台灣國際活動領隊運用之語言與跨文化策略

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(1)Language and Intercultural Communication Strategies of Cultural Facilitators in International Events in Taiwan. by Shu-Hao Tung. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of. MASTER of BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan January, 2014.

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(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor, Dr. Wei-Wen Chang. Without her, I would not have been able to complete my study at IHRD and finish my thesis. She always guided me with valuable advices on all aspects of my life. I learnt a lot from her mild-tempered personality and hard-working attitude as well. I also want to thank my committee members, Dr. Shin-Yih Chen and Dr. Yi-Chun Lin, for thier constructive criticism for my thesis. I would like to thank all the professors in IHRD, Dr. Rosa Yeh, Dr. Ted Tsai, Dr. Tony Shih, and Dr. Steven Lai, who taught me how to be a professional. In addition, without Sandra, the assistant of IHRD, I could not have successfully completed all my missions and works at NTNU. I would like to express my sincere thanks to her for everything she has done for me and IHRD. Besides, I also appreciated Philia Lin and Chun Hsin Limited Company, the representative of ETS in Taiwan, for they provided me with resources needed for this research and practical advices from the perspective of the industry and . I want to thank all my partners and international friends in 2010 and 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival because they inspired me to conduct this research. They were my muse when I was writing my thesis. I also would like to thank those who provided me with important information, and supported me with encouraging words and allowed me to interview them. Furthermore, my gratitude goes to my dear classmates. Firstly, I would like to thank Ryan for always being so supportive in these two years. Then I would like to thank my fellow advisees, Annie Hsu, Carol Chien, Elizabeth, and Maria, for sharing inspiring experiences with me. I would like to thank Agnes Yen, Kelly Hung, Alan Yu, and Cheryl Hsieh for accompanying me during my final step into the completion of my thesis. Also, I appreciated my Latin classmates, Karen C., Alex, Carmen, and Rossana for their warm words and.

(4) persistence in pushing me to practice Spanish. I appreciated Alan Kuo and William Kuo for teaching me how to conduct statistical analysis and to do the coding. Thanks to Edward Huang, the junior students of mine, I could enhance the research quality. Thanks to my dear friends, Leona Kuan and Tim Tsai, I could have a place to continue my work after I moved out of the dorm. Thanks to my best friends, Anna Peng, Dido Chiu, Sabrina Chen, Mina Huang, Viola Tsai, and Elsa Chiang, I always felt encouraged when talking to them. I was also grateful to Sebastian Lin, Rex Lin and Shun-Lan Hsieh for helping me collect research materials. Thanks to all my classmates and junior students at IHRD, I had good memories in my graduate life. Finally, I would like to thank my parents and my brother, who always support me even when I had stubborn insistence on my life choices. They never gave up on me and provided me with anything I needed. I could not be who I am without their whole-heartedly support..

(5) ABSTRACT Due to the globalization economics, multinational corporations have been increasing in numbers nowadays, leading to the increasing emphasis on intercultural communication. While a range of topics have been studied in intercultural communication, few studies focused on communication strategies actually applied in intercultural and inter-linguistic context at workplace. Therefore, this research aims to find out intercultural and inter-linguistic communication strategies applicable at global workplace through exploring and examining Cultural Facilitators’ experiences of working in international events in Taiwan. Moreover, the other focus of this research is on analyzing the rationale for Cultural Facilitators to select particular strategies in response to different scenarios. In this research, the Cultural Facilitators who worked in 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival were the research participants, for they had rich experiences in intercultural communication. This research adopted qualitative approach and collected data through in-depth interview, personal observation and document review. The techniques of triangulation and peer debriefing were applied to enhance the credibility of the research. The main findings are summarized into seven communication strategies. Among these strategies, paraphrase and manipulation were the most widely applied inter-linguistic communication strategies and touching the culture was as easy way to open an intercultural conversation. As for the rationale for selection of certain strategies, noise, feedback and channel were the primary rationale for Cultural Facilitators to select specific strategies. Furthermore, this research brought out the talk between literatures and findings. Three primary discussions were presented regarding Gerbner’s communication model, Jandt’s communication model and Saussure’s concept of signs. Finally, the research concluded with implications for individuals working at global workplace, organizations implementing language management, and future relevant researches.. Keywords: intercultural communication, inter-linguistic communication, intercultural communication strategies.. I.

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(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... I Table of Contents .................................................................................................... III List of Tables ........................................................................................................... V List of Figures....................................................................................................... VII. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................... 3 Research Purpose ............................................................................................................... 4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 5 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................... 5 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................ 6. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................ 9 Culture & Communication ................................................................................................. 9 Intercultural Communication ........................................................................................... 18 Language and Communication Strategies ....................................................................... 24. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ........................................................ 29 Research Approach .......................................................................................................... 29 Research Framework ....................................................................................................... 30 Research Procedure .......................................................................................................... 31 Research Participants and Criteria ................................................................................... 34 Data Collection ................................................................................................................ 38 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 40. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS & DISCUSSIONS ............................................... 49 Inter-linguistic Communication Strategies ...................................................................... 50 Intercultural Communication Strategies .......................................................................... 56 Rationales for Selection of Strategies .............................................................................. 65 Discussions ...................................................................................................................... 71. CHAPTER V CONLUSION ........................................................................... 77 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 77 Implications...................................................................................................................... 79 Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 79 Suggestions ...................................................................................................................... 80. REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 82 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ..................................................... 85 APPENDIX B: THE EXAMPLE OF OPEN CODING ..................................... 91 III.

(8) APPENDIX D: THE EXAMPLE OF ANALYTICAL CODING .................... 102 APPENDIX C: THE EXAMPLE OF CATEGORIZING ................................. 104 APPENDIX E: THE LIST OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................ 107. IV.

(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Intercultural Communication Strategies .................................................................. 21 Table 2.2 Second Language Communication Strategies .......................................................... 26 Table 3.1 Communication Type ............................................................................................... 35 Table 3.2 The Description of Interview Participants ............................................................... 36 Table 3.3 The Example of Coding Process .............................................................................. 43 Table 3.4 The Example of Categorizing Process ..................................................................... 45 Table 4.1 Inter-linguistic Communication Strategies .............................................................. 50 Table 4.2 Intercultural Communication Strategies .................................................................. 57. V.

