning? 3. Are there significant differences in learners’ English listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load between the experimental group learners with different English proficiency using. 政治大. the VALRM and the control group learners with different English proficiency. 立. using the SDLRM for English listening learning?. ‧ 國. 學. 4. What are the correlations among learners’ English listening comprehension. ‧. performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load. Nat. io. sit. y. between the experimental group learners using the VALRM and the control group. n. al. er. learners using the SDLRM for English listening learning?. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 1.4 Limitations of the Study The limitations of the study are addressed as follows. First, there were only thirty-nine Grade eight students, who were recruited from Taipei Municipal Dunhua Junior High School, participating in the experiment. The small sample size in this study thereby could not represent the whole population of junior high school students. Second, English listening texts used in the study were chosen based on English 8.

(19) competence of the Grade eight students in Taipei Municipal Dunhua Junior High School; therefore, results of the study may not be transferred ready to the other age groups. Third, the experimental period only lasted for four weeks owing to the limitation of school schedule. Whether or not extending the experimental period affects research outcomes needs further study.. 政治大. Finally, this study focused on English listening learning with the employed. 立. VALRM support; thereby, the results may not be transferred ready to other languages. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. or subjects.. Nat. io. sit. y. 1.5 Definition of Terms. er. 1.5.1 Video-Annotated Listening Review Mechanism (VALRM). al. n. v i n C hby the digital libraryUand learning laboratory of the The VALRM was developed engchi. graduate institute of library, information, and archival studies at National Chengchi University in 2016. It is an online computer program which needs to be executed with the Google Chrome browser. The VALRM can capture videos from Youtube and play them on its own platform. When watching videos through the VALRM, learners can mark the sections they do not understand at any time, and these marked sections will be collected into the customized review column. Learners can review them 9.

(20) immediately or later.. 1.5.2 Self-Determined Listening Review Mechanism (SDLRM) The SDLRM in this study refers to Youtube, in which learners practice learning without provided “customized review section” function. In other words, learners have to keep in mind the sections they want to listen to again, and find them out from the. 政治大. “play segment” on Youtube by themselves.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 1.5.3. Cognitive Style. ‧. According to Witkin and Moore (1974), the concept of cognitive styles comes. Nat. io. sit. y. from the observation of one’s consistency in an individual way of dealing with. n. al. er. perceptual and intellectual task. These styles refer to people’s typical ways of. Ch. engchi. processing information. Among a number of. iv n cognitive U. learning styles, the. field-dependence-independence style is the most widely studied cognitive style in the education field. Witkin (1974), Sims, and Sims (2006) detailedly narrated these two cognitive learning styles to indicate that field-dependent (FD) learners are guided by the organization of the surrounding field and perceive parts of the field as global. In contrast, field-independent (FI) learners discern things analytically and thereby 10.

(21) perceive discrete parts of the field. In addition, FD learners handle the task with clues and structure from their environments or their experiences, and they also prefer casual learning environments. Furthermore, FD learners prefer instructional situations which involve their feelings and experiences. FD learners are more socially oriented, less achievement-oriented, and less competitive (Wooldridge, 1995). Compared with FD learners, FI learners tend to show more interest in the impersonal aspects of the. 政治大. surround and be more task-oriented, intrinsically motivated, achievement-oriented,. 立. and competitive.. ‧ 國. 學. In order to explore whether learners’ listening comprehension were influenced by. ‧. their learning styles, a Chinese version of GEFT developed by Wu (1987) was. Nat. io. sit. y. employed in the study to measure participants’ cognitive style. According to their. er. GEFT scores, participants whose GEFT scores were higher than the average value. al. n. v i n were identified as FI learners,Cwhereas participants whose GEFT scores were h e nthe gchi U lower than the average value were identified as FD learners.. 1.5.4 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has been widely used to measure users’ acceptance of using new technologies (Lu, Yu, Liu, & Yao, 2003). TAM proposed by Davis (1989) suggested a method to measure users’ acceptance of new technology. 11.

