• 沒有找到結果。

人力資源效性和工作滿意度對於組織績效的影響之探討

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "人力資源效性和工作滿意度對於組織績效的影響之探討"

Copied!
104
0
0

加載中.... (立即查看全文)

全文

(1)The Influence of HR Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction on Organizational Performance. by. Marcus Lin. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF EDUCATION. Major: International Workforce Education and Development. Advisor: Ted Shir-Tau Tsai, Ph. D. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2009.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. My warmest thanks go to Dr. Ted Tsai for his inspiring guidance and encouragement throughout my research for this work. For their reading of the manuscript and for helpful suggestions and other support, I want to thank Dr. Chen and Dr. Lai. My gratitude is also extended to Dr. Chang, Dr. Lai, Dr. Shih and Dr. Wang for their instructions during my study at NTNU. Moreover, I’d like to express my gratitude toward my dearest classmates, both international and local, for all the fun we have during these two years and I certainly learn a lot from you guys, you guys are amazing! Special thanks to Ada, Austin, Jallow, Pearl and Vladimira, without them, my life in IWED would not be as interesting as it could ever be. Finally, I would like to extend my heart-felt thanks to my family. The support and blessings from my family are the momentum that drives me to the completion of this work..

(3) ABSTRACT As the global corporate environment intensifies and complicates, the survival of business relies on how critical the competencies and competitive advantages a company possesses. Since most companies tend to have similar infrastructures, equipment and technologies, which leaves only one factor vital to determining the success or failure of a company, human resources. Modern HRM should be constantly monitored and measured for its impacts on the people and the organization because it can serve as a driver in increasing the value of intellectual capital and helping enterprises boost organizational performance. Peter Drucker, perhaps the top management philosopher of our time, spoke of about the issue of measurement in several of his writings and emphasized how vital it was to measure HR effectiveness as measurement is the weakest area in management today (Fitz-enz, 1995). Job satisfaction, on the other hand, as Robbins (1998) pointed out, is important to the employees and the company because it can serve as an indicator that helps to identify problems from the aspects such as communications, working conditions and interactions, etc. And by dealing with the problems once they arise, it can improve the level of job satisfaction of the employees and therefore contribute the positive effects to the outcome of the company. This research study investigates the influence of HR effectiveness and job satisfaction on organizational performance and the results show that (1) HR effectiveness has significantly positive influence on organizational performance; (2) job satisfaction has partially significant positive influence on organizational performance; (3) HR effectiveness has significantly positive influence on job satisfaction.. Keywords: HR effectiveness, job satisfaction, organizational performance. I.

(4) II.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... III LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………….V LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. IX CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1 Background of the Study .................................................................................................. 1 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 3 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 3 Questions of the Study ..................................................................................................... 4 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 4 Delimitations ................................................................................................................... 5 Limitations....................................................................................................................... 5 Definition of Terms.......................................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................................... 9 Measuring HR Effectiveness ............................................................................................ 9 Importance of Measuring HR Effectiveness ..................................................................... 9 A Typology of Models for Assessing HR Effectiveness ................................................. 10 Stakeholder Model ......................................................................................................... 10 Utility Model ................................................................................................................. 14 Relationship Model ........................................................................................................ 18 Measuring by the Level of Outcome Proximity .............................................................. 21 Saratoga Approach ......................................................................................................... 22 Human Resource Scorecard ........................................................................................... 23 Criteria in Measuring HRM Performance ....................................................................... 24 III.

(6) Strategic HRM Functional Tasks ................................................................................... 26 Job Satisfaction .............................................................................................................. 30 Organizational Performance ........................................................................................... 35 Balanced Scorecard ........................................................................................................ 38 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Performance ........................................................... 43 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................... 47 Research Framework...................................................................................................... 47 Research Hypotheses ..................................................................................................... 48 Operational Definitions of the Variables ........................................................................ 49 Research Methods .......................................................................................................... 51 Research Procedure ........................................................................................................ 51 Research Subjects .......................................................................................................... 53 Instrumentation .............................................................................................................. 53 Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 56 Data Analysis................................................................................................................. 56 Reliability and Validity .................................................................................................. 57 CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS .............................................................. 61 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample ................................................................... 61 General Characteristics of All Scales ............................................................................. 63 One-Way ANOVA Analysis .......................................................................................... 65 Regression Analysis of HR Effectiveness on Job Satisfaction ........................................ 68 Regression Analysis of HR Effectiveness on Organizational Performance ..................... 71 Regression Analysis of Job Satisfaction on Organizational Performance ........................ 74 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 79 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 79 IV.

(7) Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 82 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 87 APPENDIX ………………………………………...…………………………………….......91. V.