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(11) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Shannon and Weaver model of communication ..................................................... 11 Figure 2.2 Gerbner’s communication model ........................................................................... 12 Figure 2.3 Berlo’s SMCR model of communication ............................................................... 13 Figure 2.4 Ten components of communication ........................................................................ 14 Figure 2.5 Two-sided psychological entity of linguistic sign .................................................. 16 Figure 2.6 Sassure’s elements of meaning ............................................................................... 17 Figure 3.1 Research framework ............................................................................................... 30 Figure 3.2 Research procedure ................................................................................................ 33 Figure 3.3 Analysis process ..................................................................................................... 42 Figure 4.1 Finding framework ................................................................................................. 49 Figure 4.2 Strategy map ........................................................................................................... 50. VII.

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(13) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. This Chapter introduces the background, statement of the problem, research purposes, research questions, significance of the study and definitions of terms. The background describes the imperative of research on intercultural communication and 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival which was the case of this study. The problems lying in the international events and the significance of this study are both brought out. Furthermore, the research purposes and questions are addressed. Lastly, key terms of this study are defined.. Background of the Study In 2012, the world economy was encountering serious financial turmoil triggered by intensive and consecutive financial crisis in Europe (World Bank, 2012). The phenomenon suggests the inseparably intertwined relationship among countries. The world has opened a new chapter due to advanced technology and globalized economy. People from different places have been brought together for various purposes such as international trades, cultural festivals, sport events or academic conferences. Success is lying beyond borders nowadays (Adler, 2001). International events, rather than domestic ones, became prevalent. More and more countries and institutions have been competing for hosting international events because of potential social and economic benefit (Richards & Wilson, 2004). Events were also considered as motivators to the tourism as well as the development of destinations (Getz, 2008). Therefore, countries have begun to strive for holding unique events and to find competitive advantages during the preparation process. In international events, there must be a group of people working as tour guides to receive the international performers or tourists. How tourists and performers perceive and evaluate a country depends on how these tour guides lead them. However, tour guides had never been credited with their devotion to the economy and the image of a nation in Taiwan 1.

(14) (National Policy Foundation, 2010). Though nowadays in Taiwan, tour guides could get the official certificate by passing the examination, their contribution to the country is still not recognized, not to mention those who guide performers and tourists in the international events in Taiwan. According to the annual report published by United Nation World Tourism Organization (WTO) (2011), in spite of the world economic downturns, the tourism industry has been growing. International tourism increased by 4.6%, achieving 982 million international tourism arrivals. Moreover, the international tourism receipts were up to 3.8%, adding US$1 trillion to the world economy. Since the tourism industry has been growing steadily, the significant role of tour guides could not be ignored, especially in international events which invite tremendous benefits and economic growth for the city or even the country. In Taiwan, Nan Ying International Folklore Festival, held every two year by Tainan City Government since 1996, is a great international event in Taiwan. Unlike other international events such as Olympic Game in which folks would not have opportunity to interact with players, Nan Ying International Folklore Festival features the interaction between international groups with local people (Tainan City Government, 2012a). The government invites folklore ensembles around the world to the city, performing every day at different locations and interacting with public sectors, private sectors, and local people. In light of frequent interactions among different cultural parties, the government invites mostly college and university students as their guides to facilitate communication process and negotiate performance requirements. Due to multitasking of a guide, the guide was renamed as Cultural Facilitator in this event, highlighting the main mission they were assigned. As a mediator role, Cultural Facilitators leading different ensembles have to come up with communication strategies shortly since the festival usually lasts no more than two weeks. Hence, intercultural communication is one of the key factors of holding successful festival. According to Adler (2001), the intercultural communication was a pivotal factor in response 2.

(15) to achieving redefined success and the imperative of cross-cultural management in the internationalized world. This study aimed to analyze communication strategies used by Cultural Facilitators during the 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival and to find out appropriate strategies that could assist public sectors, private sectors and individuals in their interaction with foreigners. In addition, this study also explored under what circumstances Cultural Facilitators chose certain communication strategies.. Statement of the Problem Intercultural communication is more complicated than general communication since it proceeds between people of different cultural backgrounds who perceive the world differently. Different perception of the world leads to interpretation of anything people encounter or experience in life. People formed their perception of the world by going through three stages, including selection, organization, and interpretation each of which processed stimuli from outside and was influenced by people’s cultural background or personal experiences (Jandt, 2007). In international events, people from different nations and cultures with different native languages gather at one city and communication among these people are complicated due to their diverse interpretation of the world. Due to the complexity in intercultural communication, many scholars have done researches on this field (Adler, 2001; Beamer, 1995; Beamer & Verner, 2003; Channey & Martin, 2007; Jandt, 2007; Neulip, 2012).While a range of topics have been studied in intercultural communication, few studies focused on communication strategies particularly applied in intercultural and inter-linguistic context. As a matter of fact, according to Fasold (1990), a social linguist, even though two nations or society shared the same language, they still differ from each other in terms of linguistic variety, not to mention when both parties communicate in their second languages. 3.

(16) In 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival, Cultural Facilitators mostly communicated with international groups in second languages and sometimes communication barriers were inevitable due to language and cultural differences. If these barriers were not carefully tackled, misunderstandings and problems would be easily triggered. For example, performers from Japan encountered radicals from China and from Taiwan who barked at them whenever they met in hotel. The conflict resulted from the heating issue on defending sovereignty over the Diaoyutai islands among Taiwan, China and Japan. If Cultural Facilitators did not communicated with the international ensemble, local people or other foreign visitors, the incident was likely to cause serious political problems. Therefore, communication strategies are really significant for Cultural Facilitators to complete their task and are supposed to catch more attentions from researchers. Accordingly, if intercultural communication has been a popular research topic because of international tensions around the world increasing concerns on issues about globalization (Jandt, 2007; Neulip, 2012), more should be known about how intercultural communication theories and communication strategies applied and selected in practice.. Research Purpose This study attempts to identify communication strategies used by Cultural Facilitators for intercultural interaction and to explore rationales for their strategy selection through examining Cultural Facilitators’ experiences in international events. It tries to understand what kind of strategies Cultural Facilitators used, how they selected strategies, and what their concerns were when selecting particular strategies. To better analyze factors affecting their selection, this study applies ten components of communication developed by Jandt (2007) as a Cultural Facilitator during the analysis process. These ten components form a communication process. Cultural Facilitators’ responses were analyzed on the basis of the ten components of communication as a framework of this research. 4.