(22) The two main factors considered in TAM are perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. According to Davis (1989), the actual use of a technology is affected by users’ behavioral intention to use it. Behavioral intention to use a technology is affected by both attitude toward using and perceived usefulness of a technology. Attitude toward using a technology is affected by perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. The model of TAM is illustrated in Figure 1.1.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. Figure 1.1 Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989). sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. In the study, Hwang, Yang and Wang’s technology acceptance questionnaire. i n U. v. (2013) was adapted to evaluate participants’ perceived usefulness and perceived ease. Ch. engchi. of use after using different review mechanisms to practice English listening.. 1.5.5 Cognitive Load Sweller (1988) proposed that there are three types of cognitive load: intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load. Subsequently, relationships among these three types of cognitive load were proposed by Gerjets and Scheiter (2003). They indicated that intrinsic cognitive load is affected by complexity 12.

(23) of information and not altered by instructional designers. Extraneous and germane cognitive load, by contrast, are under the control of instructors’ teaching methods; thus, can be improved by altering teaching styles and materials. In order to measure participants’ cognitive load toward the usage of different listening review mechanisms, the cognitive load scale (Hwang, Yang & Wang; 2013) was adopted in the study.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 13. i n U. v.

(24) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is composed of four sections. First, an overview of elements containing listening comprehension is addressed. Theories and studies pertains to listening learning are reviewed as well. Moreover, difficulties and development of listening learning are also discussed. Second, the development of CALL and teachers’ role in Call are surveyed and summarized. Third, the importance of TAM is discussed.. 政治大. Lastly, the definition of cognitive load and its impacts on learning performance are. 立. addressed.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1 English Listening Learning. Nat. io. sit. y. 2.1.1 Importance of English Listening Learning. n. al. er. Listening comprehension has long been neglected in research and considered as. Ch. engchi. an ability which can develop without effective. iv n assistance U. (Osada, 2004). Some. researchers claimed that listening comprehension was an innate ability that people were born to have, and therefore there was no need to learn it. Some even considered listening is equal to hearing. However, many researchers have challenged this statement and have pointed out that the ability to listen is different from the ability to hear. Lames (2005) further indicated that hearing is an innate ability that people possess; in contrast, listening requires concentration to catch the meaning of the 14.

(25) context. Taylor (1964) indicated that hearing involves physiological process of sound while listening is a complex process in which listeners accumulate sounds first, identify “short sound sequences as words, and then translate larger word sequences into meaning”. Before the importance of listening comprehension are widely noticed, listening comprehension lessons were restricted in a relatively narrow format, such as. 政治大. pre-teaching of new vocabulary, examination of vocabulary, and so forth. Moreover,. 立. listening was generally regarded as a tool to enhance reading and speaking abilities. ‧ 國. 學. only; therefore, its teaching methods and learning techniques had long been neglected.. ‧. Brown (1987) claimed that the few numbers of studies associated with listening. Nat. io. sit. y. comprehension exactly showed the inferior status of listening in language teaching. er. and the ignorance of many teachers.. al. n. v i n Cthe From 1940s, the founders of U Brown, Ralph Nichols, and h elistening h i James n g cskill,. Carl Weaver, started to pay attention to the recognition of listening (Bozorgian, 2012); after that, more researchers carried on studies associated with listening practice and training (Feyten, 1991). Listening comprehension skills thereby started to receive more systematic attention (Wu, 2004). Meanwhile, a variety of theories and instructional designs which aimed at assisting teachers and learners to develop effective listening strategies had been proposed since then, and listening has finally 15.

(26) been viewed as a distinctive skill (Brown, 1990), a fundamental role played in language acquisition, rather than a secondary one. In addition, listening has played an important role in language acquisition especially in terms of communicative language teaching and has been viewed as the basis of communicative competence (Tavil, 2010; Renukadevi, 2014). Renukadevi (2014) pointed out that listening “provides the aural input and enables learners to. 政治大. interact in spoken communication and hence language learning largely depends on. 立. listening”. Many researchers have advocated this view and indicated that listening. ‧ 國. 學. comprehension is an essential skill for language communication (Brown, 1987; De. ‧. Ruyter, & Wetzels, 2000; Gilakjani, & Ahmadi, 2011; Bozorgian, 2012). In short,. Nat. io. sit. y. listening is an integrative skill which is consistently interrelated with language skills. n. al. er. (Vandergrift, 1999; Renukadevi, 2014; Benson, & Hjelt, 1978). It undoubtedly plays a. Ch. engchi. pivotal role in language acquisition. Hence, it. iv n is U essential. to get to know the. importance of listening learning and to find out efficient ways to facilitate it.. 2.1.2 Difficulty of English Listening Learning In recent years, language researchers have not only emphasized the importance of listening but also stressed that of learners’ motivation (Field, 1998). Many language researchers have explored effective ways to help learners improve their 16.