(8) VI.

(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Stakeholder Approach ........................................................................................ .11 Table 2.2. Utility Approach ................................................................................................. .15 Table 2.3. Formulas to Measure HR Effectiveness Developed by Saratoga Institute............ .17 Table 2.4. Relationship Approach ....................................................................................... .19 Table 2.5. Strategic HRM Functional Tasks ........................................................................ .27 Table 3. 1. HR Effectiveness Scale………………………………...………………………….54 Table 3. 2. Job Satisfaction Scale………………………………………………..……………55 Table 3. 3. Financial Performances of The Companies in terms of The Three Indicators..…..56 Table 3. 4. Reliability of Scales……………………………...………………………………..58 Table 3. 5. Summary of Factor Analysis on SHRMFT Scale………………………………...59 Table 3. 6. Summary of Factor Analysis on Work on Present Job Scale……………………..60 Table 3. 7. Summary of Factor Analysis on Pay Scale……………………………………….60 Table 4. 1. Descriptive Statistics of The Sample……………….……………………………..62 Table 4. 2. Descriptive Statistics of Strategic HRM Functional Tasks Scale…………………63 Table 4. 3. Descriptive Statistics of Work on Present Job Scale……………………………...64 Table 4. 4. Descriptive Statistics of Pay Scale………………...………………………………65 Table 4. 5. Summary of ANOVA and Post Hoc Tests of HR Effectiveness, Job Satisfaction, WOPJ, Pay among Different Companies………………………………..………..66 Table 4. 6. Summary of Means of Different Companies on HR effectiveness, WOPJ, Pay and Job Satisfaction………..………...………….………………………………..68 Table 4. 7. Summary of Regression Analysis of HR Effectiveness on WOPJ…….………….69 Table 4. 8. Summary of Regression Analysis of HR Effectiveness on Pay……………….…...70 Table 4. 9. Summary of Regression Analysis of HR Effectiveness on PGR………………….71 Table 4. 10. Summary of Regression Analysis of HR Effectiveness on ROE…………………73 Table 4. 11. Summary of regression analysis of WOPJ and pay on PGR……………………..74 VII.

(10) Table 4. 12. Summary of Regression Analysis of WOPJ and Pay on SGR……………….…...75 Table 4. 13. Summary of Regression Analysis of WOPJ and Pay on ROE….………………..76 Table 4. 14. Results of Hypothesis Testing……………..……………...……………………...78. VIII.

(11) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. Strategic human resource management .............................................................. 20 Figure 2.2. Loop feedback system ....................................................................................... 40 Figure 2.3. The balanced scorecard dimensions ................................................................... 41 Figure 3.1. Research framework .......................................................................................... 47 Figure 3.2. Research hypotheses .......................................................................................... 49 Figure 3.3. Research procedure............................................................................................ 52. IX.

(12) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces the research background, problem statement, research purposes, research questions, significance of the study, limitation, delimitation and definition of terms in this study.. Background of the Study As the competition between rivals in the global business environment heats up, and issues on how to provide tangible, measureable results for enterprises and creating new corporate values, are drawing more attention than ever as more leaders and managers have come to realize that if they want to attain competitive advantages these days, they need to work on the center of gravity, the people (. , 2008). More and more enterprises have come. to recognize the importance and significance of measuring the effectiveness of HR systems or practices (Fitz-enz, 1995) for the facts that they serve as drivers in increasing the value of intellectual capital and helping enterprises boost organizational performance. As Dr. Fitz-enz suggested, the effectiveness of HR systems and HR practices are actually the same, therefore theses two terms will be used interchangeably in the following text. Many studies suggest that managers want HR to be more involved, provided them with business management and change management capabilities, and also more competent in technical, strategic, and financial areas. Modern HRM should be constantly monitored and measured for its impacts on the people and the organization. Peter Drucker, perhaps the top management philosopher of our times, spoke of about the issue of measurement in several of his writings and emphasized how vital it was to measure HR effectiveness as measurement is the weakest area in management today (Fitz-enz, 1995). In addition, there are also outstanding figures in both academic and practical fields such as Robert Kaplan, David Norton, Hugh Bucknull who are in favor of HR effectiveness measurement and show their. 1.