(17) Research Questions In accordance with the research purpose, this study aims to answer the following questions after exploring the case of Cultural Facilitators who served in 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival: 1. What communication strategies are used by Cultural Facilitators to achieve the goal of international events in inter-linguistic and intercultural context? 2. What are rationales for Cultural Facilitators to select their communication strategies?. Significance of the Study Nowadays, there is not a single country that could be self-sufficient in resources helping itself develops. Leaders of nations even had to admit their needs for help from other countries and to reform its domestic economic system in order to participate in the global economy (Ohmae, 1996). In other words, nations have to communicate, negotiate and trade with one another for vital resource to their best profit. Since the communication crosses boundaries, intercultural concepts should be taken care of. As the intercultural communication becomes more important, to understand what kind of preparation, skills, and strategies would positively facilitate communications is inevitable. In addition to communication among nations, communications within organizations were also essential. Chitakornkijsil stated (2010), “Communication covers all aspects of organization activity” (p. 8). He thought communications helped people accomplish their tasks and goals in organizations. “Effective communication” was desirable for global managers. In fact, it is also important for those who need to work in a multicultural context. Furthermore, in terms of language management, the findings of this study about communication strategies in inter-linguistic and intercultural contexts are good references for organizations to manage language-related policies. For example, Rakuten Incorporation was the first Japanese firm implementing 5.

(18) Englishnization to achieve internationalization. The company asked all the employees to enhance their intercultural communication ability by using plain English (Mikitani, 2012). Employees had to be able to communicate in English based on 1,500 vocabularies. This kind of communication strategies, according to Tarone (1977), included circumlocution and literal transfer. In other words, extended description and simpler language were applied in this kind of situation. In a nutshell, communication strategies recommended by this study can be a guide in designing and developing trainings for enhancing communication skill. Furthermore, many people in the modern society have to be bilingual, trilingual, or even multilingual in order to successfully communicate with others. The participants of this study were classified into four different communication types which were elaborately explained in chapter III. Not only intercultural but also inter-linguistic communications were analyzed in the study. The communication model proposed by Jandt (2007) was applied to examine components of communication process and to evaluate the effectiveness of the communication. By referring to the model, this study could provide a more thorough and clear analysis on the selection of communication strategies.. Definition of Terms Language Welch and Piekkari (2006) in Crossing Language Boundaries: Qualitative Interviewing in International Business summarized that due to the significance to the social world, language was unlikely to be defined accurately. Despite the difficulty in summarizing a universal definition, in the study of linguistics, Algeo’s (2010) definition of language was widely accepted and adopted in this study which stated, “A language is a system of conventional vocal signs by means of which human beings communicate” (p. 2).. Intercultural Communication In this study, taken from Jandt’s (2007) and Neulip’s (2012) two dimensions, 6.

(19) intercultural communication is defined as a face-to-face communication between two persons from diverse cultures, including national cultures or local cultures.. Communication Strategy Stern (1983) and Ellis (1997) defined communication strategies as tactics applied to deal with communication barriers caused by unfamiliarity with communication in the second languages. Nevertheless, different native languages imply different cultural conventions. Thus, the communication strategies are defined as techniques used by communicators with diverse cultural backgrounds and native languages to deal with intercultural communications barriers.. Cultural Facilitator The Cultural Facilitator refers to those who served as a guide as well as an interpreter in 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival. Their main tasks were facilitating intercultural interaction, interpreting for the international ensembles, and babysitting the international ensemble during their stay in Taiwan. These Cultural Facilitators were research participants of this research who should be familiar with Mandarin Chinese, Taiwanese and one second language.. 7.

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(21) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW. In this chapter, the study reviews literatures about culture, communication, intercultural communication, intercultural communication strategies, language, and communication strategies in second languages. More specifically, each term is defined accordingly and summaries are also given at the end of each section.. Culture & Communication In this section, literatures of culture and communication are reviewed for providing fundamental concepts for this study to clarify the definitions.. Culture Culture did not have a unisversally agreed definition. According to the statistics presented by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (2012), Chinese, Spanish, and English were the most spoken languages in the world. 12.44% of the world population spoke Mandarin Chinese, 4.85% Spanish, and 4.83% English. However, definitions of culture in these three languages are not exactly the same. In Chinese, “Wén-huà” meant culture, defined as “the totality of human invention and creation during the whole process of human development” in online Revised Mandarin Chinese Dictionary (2012). In Real Academia Española (2012), “cultura” had two definitions: (1) it is the collection of knowledge that allows people to develop their critical thinking; (2) it is the collection of life styles, customs, knowledge and the degree of artistic, scientific and industrial development within an era, social group, etc. In Cambridge Dictionaries Online (2012), culture was defined as “the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time”. Since even the definition of the word itself varies from nation to nation and language to language, the definition used in this study should be defined with scrutiny. Beamer and Varner (2003) explained that culture was “coherent,” learned,” and “shared 9.

(22) view of a group of people” (pp. 4-5). People within the same culture hold constant, coherent, and complete view of the universe. They also agreed on certain things without having to say so. In addition, Adler (2001) mentioned that culture, structuring one’s perception of the world, was shared by members of social groups and it would be passed to younger generations. Similarly, Damen (1987) defined culture as “learned and shared human patterns or models for living; day to day living patterns” (p. 367). Lederach (1995) also stated that culture is the “shared knowledge and schemes” (p. 9) which were created by a group of people in order to form our perception and interpretation of the world. Though some terms in the definitions were different, there were commonalities among four definitions which were “shared” and “learned”. These two words suggested that culture was a shared view of a group of people and was learned and could be learned from others or older generations. On the other hand, Hofstede (1984) defined culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another” (p. 51). His definition pointed out that culture helped identify a certain group of people. Beamer and Varner (2003) and Lederach (1995) also mentioned that culture was possessed by a certain group of people. Accordingly, culture was something that helped people distinguish themselves from those from different cultures. In this study, the definition of culture is derived from the aforementioned literatures with the focus on intercultural communication. Culture, therefore, is defined as a shared and learned view of the world and the life pattern set by a certain group of people.. Communication Communication had been recognized widely but defined unsatisfactorily (Fiske, 1990). Fiske mentioned that there are two main schools in the study of communication. The first school was referred to “process school” (p. 2) and the second was “semiotic school” (p. 2). Many communication theories developed from Shannon and Weaver’s communication model which included seven main components: sender, encoder, channel, decoder, receiver, 10.

(23) noise and feedback (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). It was a simple linear process (Figure 2.1.).. Figure 2.1. Shannon and Weaver model of communication. Adapted from Communication Theory, by Communication Theory, 2010, Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/shannon-and-weaver-model-of-communication/. Copyright [2010] by Communication Theory.. Shannon and Weaver’s linear process model was also applied in George Gerbner’s model as a skeleton (Fiske, 1990). Gerbner’s model (Figure 2.2.) had two dimensions, perceptual dimension and media and control dimension (Gerbner, 1956). Firstly, in the perceptual dimension, “E” means an event that happens and is perceived by “M” which could be human or machine. The difference between “E” and “E1” is that “El” goes through the selection. “M” could not perceive “E” completely so “M” only selects what interest him/her. The perception process is complicated. According to Jandt (2007), the perception process was divided into three stages: selection, organization and interpretation. After “M” selects a certain context, the meaning will be generated from “matching of external stimuli and internal concept” (Fiske, 1990, p. 25). “Availability” is based on “M’s” 11.