(27) listening comprehension as well as proposed solutions to solve learners’ listening problems. To understand listening problems that Taiwanese students encounter during listening practices, several studies were conducted to investigate them (Chuang, 2009; Ku, 2012; Lin, 2014; Huang, 2015). Table 2.1 summarizes some empirical studies on Taiwanese students’ problems during performing English listening training. Table 2.1 Summary of empirical studies on Taiwanese students’ problems during performing English listening training. 立. Researcher Participants. 政治大. Summary of the Findings. Lin, 2014. 20 junior high No time to process the previous parts led to the school students and difficulty of latter comprehension. 109 questionnaires. Ku, 2012. 375 junior high The most encountered difficulty for eighth and school students ninth graders was the unrepeated listening material.. Chuang, 2009. 366 junior high Among the top ten listening difficulties, the school students and foremost difficulty for the effective listeners was 17 English teachers unrepeated materials, and for the ineffective ones was weak grammar.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Huang, 2015. 208 college The neglect toward the listening text’s students and 2 subsequent part as students made thinking the English teachers meaning of unfamiliar words or sentences caused the main obstacle in students’ listening process.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. These previous studies indicated that having no time to process the previous text, distraction of the subsequent part, and unrepeated materials were main problems that learners were faced with while performing English listening training. Listening 17.

(28) practice has a property and progress of continuity, which may cause learners’ anxiety and frustration when they cannot catch up with others, and the unsatisfied performance therefore leads to lower motivation to learn. Blau (1990) indicated that the effect of listening with pauses is prior to that of listening with mechanically slower speed. Blau demonstrated that “speed of speech” should not be the primary concern because slowing down the speech did not increase. 政治大. comprehension for most listeners. Generally speaking, the slower but unnatural speed. 立. would interfere with the listening comprehension instead (Flaherty, 1979). The similar. ‧ 國. 學. viewpoint was also proposed by Aronson (1974). His study observed that the pause. ‧. provided listeners with more time to think about the listening message after they. Nat. pause would be a hinder of comprehension.. al. er. io. sit. y. received it. His study indicated that the pause should be moderate; otherwise, the. n. v i n C h faced for listening Another obstacle that listeners e n g c h i U comprehension was the right. of speed control (Underwood, 1989). Apart from the control of speed, listeners could not decide what and when to replay, either. Underwood (1989) indicated that the repeated listening passages and the times for replaying were usually decided by teachers in the classroom. Individual learner had no chance to choose the reviewing sections according to his/her need. The frustration of making decision on their learning may thereby decrease learners’ motivation to practice listening. 18.

(29) Thus, this study aimed to assess whether the employed VALRM can improve learners’ listening comprehension by giving them more right of decision making. Moreover, with the assistance of annotation in the VALRM, learners can replay the sections they are not clear with anytime without distracted by having no time to process the text.. 政治大. 2.2 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). 立. Developing an effective listening instruction strategy is essential in language. ‧ 國. 學. teaching. Owing to technological advancements, Computer-Assisted Language. ‧. Learning (CALL) has emerged as a prominent approach to enhancing language. Nat. io. sit. y. learning (Almekhlafi, 2006).. er. Although computers have been used in various fields since the 1940s, they were. al. n. v i n Cuntil not used for educational purposes (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). Since h ethe n g1960s chi U the 1960s, the use of computers for language-learning purposes has grown increasingly for its diversity and potential for individualizing instruction; gradually, CALL has a significant place in language teaching (Dhalf, 1989; Chapelle, 1990).. 2.2.1 The Use of CALL in Listening In decades, teaching and learning foreign languages with the assistance of 19.