(13) support through writings and discourses. Even with this overwhelming evidence, there are still people who insist on the notion that they can survive without performance measurement. They blame their customers for not understanding that their function is somewhat different from all the other organizational entities, who depend on quantitative data analysis. To them, it’s a radical change which takes much more time to get accustomed to or never. Hence, it’s HR managers’ mission to change the landscape; they have to show CEOs that by measuring HR effectiveness, HR function can serve as a value-adding people-management function which are critical to organizational performance. Past literatures suggest that there is actually a positive relationship between job satisfaction and organizational performance: the higher the job satisfaction, the better the organizational performance. Besides from HR effectiveness, job satisfaction also serves a critical factor to bettering organizational performance, it is important for companies to monitor the job satisfaction of employees as it truly matters to the outcome of the company. Today, many companies tend to underestimate the importance of HR effectiveness and focus more on improving job satisfaction, which is insensible for the long term performance of the companies. In the light of such mentality, this research study embarks on examing the influences of HR effectiveness and job satisfaction at the same time, to see whether these two variables are predictive of organizational performance. Hopefully, through this study, the employers can learn to place equal emphasis on both HR effectiveness and job satisfaction, for which serve as vital elements to the success of the companies. Moreover, for the CEOs, any business activity which can contribute to the financial growth of the company is considered to be value-adding. And unfortunately, in the general perception, HR has had been regarded as more of a supportive function in a company in most occasions because its contribution to the financial outcome of the company is more indirect and less visible. This is why the CEOs are usually less concerned about the development of 2.

(14) HR departments in comparison to other departments such as sales department. In regard to this dilemma that HR professionals are facing today, the researcher intends to look at organizational performance from the financial perspective, to exam the influence of HR effectiveness and job satisfaction on the financial performance of the company, in hope to show the management level a more visible link between HR and financial organizational performance.. Purpose of the Study Based on the statement mentioned above, the purposes of this study are as follows: 1. To investigate whether there is any significant difference in HR effectiveness and job satisfaction based on the perceptions of employees of different companies. 2. To investigate whether employees’ perceptions of HR effectiveness have any influence on job satisfaction and organizational performance. 3. To investigate whether employees’ perceptions of job satisfaction have any influence on organizational performance.. Statement of the Problem The myth that one cannot measure human resources values has been refuted for so many years that it is a wonder that there is anyone who still accepts it. People seem reluctant to change and become accountable to this idea. In today’s market that is simply impossible. From the systemic point of view, human resource serves as the role of a sub-system within a system. Everything that happens within HR, to one extent or another, affects the larger system. HR department does have an effect on the output of the organization through the service it provides, but it is just not as evident as the business development department or the finance department in the general perceptions. Positioning is critical to the development of a business unit because it is a way to show 3.

(15) top executives who you are and what direction you are heading. For HR professionals, they need to position HR as a value-adding partner rather than as a supporting unit. More importantly, HR professionals have to earn partnership by demonstrating to the top executives that they truly have something of value for them. Therefore, they have to build visible links between HR practices and the outcome of the company through the means of measuring HR effectiveness from a strategic perspective. Moreover, lots of literatures suggest that job satisfaction is an important factor that contributes to the performance of an organization and there is a variety of models that consist of interesting dimensions, discussing what really composes of job satisfaction. Thus, the researcher is intrigued to examine whether job satisfaction has actual influence on organizational performance as numerous scholars point out.. Questions of the Study In this study, the researcher attempts to answer the following questions: 1. Is there any significant difference in HR effectiveness and job satisfaction based on the perceptions of employees among different companies? 2. Does HR effectiveness affect employees’ perceptions of job satisfaction and also organizational performance? 3. Does job satisfaction affect organizational performance?. Significance of the Study As the firms face aggravating environmental turbulences worldwide, it is crucial for manager and HR professionals to acknowledge the fact that in a time like this, the importance of defining and calculating the values of human resources contributing to the outcomes of the company is becoming more vital and appreciated. This way, HR professionals are able to monitor the effectiveness of HR systems or practices and see how the systems contribute to 4.

(16) the level of employee job satisfaction and organizational performance. HR professionals have to take on the responsibility to show managers that how effective the HR systems or practices can add values to the organization and give the organization a competitive advantage in an increasingly competitive corporate environment. The focal point of this study is to establish links among HR effectiveness, job satisfaction and organizational performance by providing insight into how HR effectiveness and job satisfaction have influence on organizational performance. More importantly, the research results imply that HR effectiveness and job satisfaction can be considered as indicators, and HR professionals are able to predict or monitor organizational performance with these indicators. This way, HR professionals can help the organizations to identify and formulate more comprehensive HR strategies for the future.. Delimitations Firstly, this research study is delimited to the investigation of the influence of HR effectiveness and job satisfaction on organizational performance. Secondly, the sample of study is delimited to the general employees (non-managerial positions) working in manufacture, service and finance industries.. Limitations There are some limitations identified in this research study. Firstly, because of the independent variables and dependent variable(s) are all evaluated by the perceptions of the employees and the use of self-report scales, which might invoke the problem of Common Method Variance (CMV), implying that the source of data is single, not various (Peng et al., 2006). This could compromise the quality of research work. This is the first limitation of this study. Moreover, due to time and resource constraints, the researcher was unable to fully prevent the problem of CMV by collecting data from different specified 5.