(24) culture or attitude which influenced how the matching is made and how the information is interpreted. Secondly, in the mean and control dimension, “E2” means the event or content modified by “M” and delivered through the chosen channel. “M” uses signal, symbol, or statement to deliver the content and the signal is termed “SE2”. This model can be duplicated in the following communication if the content of the event were delivering continuously (Gerbner, 1956).. Figure 2.2. Gerbner’s communication Model. Adapted from Communication Theory, by Communication Theory, 2010, Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/gerbners-general-model/. Copyright [2010] by Communication Theory.. For example, news reporters may see an event from diverse perspective and they only catch or select what they think important or attractive to their audience. Therefore, an event, “E”, is perceived and a certain content is selected to be the “E1” which will be the source for 12.

(25) the reporter to write a news. They based on the content of “E1” modify the source into “E2”. Then, the news reporters choose the channel like different position of a newspaper. The channel is called “SE2”. Finally, the news is delivered to the audience and again each audience will have various perceptions about this event, “E2”. If they share this news with others through facebook, speech, or chatting, the process goes on. Shannon and Weaver’s Model was further developed continually. Berlo (1960) mentioned in The Process of Communication that Shannon and Weaver’s model was consistent with what Aristotle wrote in Rhetoric, including three important factors: speakers, speech, and the listener. Berlo got his basic idea about communication from Aristotle’s explanation and thus applied to examine other theories. Though there were many related theories, all of them possessed similarities with Shannon and Weaver’s model.. Figure 2.3. Berlo’s SMCR model of communication. Adapted from Communication Theory, by Communication Theory, 2010, Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/berlos-smcr-model-of-communication/. Copyright [2010] by Communication Theory.. Berlo (1960) basically developed his communication model according to Shannon and Weaver’s model (Figure 2.3.). There are six main components in his communication process 13.

(26) model: communication source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, and communication receiver. Except process of encoding and decoding, the other four components all had five factors which could increase the fidelity. With seven components in the communication process, Robbins and Judge (2011) also developed a similar model. However, “noise” in their model incorporated a boarder meaning. It referred to the communication barrier which affects the clarity of messages. Cultural difference, language barriers, and information overload are all regarded as “noise”. Jandt (2007) further developed the process communication and included more components into the model. There were source, encoding, message, channel, receiver, decoding, receiver response, noise, feedback, and context in Jandt’s model (Figure 2.4.). The source was the person who wanted to communicate.. Figure 2.4. Ten components of communication. Reprinted from An introduction to intercultural communication (p. 33), by F. E. Jandt, 2007, California: Sage. Copyright [2007] by Sage Publication, Inc.. Due to different backgrounds, people cannot directly share their thinking and ideas. People had to encode their idea into a symbol. For example, language was an obvious symbol 14.

(27) for people with the same cultural background (Beamer & Verner, 2003). Message “identifies the encoded thought” (Jandt, 2007, p. 32) which was defined as an outcome of encoding process. Channel referred to means by which messages were communicated. Noise referred to anything that influenced or distort the meaning of messages. It could be three main forms: external noise, internal noise and semantic noise. External noise, for example, could be the noise from the traffic when students were studying. Internal noise, on the other hand, was generated internally. If a person was hungry during the communication, he/she would be distracted from the conversation. Lastly, semantic noise refers to the language use which happens especially when receivers were likely to misunderstand the words. After the previous process, the message was transmitted to receivers who “attend to the message” (Jandt, 2007, p. 33). Decoding was the contrary process of encoding which was also consider equally active. Receiver response referred to any response or action the receiver might have after receiving the message. Feedback referred to receiver’s response to which the source attended to. Lastly, context was the environmental factor. The context could be physical environment, cultural context, or social relationships. Jandt mentioned that these components “are particularly useful in beginning a study of communication” (Jandt, 2007, p. 32). This study is mainly based on Jandt’s model. On the other hand, the “semiotic school” were basically established and theorized by Peirce and Saussure. Semiotic referred to the study in sign and how it work. Semiotic school did not emphasize on communication as a process but instead regarded it as “generation of meaning” (Fiske, 1990, p.39). When a person communicated messages with others, he/she would transform the message into sign. The sign stimulated the receiver and then generated the meaning according to the receiver’s sign system. The more codes shared in two sign system, the closer the sign systems would be. The semiotic school focused on three aspects: the sign, the sign system, and the culture generated the sign system (Fiske, 1990). The receiver’s position was viewed as a more active 15.

(28) role in semiotic school. As a matter of fact, receiver’s position was not emphasized in process school except Gerbner’s and Jandt’s model. The first known semiotic scholar was Pierce. Peirce’s model was established by a triad with sign, object, and interpretant (Fiske, 1990; Peirce, 1931-58). An object represented the referred thing itself. A sign represented for concepts or ideas modified from an object. In other words, a sign conveyed the meaning modified by the sender. Interpretant was the one who received the meaning. The definition of interpretation of a meaning varies from interpretant to intepretant with diverse cultural or social background. Similarly, Ferdinand de Saussure (1966), a Swiss linguist, also developed his model based on the same concept. He discussed communication from the perspective of linguistics. Saussure proposed the linguistic sign was a bilateral entity (Figure 2.5.).. Figure 2.5. Two-sided psychological entity of linguistic sign. Reprinted from Course in general linguistics (p.66), by Ferdinand de Saussure, 1966. NY: McGraw-Hill. Copyright [1959] by The Philosophical Library, Inc.. Sound-image meant the referred object itself in reality. Concept meant a person’s mental concept of the sign. To make the model clearer, Saussure replaced two terms with “signifier” and “signified” (Saussure, 1966, p. 67) respectively (Figure 2-8). Signifier replaced sound-image, simply referring to the object. Signified denoted a mental concept. Signifiers changed from language to language because they represented symbols, the words. People 16.

(29) easily thought that everyone shared the same signifieds but actually they differed from people’s mental concepts about the referred objects. In other words, signified would be influenced by cultural background or personal experiences.. Figure 2.6. Sassure’s elements of meaning. Reprinted from Course in general linguistics (p.66), by Ferdinand de Saussure, 1966. NY: McGraw-Hill. Copyright [1959] by The Philosophical Library, Inc.. Summary Although culture has been divergently defined and communication models were diversely developed, the researcher attempted to filter out an appropriate definition of culture and an optimal communication model as bases of this study. As a result of literature reviews, the culture is defined as a shared and learned view of the world and the life pattern set by a group of people. On the other hand, Jandt’s communication model consisting of ten communication components is used as a basis of this study. In addition, Sassure’s concept about signifier and signified is also applied.. 17.