(30) computers have gained popularity (Gündüz, 2005). Many highly developed countries have adopted CALL in language instruction and applied it to enhancing different language skills, including listening (Gündüz, 2005). Several studies (Yang, 2010; Chiu, 2007; O’brien, & Hegelheimer, 2007; Kon, 2002) have confirmed the effectiveness of CALL in listening and paid attention to the development of it. The research findings of several studies associated with CALL in listening are. 政治大 Table 2.2 Summary of studies associated with CALL in listening 立 Researcher Participants Summary of the Findings 80 college 1. students 2.. n. Ch. Chiu, 2007. 3. 6 students 1. and 1 instructor 2.. Hegelheimer. , 2007. Listening practice in the CALL setting was found to be more effective than in the traditional setting. The effects of listening strategy instruction and CALL were more significant for English high-proficiency participants than low-proficiency participants. Participants held positive attitudes toward CALL in enhancing their listening abilities.. er. io. al. sit. y. Nat. the commercial CALL courseware, Live ABC online GEPT Program.. 48 junior 1. high school students 2.. O’brien, &. The experimental group using the online program did produce significantly improved scores in their English listening outcome over the control group. The experimental group had high attitude toward. ‧. Yang, 2010. 學. ‧ 國. summarized in Table 2.2.. 3.. engchi. i n U. v. The podcasts have allowed the instructor to extend class time. The podcasts allow students to spend additional time working with the concepts taught in class outside of class. The instructor has reported is that through the podcasts, she is able to give the students an opportunity to gain more exposure to different 20.

(31) types of spoken English.. Kon, 2002. 24 students in The visual aspect of the CALL activity increases an ESL subjects' chances of incidental vocabulary acquisition Listening and listening comprehension. course. Table 2.2 shows that the effects of the use of CALL on enhancing learners’ listening skills are effective. In addition, learners’ attitude toward CALL is relatively positive. Furthermore, learners have more time to practice listening strategies they. 治政大more chances to explore to acquired in class after class. They also thereby have 立 ‧ 國. 學. different types of spoken English by using CALL to study.. Thus, this study aimed to assess whether the VALRM, a computer-assisted. ‧. listening review mechanism, can improve learners’ listening comprehension, and to. sit. y. Nat. io. al. n. VALRM.. er. figure out what types of learners can benefit the most from the implementation of the. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 2.2.2 The Effects of Captions on Listening Comprehension Many English learning systems provide captions or subtitles to help learners understand the learning content (Hsu, 2015). The provision of captions or subtitles enhances not only listening competence but also reading ability; in addition, the load of the learners during the learning process can also be eased (Hsu, Hwang & Chang, 2014). Listeners are less anxious and stressed with the help of captions or subtitles. 21.

(32) Restated, many studies indicated that listening with simultaneous subtitled text is more effective, in contrast to listening with auditory materials only. However, some researchers argued that relying on captions or subtitles is detrimental to listening acquisition (Latifi, Mobalegh, & Mohammadi, 2011). Diao, Chandler and Sweller (2007) indicated that learners learned listening with the presence of subtitles had poor performance on the subsequent listening test than those listrning with the auditory. 政治大. materials only. According to their research findings, they assumed the subtitles. 立. interfered with the “the construction and automation of listening comprehension. ‧ 國. 學. schemas”. Chang and Lei’ study (2004) echoed the unnecessary of subtitles during. ‧. performing listening practice. Chang and Lei also pointed out that “adding the text is. Nat. io. sit. y. not beneficial to scheme construction of long-term memory”, which accords with the. er. perspective of Piaget’s schema theory (1928) in which Piaget emphasized new. al. n. v i n C h it interconnects U information must be organized before e n g c h i with other schemes.. Table 2.3 summarizes several empirical studies on the effects of captions on listening comprehension (Yang & Chang, 2014; Başaran & Köse, 2013; Leveridge & Yang, 2013; Markham, 2001; Huang & Eskey, 1999; Ogasawara, 1994). Table 2.3 Summary of empirical studies on the effects of captions on listening comprehension Researcher. Participants. Summary of the Findings. Yang & 44 EFL This study proposed three modes of captions: full, Chang, 2014 university keyword-only, and annotated keyword captions and 22.