(30) Intercultural Communication Intercultural Communication basically meant a face-to-face interaction among people with various cultural backgrounds (Jandt, 2007). In other words, the source and the receiver of the communication process are from contexts and shared few symbols or signs. Two important concepts are reviewed when it comes to intercultural communication. They are high- and low-context cultures and dimensions of national culture. Furthermore, literatures regarding intercultural communication strategies are also reviewed, summarized, and concluded.. High- and Low- Context High- and low- context in intercultural communication were essential in this study. Hall (1976) introduced that, based on contextual features, intercultural communication was divided into two types in terms of verbal use which were high-context culture and low-context culture. People who were prone to rely on verbal codes were classified as being from low-context culture. In the low-context culture, everything would be explicitly explained in communicators’ spoken languages. The verbal code was the main source of the information for communicators. On the contrary, people from high-context culture relied more on the contextual elements. To put it another way, communicators could gain information from not only verbal codes but also the physical and psychological context.. National Culture Besides the dichotomy of communicators in terms of context, how cultures vary from one nation to another is also critical in intercultural communication. Hofstede (2012) introduced in his personal website that there were in total six dimensions in national cultures. These dimensions helped define and locate a nation’s culture. Dimensions included power distance (PDI), individualism versus collectivism (IDV), masculinity versus femininity (MAS), uncertainty avoidance (UAI), long-term versus short-term orientation (LTO), and 18.

(31) indulgence versus restraint (IVR). These dimensions would be scored for each nation and compared with one another. The scores were meaningful only when comparisons were made. Power distance referred to the degree of inequality that people within a society could accept. In societies with large power distance, people lived with a clear hierarchical order. On the contrary, in societies with low power distance, people strived to equalize the social status and allocation of power. Nations scoring high in dimension of individualism versus collectivism were taken as individualism. In other words, individuals were expected to be independent in a society. Individuals would care more about themselves and their close families. In contrast, nations scoring low in this dimension were taken as collectivism. People in collectivism society would prefer establish intimate relationship with a group of people. Nations fallen into the masculinity side of masculinity versus femininity preferred “achievement”, “heroism”, and “material reward for success”. On the opposite, femininity represented a preference for “cooperation”, “modesty”, “caring for the weak” and “quality of life”. Uncertainty avoidance represented the degree of uncertainty and ambiguity to which people of a society could tolerate. In societies with strong uncertainty avoidance, people tended to keep rules and codes without allowing any uncertainty. However, people in societies with weak uncertainty avoidance held relaxed attitude and were more willing to take risks. The fifth dimension, long-term versus short-term orientation, was added in 1991. This dimension expressed as how people deal with searching for “virtue”. In the short-term oriented society, people were eager for building the “absolute truth”. They were less likely to think for the future and always wanted the quick result. Oppositely, in the long-term oriented society, people thought that the truth varies in different scenarios. They had strong propensity to invest for the future. 19.

(32) The last dimension introduced by Hofstede (2012) was indulgence versus restraint. In the indulgence society, people pursued “carpe diem”. They allowed their human nature navigate their behavior. Contrarily, in the restraint society, people were suppressed. Their lives were regulated and constrained strictly by social norms. For example, according to statistics provided on website (2012) Taiwan scored 58 in PDI, 17 in IDV, 45 in MAS, 69 in UAI, and 87 in LTO. First, people in the society accept inequality of distribution of power and could live in the society with a hierarchical order. Then, Taiwan got low score in IDV, meaning its society focused on relationship and bonding. Accordingly, it was a collectivism society. Thirdly, scoring 45 in MAD, Taiwan was defined as a femininity society. People cared about qualities of their lives and solve problems through communication and negotiation mostly. High score in UAI represented the high uncertainty avoidance. People in Taiwan led their lives in a more conservative way. Finally, the high score in LTO echoed with the long tradition in teachings of Confucius in Taiwanese culture. People were long-term oriented. They always prepared for their future. In the example, the IVR index was not provided on website due to incomplete construction of the data base. Through the example, people could understand how to compare different cultures and how cultures influence people. In this study, participants and the group they guided would be classified and compared in accordance with these dimensions.. Intercultural Communication Strategies Mary Hinchcliff-Pelias and Norman S. Greer (2004) discussed possible strategies to “facilitate effective intercultural communication interactions” (p. 14). Strategies discussed included developing knowledge about one’s and the international partner’s cultural conventions, learning lessons from each misunderstanding in intercultural communication, freeing themselves from stereotypes of counterparts, and accumulating encountering experiences with international partners (Table 2.1.). 20.

(33) Table 2.1. Intercultural Communication Strategies Strategy. Specification. Being bi-cultural aware. Be aware of cultural conventions of both parties.. Learning from misunderstandings. Learn from each intercultural communication.. Avoiding stereotype. Avoid any presupposition about people of any group. Increasing encountering experiences. Increase intercultural interactions with international partners.. First, being bi-cultural self-aware was one of the most widely discussed strategies. A recent study about cultivating cross-cultural competence in Chinese teachers highlighted the importance of possessing bi-cultural self-awareness (Gao, 2010). Chinese teachers for international students were supposed to be familiar with their own culture as well as their students’ cultures. Therefore, in the intercultural context, teachers would know how to handle the cultural shock appropriately. Another research also emphasized that Chinese teachers, who taught Chinese as second language, should have the cultural self-awareness for a more effective communication with international students (Liou, 2010). Furthermore, Carbaugh (2012) illustrated similar concept by introducing two terms, communication cue and communication code. Communication cues could be language, gesture, facial expression or our dress. These cues transmitted our meanings, including explicit meaning and implicit meanings. People belonging to a community would have the same cues because they share specific values. These specific values related to communication were called communication code. Cues could be interpreted from different perspectives, depending on how people coded them. Therefore, understanding different codes or, to put it another way, cultures, were necessary in effective intercultural communication. Chen and 21.

(34) Yang (2012) also mentioned without knowledge of the counterpart’s cultural conventions would cause misunderstanding. Second, Hinchcliff-Pelias and Greer (2004) collected data from 64 students from 20 countries and got a recurrent theme which was “no pain, no gain” (p. 15) approach to improve the effectiveness of intercultural communication. Students thought that each embarrassment or misunderstanding caused from cultural differences would reinforce their understanding of their international partners’ cultural attitudes, values and beliefs. Third, avoiding stereotype was also pivotal in intercultural communication. One of the notorious problems for intercultural communicators was stereotype, which referred to an idea or judgment particularly on certain group of people (Jandt, 2007). Effective intercultural communication required both parties free themselves from stereotype (Hinchcliff-Pelias & Greer, 2004). Fourth, gaining more encountering experiences could be helpful in intercultural communication. Students in Hinchcliff-Pelias and Greer’s (2004) research claimed that brining people from diverse cultures together contributed to the effectiveness of intercultural interaction. Paula Bradfiled-kreider (2001) mentioned that people did not critically and consciously analyze their own racial identity until they have experience of encountering others from different cultures. This concept also echoed with the first strategy which was about being bi-cultural self-aware. The encountering experiences brought communicators opportunities to introspect themselves. Another research done by Keengwe (2010) also revealed the advantages of increasing encountering opportunities. Keengwe matched 28 white female pre-service teachers with English Language Learners in their university and asked them to record their interaction and to write a responsive paper. The research result showed that these pre-service teachers could realize their own cultures and others better through the process, and tried to build their own interaction strategies accordingly. 22.

(35) Summary The High- and Low-context cultures Theories and National Cultures Theory are both critical in the study of intercultural communication. These two theories help the research gain a better picture of differences among different cultures and compare and analyze findings. In this session, four intercultural communication strategies were mentioned including being bi-cultural awareness, learning from misunderstandings, avoiding stereotype, and increasing encountering experiences. All these intercultural communication strategies were all significant in improving the intercultural communication.. 23.

(36) Language and Communication Strategies In this session, the language is defined at the first place. Then, literatures about communication strategies in second languages are reviewed and the summary of strategies is provided.. Definition “A language is a system of conventional vocal signs by means of which human beings communicate” (Algeo, 2010, p.2). This definition has been widely known among language major students and researchers. There were several key terms in this definition. Firstly, language was not merely a collection of words of signs. In fact, language was established as a system. Although gestures or notes on papers could also convey meanings, signs were basically vocal. Lastly, many languages are conventionally and arbitrary. In other words, the sounds of signs or words usually have no connections with the referred object or phenomenon in the real world. Signs at first were like miming which related signs and things (Fromkim, Rodman & Hyams, 2003). Over time, the signs evolved and changed, and the connections were lost gradually. These signs became conventional without connections with the referred object or phenomenon. In this study, communicators are classified according to four types of communications which explains the communication between native speakers and second-language speakers. The second language in this study does not simply refer to English. Russian, Korean, Japanese, and Spanish are also discussed.. Second Language Communication Strategies In this study, most of research participants communicate in second languages during the festival. These participant frequently encountered language barriers. For example, improper wordings interrupted the communication process. The Chinese word, “miàn zi”, implied that the direct feedback for a Chinese was not welcomed (Pucik, 2005). However, this term was difficult to translate directly into English. Therefore, the “convoluted description”, which 24.

(37) described and explained the term instead of directly referring to it, was adopted in this scenario (Bialystok, 1990). People would try to explain that “miàn zi” was related to faces. Faces represented shame, dignity, and confidence and so on. If a person lost his/her face, he/she would felt humiliated or embarrassed. This kind of indirect description was regarded convoluted description. The attempts to overcome language barriers or gaps which interfered with communication were communication strategies (Bialystok, 1990). Communication strategies basically incorporated three characteristics: problematicity, consciousness, and intentionality. Problematicity meant communicators would use communication strategies when they encounter problems in communication. Consciousness meant communicators were conscious of their language use. Lastly, intentionality means communicators purposefully select certain strategies to solve the communication problems. Understanding these features would help communicators distinguish strategic language use from non-strategic language-use (Bialystok, 1990). According to Tarone (1977), communication strategies were divided into five types: avoidance, paraphrase, conscious transfer, appeal for assistance, and mime (Table 2.2.). Firstly, avoidance included two strategies, topic avoidance and message avoidance. Topic avoidance was adopted when a communicator has difficulty presenting the idea. The communicator would try to avoid the topic. On the other hand, message avoidance meant a communicator would abandon certain messages that disrupted the fluency of the communication. Avoidance strategies were regarded to ensure the continuity of communication. Secondly, there were three types of paraphrase strategy: approximation, word coinage, and circumlocution. Paraphrase basically reworded the sentences. Approximation meant a communicator facing difficulty correctly expressing the idea would reconstruct sentences with different words. Though rewordings did not convey the correct concept, they 25.

(38) approximately provided enough semantic features for others to understand intended meanings. Word coinage literally meant creating new words.. Table 2.2. Second Language Communication Strategies Strategy. Specification. Avoidance. Topic Avoidance Message Avoidance. Paraphrase. Approximation Word coinage Circumlocution. Conscious Transfer. Literal Translation Language Switch. Appeal for Assistance. Appeal for Assistance. Mime. Mime. For example, “lǎo” and “jiù” are really confusing lexicons in Chinese for foreigners. Both lexicons have some meanings overlapping with each other and were basically translated into “old” in English. If a communicator wanted to say “old professor” in Chinese, two words would came up in his/her mind, “lǎo jiào-shòu” and “jiù jiào-shòu”, in which “jiào-shòu” meant a professor. However, only the former one made sense since “jiù” implied the referred object that had lost value of the term. Communicators at beginner’s level might articulate the latter lexicon but they could still be understood. It would be classified as word coinage. Finally, circumlocution referred to the strategy that extended description processes by explaining more semantic features or characteristics of referred objects. A communicator 26.

(39) would try to give more characteristics for others to gather the exact meanings. Thirdly, conscious transfer consisted of literal translation and language switch. Literal translation was the strategy that a communicator literally translated the word into simpler language. Language switch meant a communicator directly inserted the words into sentences. Fourthly, appeal for assistance meant a communicator turned to experts or a dictionary for help. During the communication, the communicator would even raise the intonation to implicatively ask for assistance from listeners. The last strategy reviewed was the mime. Non-verbal behaviors which accompanied the communication, helping to deliver the expected meaning and concepts were all considered as the mime strategy.. Summary In addition to intercultural communication strategies discussed in the previous session, this session bring out strategies applied in second language communication. Since participants in this study communicate mostly in second language, strategies reviewed here provided valuable materials for the following research.. 27.