(33) students. investigates their contribution to the learning of reduced forms and overall listening comprehension. The results revealed that the annotated keyword caption group exhibited the best performance with the highest mean score.. Başaran & 30 EFL Köse, 2013 Grade-8 primary school students. This study investigated the effects of English captions, Turkish captions, or no captions on the listening comprehension of EFL learners. The results showed the students in all three conditions performed similarly on the listening comprehension test.. Leveridge & 141 EFL high Learners’ reliance on captions varied individually Yang, 2013 school and lower-level achievers relied on captions for students. listening comprehension more than their high-level counterparts, indicating that learners at various comprehension levels required different degrees of caption support.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 79 advanced The religion-neutral students performed at a higher university-leve level after being exposed to captioned versions of l ESL students the videos.. ‧. io. n. al. Ogasawara, 1994. y. The results of the research showed that the effects of closed-captioned TV helped ESL students’ general comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and listening comprehension.. sit. Nat. 30 students with Huang & intermediate Eskey, 1999 levels of ESL proficiency. er. Markham, 2001. 政治大. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. EFL university The results suggested that fully captioned videos students were much more effective than partially captioned or non-captioned videos if they were used over the long term such as at least one semester.. Table 2.3 shows the effectiveness of captions on listening comprehension was influenced by many factors and was mostly positive. Therefore, in this study, the usage of captions was decided by both the experimental group and control group. Participants could choose whether to use captions or not when doing listening 23.

(34) practice.. 2.2.3 Teachers’ Role in CALL While the prevalence and importance of CALL is continually emphasized by numerous studies, it is important to know that technology is only the tool we use rather than the answer to all problems (Lee, 2000). Dhaif (1989) and Lee (2000). 政治大. indicated that computers would never replace the teacher. That is, computers itself. 立. cannot design or provide the instruction for learners without the wisdom of teachers.. ‧ 國. 學. As Gündüz, (2005) indicated that the teacher can decided the proportion of the. ‧. usage of computers in the course, and thereby still had a prominent place in his/her. Nat. io. sit. y. classes. Therefore, teachers who would like to provide learners with better instruction. n. al. er. need to know CALL well and make good use of it, rather than resisting it.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 2.3 Cognitive Load Sweller (1988) proposed that there are three types of cognitive load: intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load, and many previous studies (Miller 1956; Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998; Gerjets, Scheiter, & Cierniak, 2009) demonstrated their approvals of the cognitive load theory. Subsequently, Gerjets and Scheiter (2003) confirmed the relationships among three 24.

(35) types of cognitive load, which is shown in Figure 2.1. It shows that intrinsic cognitive load is affected by complexity of information and not altered by instructional designers. Extraneous and germane cognitive load, by contrast, are under the control of instructors’ teaching methods; thus, can be improved by altering teaching styles and materials. In addition, Paas et al. (2003), Kalyuga (2006), and Van Gog and Paas (2008) also proposed that the extraneous and germane cognitive load can be altered. 政治大. by the instructional designers. Therefore, instructors’ goal should be to develop. 立. appropriate teaching approaches to reducing extraneous cognitive load but raising. ‧ 國. 學. germane cognitive load on the contrary.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 2.1 Relationships among three types of cognitive load (Gerjets & Scheiter (2003). Cognitive theory posits that when learners faced with a new and complicated curriculum areas, the difficulty they encounter is not the lack of general cognitive strategies but the complexity of the new material (Cognitive Load Theory, P. 238). 25.

(36) Many previous studies have confirmed that when learners are asked to learn with certain strategies, their cognitive load will increase, and those increased cognitive load will influence learner’s performance. Moreover, learning under the circumstance of high cognitive load will lead to the higher rate of mistakes (Owen & Sweller, 1985; Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Sweller, Chandler, Tierney, & Cooper, 1990). The increase of cognitive load affects not only the accuracy in learning but also the time. 政治大. spent in it (Sweller, 1985). Therefore, developing a better teaching instruction which. 立. can reduce extraneous cognitive load of learners is a concern of instructors.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 26. i n U. v.

(37) CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The purpose of the study was to assess whether the effects of learners using the VALRM on listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load are superior to learners using the SDLRM. Furthermore, the study also examined the correlations among EFL learners’ English listening learning performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and. 政治大. cognitive load between the group learners utilizing the VALRM and the group. 立. learners using SDLRM. The research design, research participants, research. ‧ 國. 學. instruments, research procedures, and data analysis schemes are addressed in the. ‧. following sections, respectively.. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat 3.1 Research Design. Ch. engchi. The research design of the study is shown. iv n as U Figure. descriptions regarding each variable are explained below.. 27. 3.1 and the detailed.

(38) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Figure 3.1 Research design. 3.1.1 Independent Variables. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The independent variables of the study were the two approaches of listening review mechanisms, which are detailed as follows. (1) The experimental group used the developed VALRM to review English listening text. (2) The control group used the SDLRM with Youtube to review English listening text. 28.

(39) 3.1.2 Dependent Variables The dependent variable of the study consisted of four aspects including English listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load, which are addressed as follows. (1) The evaluation of English listening comprehension performance was to explore whether the effects of the VALRM on English listening posttest are. 政治大. superior to those of the SDLRM.. 立. (2) The evaluation of learning satisfaction was to investigate participants’. ‧ 國. 學. attitude toward the usage of two listening review mechanisms based on a. ‧. learning satisfaction questionnaire.. Nat. io. sit. y. (3) The assessment of technology acceptance was to determine participants’. er. perceived usefulness and perceived ease for the usage of two listening review. n. al. i n C mechanisms based on a TAM h equestionnaire. ngchi U. v. (4) The assessment of cognitive load was to measure learners’ perceived mental load and mental effort for the usage of two listening review mechanisms based on a cognitive load scale.. 3.1.3 Background Variables The background variables of the study were composed of learning styles and 29.

(40) English proficiency. The categories and purposes of the considered background variables are detailed as follows. (1) Participants’ learning styles were identified as field-dependence (FD) or field-independence (FI) based on the Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT). The purpose was to explore whether significant differences exist in learners’ English. listening. comprehension. performance,. learning. satisfaction,. 政治大. technology acceptance, and cognitive load between the two group learners. 立. with different learning styles using different listening review mechanisms.. ‧ 國. 學. (2) Participants’ English proficiencies were divided into high achievement and. ‧. low achievement according to their semester English scores. The aim was to. Nat. io. sit. y. explore whether significant differences exist in learners’ English listening. n. al. er. comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance,. Ch. engchi. and cognitive load between two group. iv n learners U with. different English. proficiency using different listening review mechanisms.. 3.1.4 Control Variables 3.1.4.1 Experimental Time Both the experimental group and the control group were given the same length of time to listen to the employed videos, review the videos, and complete the listening 30.

(41) comprehension test. In addition, the experiment was conducted once a week and lasted for a month.. 3.1.4.2 Listening Texts There were five listening texts for both groups in the experiment. Each listening text was about four to five minutes long and chosen from Youtube. All the listening. 政治大. contents were slightly more advanced than the participants’ current English level in. 立. order to assess their listening comprehension performance discriminatively. In the. ‧ 國. 學. experimental stage, both groups listened to the same listening texts and completed the. ‧. same listening comprehension tests.. er. io. sit. y. Nat 3.2 Research Participants. al. n. v i n C h eighth gradersU from two thirty-nine engchi. This study recruited. classes of Taipei. Municipal Dunhua Junior High School to participate in the instructional experiment, which aimed to examine the effects of the two different listening review mechanisms on listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load. The two classes were randomly divided into two groups. The experimental group consisted of eighteen students and the control group consisted of twenty-one students. All participants were asked to fill out GEFT scale to identify 31.

(42) their learning styles. Among thirty-nine participants, twenty-two of them were identify as FI learners and seventeen of them were identified as FD learners. In addition, there were eleven FI learners and seven FD learners in the experimental group, and eleven FI learners and ten FD learners in the control group. Participants of both groups are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Participants of the experimental group and control group Groups. Number. VALRM SDLRM. 18 21. 立. Total. FI. FD. 11 治政 11 大 39 22. 7 10 17. ‧ 國. 學. During the instructional experiment, both groups listened to the same listening. ‧. text but reviewed it by using different listening review mechanisms. The study used. sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. the independent-samples t-test to confirm there were no significant differences. i n U. v. between prior English proficiency of both groups according to their semester English scores.. Ch. engchi. 3.3 Research Instruments 3.3.1 Video-Annotated Listening Review Mechanism (VALRM) The VALRM is an online computer program which needs to be executed with the Google Chrome browser. It can capture videos from Youtube and play them on its own platform. The VALRM is chosen as the research instrument in this study because 32.