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(41) CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODS. Research Approach This study adopted the qualitative approach since it utilized various empirical materials such as interviews, conversations, personal experiences, and cultural context, trying to interpret and explain the selection process of Cultural Facilitators’ communication language and intercultural communication strategies (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). As Mertens (2005) put, when the research questions included “detailed, in-depth information” or focused on “individualized outcomes”, the qualitative method was suggested. Cultural Facilitators interviewed for this study were asked questions regarding their planning and selection process of communication strategies which varied from person to person. Furthermore, not only their individualized results mattered but also the exhaustive answers to research questions played an important role in this study. Compared to the quantitative approach, the qualitative approach enabled the researcher to get a more insightful understanding of Cultural Facilitators about the inner selection process when engaged in an intercultural communication. Besides, the qualitative study also explored interviewees’ feedback on the whole communication process. In brief, the qualitative research facilitated the researcher explore essence of phenomenon that other approaches could not probe (Bodgan, 1975; Patton, 2002). Meriam (2009) explains, “The overall purpose is to understand how people make sense of their lives and their experiences” (p. 23). Therefore, the qualitative was adopted in the study.. 29.

(42) Research Framework The framework of this study was constructed based on research purpose and research questions stated in Chapter I. This study aims to identify communication strategies used by Cultural Facilitators in 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival and to explore factors affecting their strategies selection.. Figure 3.1. Research framework. Second language communication strategies and intercultural communication strategies were both examined and identified. In Chapter II, five primary communication strategies in second language communication had been identified by Tarone (1977) which were avoidance, conscious transfer, paraphrase, appeal for assistance, and mime. Intercultural communication strategies were also suggested by Hinchcliff-Pelias and Greer (2004) which referred to being 30.

(43) bi-cultural aware, learning from misunderstanding, avoiding stereotype, and increasing encountering experiences. Although participants’ responses might not fit into these classifications, these strategies served as a good base for the analysis. Finally, the results were derived from data responded to research question of this study.. Research Procedure The research procedure in this study included twelve steps which were described gradually below (Figure 3.2.): 1. Identify Research Topic: After consulting with the advisor and subject matter experts, and reviewing some literatures about intercultural communication, the researcher identified the topic which aimed to explore intercultural communication strategies used by Cultural Facilitators in international events and rationales for them to select certain strategies. 2. Research Questions and Purpose: Through reading more related literatures and discussing with the advisor, the researcher was able to set the research questions and the purpose specifically. 3. Determine the Research Method: In order to explore the process of communication strategies which focused more on inner process, the research decided to adopt the qualitative research to get insightful information. 4. Observation and Data Collection: After deciding to adopt the qualitative research, the researcher participated in 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival as a Cultural Facilitator and an observer for the research. During the festival, the researcher collected data through working as a Cultural Facilitator. 5. Literature Review: After finishing the work in the festival, the researcher started to review literatures related 31.

(44) to intercultural communication, communication strategies and communication in second languages. The main focus was on the communication strategies used in intercultural and inter-linguistic context and communication models that might be applicable in this study. 6. Set Framework Literature review provided fundamental concepts for constructing the framework which included rationales, communication strategies and the corresponding research questions. 7. Design Interview Questions Interview questions were developed from research questions. In case the question is too broad to recall their memories, most questions are designed sequentially based on Cultural Facilitators’ daily work in the festival. 8. Expert Review/Peer Review/Pretest The interview questions were first sent to the project manager and assistant for revision. Then, the researcher’s classmates who also had the knowledge about intercultural communication helped to improve the wording and grammars of the questions. 9. Modify Interview Questions After reviews, the researcher modified questions accordingly and then finalized the interview questions. 10. Conduct the interview As soon as interview questions were finalized, the researcher began to interview Cultural Facilitators who had been selected by the project manager and assistant. 11. Analyze Data Interview verbatim and records, relevant documents and personal observation were all used for analysis. The researcher coded the interview verbatim in order to systematically analyze the data. 12. Conclude Research Findings After finishing the data analysis, the research applied previously reviewed literatures and 32.

(45) findings of the analysis to respond to research questions in this study. Implications were provided for those who work in similar scenarios and for the future researches.. Figure 3.2. Research procedure. 33.

(46) Research Participants and Criteria Qualitative study, compared to quantitative study, usually emphasized on a smaller group of samples which were purposefully selected instead of being randomly selected (Patton, 2002). The purposeful sampling helped researchers focus on samples with abundant information. Therefore, the participants of this study were purposefully selected according to Patton’s sampling strategies. There were ten sampling strategies developed by Patton and “intensity sampling” (p. 234) adopted in this study was one of them. The “intensity sampling” was composed of “information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon of interest intensely” (p.234). Cultural Facilitators in the 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival provided rich information as research material for the study on intercultural communication since they frequently communicated with different parties so that they were selected as participants for the research. Nevertheless, not every Cultural Facilitator was selected as research participants. Every Cultural Facilitator should present their TOEIC or TOFEL score when they applied for being a Cultural Facilitator in the festival. They should score at least 800 in TOEIC or 80 in TOFEL to be qualified candidates. They also went through oral interview conducted in English, Chinese and Taiwanese. In other words, they were competent in language proficiency since it was one of the utmost concerns of all requirements. There were four criteria for selecting participants for this study: (1) they participated in 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival; (2) they were Taiwanese and grew up in Taiwan; (3) they have to be familiar with Mandarin Chinese, Taiwanese and one second Language which helped them communicate with international ensembles; (4) the list of Cultural Facilitators were reviewed by the project manager and assistant of the festival to select participants who were good communicators during the event. Furthermore, after the participants were selected, they were classified into four groups based on their communication languages used during communication. The four 34.

(47) communication types are shown below:. Table 3.1. Communication Type Ensembles Native Language. Second Language. Cultural Native Language. 1. 4. Second Language. 2. 3. Facilitators. In this study, the native language meant the official language, in which they were mastering. For example, the native languages for Singapore are Chinese, Malay, English, and Tamil. Taiwanese Cultural Facilitators whose native language was Chinese could communicate with Singapore ensemble by Chinese and English so they were classified into the first and second type simultaneously. The first type meant both Cultural Facilitators and group members used their native language to communicate, suggesting that they have the same official language. The second type meant the Cultural Facilitators used their second language which was the native language of intercultural counterparts. The Singapore ensemble which was discussed earlier belongs to this type. The third type meant both parties used second language to communicate. For example, Cultural Facilitators for Bulgaria used English to communicate with members who also used English instead of their mother tongue. Lastly, the forth type meant that Cultural Facilitators communicate with others by their native language which was the second language to others. However, in this study, the last communication type was not discussed because none of Cultural Facilitators had this kind of communication experiences in this event. 35.

(48) Table 3.2. The Description of Interview Participants Name. Gender. Group. Native Tongue. Communication Language. Communication Type. Iris. F. Japan. Japanese. Japanese. 2. Federer. M. Japan. Japanese. Japanese. 2. Janet. F. Korea. Korean. Korean. 2. Lassie. F. Korea. Korean. Korean/English. 2.3. Stacy. F. Nepal. Nepali. English. 3. Jophia. F. Singapore. English, Malay, Chinese &Tamil. Chinese. 1. English Andrea. F. Singapore. English, Malay, Chinese & Tamil. Chinese. 1. English Anna. F. Philippines. Filipino. English. 2. English. 3. English Natasha. F. Slovakia. Slovak. (continued) 36.