(43) it can support an individualized learning for learners with different achievement levels. When learners watch videos through the VALRM, they can mark the sections they do not understand at any time and review them immediately or later. The user interfaces and main functions of the VALRM are detailed as follows.. 3.3.1.1 Function Setting. 政治大. As revealed in Figure 3.2, the employed VALRM allows learners to choose. 立. whether to show the video, captions (English subtitle) or Chinese subtitles during. ‧ 國. 學. English listening practice. After performing the function setting, learners type the. ‧. Youtube web address into the address bar and press enter. Then click on the “video”. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. button and start to listen/watch the video.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 3.2 Function setting interface of the VALRM. 3.3.1.2 The customized review section 33.

(44) The customized review section consists of two functions—“play the mark” and “mark and replay”. These two functions allow learners to replay the marked sections of the video starting from the previous five seconds, and learners can go back to review these sections again readily without wasting time to recall or look for their confusing parts. Different functions of “play the mark” and “mark and replay” are detailed as follows.. 政治大. As shown in Figure 3.3, when doing the listening practice, learners can mark. 立. any sections they do not comprehend well without pausing the video, and then the. ‧ 國. 學. marked sections will be put into the customized review column as a list for reviewing. ‧. purpose. During or after the listening practice, learners can select the marked sections. Nat. io. sit. y. from the list and replay them by clicking on “play the mark”. If learners prefer. er. reviewing the unfamiliar part they mark immediately, they can click on “mark and. al. n. v i n C h will be repeated U replay”, and then the marked section e n g c h i right away.. 34.

(45) 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 3.3 Customized review section of the VALRM. ‧ sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. 3.3.1.3 The caption button. i n U. v. Figure 3.4 shows the caption button which can be switched on or off when. Ch. engchi. needed. The function of the caption button is to capture the captions or subtitles from the back end of Youtube and to show them on the screen. Learners can choose either to hide or display captions or subtitles of the chosen sections before playing the videos.. 35.

(46) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 3.4 Caption button of the VALRM. Although both the Voicetube, an interactive English learning website which is. sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. well-known in Taiwan, and the VALRM have the “mark and replay” function, the. i n U. v. VALRM further provides learners with the “play the mark” function, which can. Ch. engchi. record learners’ marked sections on a list and be replayed when needed. For learners with different learning strategies, they can have more reviewing ways to choose when using the VALRM. In addition, there are no advertisements on the VALRM platform which may increase learners’ cognitive load when they are doing listening practice. The comparison of the two listening learning tool is detailed in the table 3.2. Table 3.2 The comparison of the VALRM and the Voicetube The VALRM Mark and replay. The Voicetube. The marked section will be None 36.

(47) put into the customized review column. Play the mark. The marked section starts The chosen section starts from the previous 5 from the selected sentence. seconds.. Captions / Subtitles. Only the captions / subtitles All captions / subtitles of of the marked sections will the listening text will be be displayed. displayed.. Advertisement. None. A few advertisements are on the website.. The speed of listening The video can only be The video can be played in texts played in normal speed. low or normal speed.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 3.3.2 Self-Determined Listening Review Mechanism (SDLRM) The SDLRM in this study refers to Youtube, in which learners practice learning. ‧. without provided “customized review section” function. Learners using the SDLRM. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. to review listening have to drag the mouse to click on the portion they want to review from the “play segment” on Youtube by themselves.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 3.3.3 Listening Comprehension Tests Each listening comprehension test consisted of ten multiple choice questions was used to assess the effects of two different mechanisms on participants’ listening comprehension. The comprehension test was assigned to participants of the both groups after they finish practicing the assigned listening text.. 37.

(48) 3.3.4 Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT) Since different cognitive styles may affect learners’ learning performance on listening comprehension, this study employed GEPT to identify participants’ cognitive styles as FD and FI learners. GEFT is a perceptual test which requires the subject to find the hidden figure within a more complex figure. The test is to measure a person’s cognitive style. The higher the score is, the more the person is considered. 政治大. to be FI learners. In contrast, the lower the score is, the more the person is considered. 立. to be FD learners. In this study, a Chinese version of GEFT developed by Wu (1987). ‧ 國. 學. was employed to measure participants’ cognitive styles to minimize the error of the. ‧. study caused by the misunderstanding of the description on the test. According to all. Nat. io. sit. y. participants’ GEFT scores, the participants whose GEFT scores were higher than the. er. average value were identified as the FI learners, whereas the participants whose GEFT. al. n. v i n C hvalue were identified scores were lower than the average e n g c h i U as the FD learners. 3.3.5 Questionnaire Survey. A questionnaire survey was conducted to evaluate the participants’ perspectives and attitudes toward the usage of the assigned SALRM and SDLRM. The questionnaire survey was conducted on the last day of the experimental treatment after participants completed all of the listening practice. The questionnaire consisted 38.

(49) of two sections and was detailed as follows. The first section consisted of eight questions and was to elicit learners’ learning satisfaction. The second section was to evaluate learners’ technology acceptance; it was composed of ten questions and divided into two dimensions: five items for perceived usefulness and six items for perceived ease of use. Both sections were evaluated by a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大. 3.3.6 Cognitive Load Scale. ‧. The cognitive load scale was to measure learners’ cognitive load toward using. Nat. io. sit. y. different review mechanisms. The scale consisted of seven questions for two. er. dimensions: five items for mental load and three items for mental effort. The. al. n. v i n C htheir perspectivesUin a seven-point Likert scale, participants were asked to express engchi ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”. 3.4 Research Procedures This study aimed to confirm the effectiveness of the VALRM on promoting listening comprehension. The research procedures of this study are shown as Fig. 3.5. First, one of the classes was randomly assigned to the experimental group using the 39.

(50) VALRM and the other class was assigned as the control group using the SDLRM for English listening learning. Next, before conducting the experiment, all participants were asked to fill out GEFT scale to identify them as FD or FI learners. The purpose was to confirm whether different listening review mechanisms have different effects on listening comprehension performance for learners with FI and FD cognitive styles. Before performing the experiment, the procedures of the entire experiment were. 政治大. explained to all participants to ensure the research could be processed smoothly and. 立. successfully. In addition, the researcher would demonstrate how to operate the. ‧ 國. 學. VALRM and the SDLRM to two groups, respectively. Both groups then had three. ‧. minutes to get familiar with the usage of the assigned listening review mechanisms.. Nat. io. sit. y. In the formal experiment, each group watched a four to five minutes long video. er. and was given two more minutes to review the content. During the listening practice,. al. n. v i n C h 3.7, the experimental as shown in Figure 3.6 and Figure e n g c h i U group could use all the functions of the VALRM to assist their learning while the control group could only review the text by pausing or rewinding it with the mouse. Both groups could rewind and review the content at any time during the given time. The listening content and the review time for both groups were the same except for the review mechanisms they used. After reviewing, both groups were asked to perform the listening comprehension 40.

(51) test immediately to assess their listening comprehension performance. The experimental phase, starting from “the introduction and orientation of the instrument” to “the listening comprehension tests”, performed once a week and last for a month. After four weeks, both groups did a three minutes long listening practice and took the final listening comprehension test without reviewing this time. In order to access every participant’s listening comprehension with the support of different. 政治大. mechanisms, the final listening text and listening comprehension test included the. 立. contents of the previous ones. Lastly, all participants needed to complete learning. ‧ 國. 學. satisfaction questionnaire, technology acceptance questionnaire, and cognitive load. ‧. scale to evaluate their perceptions toward the usage of the VALRM and the SDLRM.. Nat. sit. n. al. er. io. in the synthesized phase.. y. All of the data collected through the experiment process were analyzed and discussed. Ch. engchi. 41. i n U. v.

(52) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 3.5 Experimental procedures of the study. 42.

(53) 治政 Figure 3.6 The experimental group learners 大using the VALRM 立 ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 3.7 The control group learners using the SDLRM. 3.5 Data Analysis Schemes 43.

(54) Aiming to investigate whether or not significant differences exist in learners’ English listening comprehension performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load for whole learners and learners with different learning styles and English proficiency between the experimental group utilizing the VALRM and the control group using the SDLRM, this study used Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) to analyze the research results.. 政治大. Data collected from learners’ English sectional examinations and listening. 立. comprehension tests were used to assess listening comprehension performance based. ‧ 國. 學. on independent-samples t-test. In addition, independent-samples t-test was employed. ‧. to analyze whether significant differences exist in learners’ listening comprehension. Nat. io. sit. y. performance, learning satisfaction, technology acceptance, and cognitive load for. n. al. er. learners with different learning styles and English proficiency between both groups.. Ch. engchi. 44. i n U. v.