(49) Table 3.2. (continued) Name. Gender. Group. Native Tongue. Communication Language. Communication Type. Sophia. F. Slovakia. Slovak. English. 3. William. M. Slovakia. Slovak. English. 3. Fiona. F. Bulgaria. Bulgarian. English. 3. Zoya. F. Bulgaria. Bulgarian. English. 3. Alyssa. F. Turkey. Turkish. English. 3. Jacob. M. Serbia. Serbian. English. 3. Kate. F. Serbia. Serbian. English. 3. Maggie. F. Serbia. Serbian. English. 3. Lucas. M. Mexico. Spanish. Spanish. 2. Felisa. F. Mexico. Spanish. Spanish. 2. Galina. F. Russia. Russian. Russian. 2. Note: Numbers in the column of communication type refer to the table 3.1.. 37.

(50) Data Collection This study mainly focused on Cultural Facilitators in international events in Taiwan. Since the researcher participated in 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival as an observer, it also adopted the case study on this event specifically and provided references for future international events. Case study was regarded as the primary research method of qualitative research (Hsiao, 2007). Like other research methods of qualitative research, the case study also viewed researchers as main instrument and aimed to conduct inductive investigation and to produce richly descriptive outcome (Merriam, 2009). In this research, data were collected through participant observation, in-depth interviews, and document review.. Participant Observation Data used for qualitative research mainly came from the field work (Patton, 2002). Participant observation referred to “research characterized by a period of intense social interaction between the researcher and the subjects” (Bodgan, 1975, p. 5). The researcher also involved himself in 2010 and 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival and, thus, had the opportunity to see, to observe, and to understand the interaction, organization and relationship in the whole event. The researcher went through formal selection process conducted by Tainan City Government in Taiwan, and got employed as the Cultural Facilitators for Slovakia Bratislava Technik Dance Ensemble, staying with the ensemble for 24 hours a day during the whole festival lasting for 15 days. Besides the role as a Cultural Facilitator, the researcher was also invited to give a short training to newly selected Cultural Facilitators due to rich experiences in 2010. According to Merriam (2009), the researcher was defined as a “participant as observer” (p. 124), whose observer role was known to the whole group. Being a participant and an observer simultaneously was probably the only way to get dependable materials. During the festival, the main focuses of the researcher’s observation were on how 38.

(51) Cultural Facilitators interpreted for international ensembles, how they facilitate intercultural communication and how they tackle emergent situation. Notes, photos, diaries taken during the festival were all used as research materials in this study.. In-depth Interview When researchers were interested in the past event or how people interpreted the world around them, the interview was a good approach to get the necessary information for research. In this study, the researcher would like to understand the inner process of selecting communication strategies and their feedback on the whole process. As Patton (2002) stated, interview was adopted when observation could not directly provide necessary and important information. The qualitative approach primarily focused on describing how people selected their strategies, made decisions, and took actions (Hsiao, 2009). Accordingly, the interview became the top priority when choosing methods for data collection. Interview was also classified into different styles. In this study, the semistructured interview was adopted for it was “open-ended” (Merriam, 2009, p. 90), which presumed individuals had their “unique” (p. 90) perspectives towards the world in order to get more in-depth and insightful information and material. Interview questions were developed from the research questions: 1. What communication strategies are used by Cultural Facilitators to achieve the goal of international events in inter-linguistic and intercultural context? 2. What are rationales for Cultural Facilitators to select their communication strategies? There were in total 15 questions, covering every aspect of research questions. They are listed at the appendix A. of this study. To ensure the reliability and validity of research questions, interview questions were reviewed by experts. All questions were sent to the project manager and assistant of 2012 Nan Ying International Folklore Festival and reviewed by both of them. The project manager and assistant had held the Nan Ying International Folklore Festival twice, accumulating rich 39.

(52) experiences in intercultural communication. As experts in intercultural communication in this event, they could review interview questions with scrutiny, penetrating deeper into the core issue of interview questions. After the expert review, the revised interview questions were sent to master students for peer review who also had good English ability and received trainings of intercultural communication and qualitative research. Wordings of interview questions were also examined carefully in order to accurately express the intended meanings. Furthermore, before conducting the interview with research participants, the researcher explained the process and the issue of confidentiality to the participants and also had interviewees sign the consent form to ensure their confidentiality.. Document Review Materials considered as document in qualitative research had four kinds: public records, personal documents, popular culture documents, and visual documents (Merriam, 2009). In this study, the researcher needed to review the background information provided by the secretary of the Tainan City Government. Moreover, the training materials, official brochures, posters, website, photography, and videos were also good resources for the research. The researcher also reviewed feedbacks by previous Cultural Facilitators or guides for other international events on the internet. The focus of document review was on how the government or individual address the intercultural and inter-linguistic issues.. Data Analysis Firstly, since the researcher also participated in the event, the overall background, organization and tasks were clearly understood. With the comprehensive knowledge of the event, the researcher could save the time understanding the event and go directly to the important issues regarding the research questions in the interview. Each interview were recorded by the digital voice recorder, taken notes, and briefly 40.

(53) analyzed simultaneously. By using the recorder, the researcher mainly focused on taking notes of key facts instead of verbatim notes (Patton, 2002). After the interview, all the recordings were transcribed into verbatim. The verbatim were reviewed with keynotes taken during the interview in order to sift out important information hidden between lines. After collecting all the verbatim and notes, the “open coding” was used as the first step in analyzing the data. At the beginning of analyzing data, being “as expansive as possible” (Merriam, 2009, p. 179) was necessary to gain potentially useful data. The results of initial coding defined as different categories were combined accordingly into different themes. The process of categorizing here was defined as “analytical coding” (p. 180). The themes were sifted, sorted, and finalized into findings in response to research questions of the study. Furthermore, during the coding process, a peer who received trainings of human resource development, intercultural communication and qualitative research was invited to work together with researcher to increase the credibility of the research. The categories, themes, and findings were checked carefully on whether they were “responsive to answers,” “sensitive to the data,” “exhaustive,” “mutually exclusive,” and “conceptually congruent” (Merriam, 2009, p. 186). During the coding and categorizing process, the key notes and documents were reviewed simultaneously to help the researcher gain a more in-depth understanding of these materials. Finally, the findings and conclusion of the study were drawn from the aforementioned data. The analysis process is listed in the Figure 3.3.. 41.