(17) sources regarding the three variables: HR effectiveness, job satisfaction and organizational performance. Instead, the researcher intended to rely on employees’ perceptions for the measurement of HR effectiveness and job satisfaction, meaning the source of data was single. This might not be the best solution for avoiding CMV, but to some degrees, it is still a viable solution nonetheless. Secondly, the sample size of this study is clearly not large enough to make such generalization that the research results could be representative of the entire population across all kinds of industries. Also, the sample size may not be ideal for conducting one-way ANOVA analysis which may potentially undermine the accuracy and quality of this research study. Fortunately, the research results do show significant influences of HR effectiveness and job satisfaction on organizational performance, the researcher believes that the research results are still of some pragmatic values. Thirdly, all variables in this study are evaluated from individual perspective, while HR effectiveness falls under the category of organizational-level variables, unlike job satisfaction as an individual-level variable. Hence, the third limitation of this research study is that, the organizational-level variable is measured by individuals, which might not be able to reflect the actuality. In spite of the fact that this study regards HR effectiveness as an individual-level variable with the acknowledgement of HR effectiveness being an organizational-level variable, it still has its values. The reason being, even when HR practices implemented on each employee are very similar, individuals will inevitably have different perceptions of the effectiveness of HR systems or practices due to different personal attributes and experiences, which will eventually affect their attitudes and behaviors toward their work and result in different level of job satisfaction.. 6.

(18) Definition of Terms HR effectiveness HR effectiveness can be defined as how much HR activities or HR systems contribute to the outcomes of an organization in terms of both individual level outcomes (job performance, job satisfaction, motivation, etc) and firm level outcomes (scrap rate, sales growth, ROA, ROI. etc). The researcher will use a 5 point Likert scale to measure HR effectiveness as an independent variable. The Strategic HRM Functional Tasks will be adopted as the instrument for measuring HR effectiveness in this research study, developed by Gomez-Mejia et al. (2001). This instrument contains nine dimensions including work flows, staffing, employee separations, performance appraisal, training development, compensation, employee relations, employee rights, and international management.. Job satisfaction As Balzer (2000) pointed out that job satisfaction is defined as the feelings a worker has for his or her job experiences in relation to previous experiences, current expectations, or available alternatives. The researcher will use a 5 point Likert scale to measure job satisfaction as an independent variable. The JDI (Job Descriptive Index) will be adopted as the instrument for measuring employee job satisfaction which contains the following dimensions: (1) work on present job, (2) pay, (3) opportunities for promotion, (4) supervision, (5) people on your present job, (6) job in general. For the purpose of keeping the questionnaire brief and neat instructed by the professor, the 7.

(19) short version of JDI will be adapted in this study which contains only two dimensions: work on present job and pay.. Organizational performance Performance is the output of an organization’s operations which is crucial to the survival of a business because manager can identify what is to be improved through the process of performance evaluation (Arthur, 1992; Delaney & Huselid, 1996; Huselid, Jackson & Schuler, 1997; Miler, 1990; Nkomo, 1987; Venkatraman & Ramnujam, 1986). The measuring of organizational. performance can be done by referring to both financial and non-financial index. The researcher will measure organizational performance by collecting, comparing and analyzing the published financial information in the Common Wealth magazine in terms of financial indicators including Sales Growth Rate (SGR), Profit Growth Rate (PGR) and Return on Equity (ROE) to see how the financial performances of the chosen companies relate to HR effectiveness and employee job satisfaction.. 8.

(20) CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter reviews the literature regarding HR effectiveness, job satisfaction and organizational performance.. Measuring HR Effectiveness For more than two decades, many scholars have conducted countless research studies on measuring or evaluating the effectiveness of HR function from various points of view and how the results relate to the outcome of the firm. In a more general sense, HR effectiveness can be defined as how much HR activities contribute to the outcomes of an organization in terms of both individual level outcomes (job performance, job satisfaction, motivation, etc) and firm level outcomes (scrap rate, sales growth, ROA, ROI. etc).. Importance of Measuring HR Effectiveness There is a continually increasing demand among the corporate world in how HR practices help organizations gain a competitive advantage, assessing HR effectiveness becomes more important for both non-HR managers and HR professionals. Measures of HR effectiveness justify, assess, and track the performance of personnel/HR departments, assign responsibility and accountability for deployment of human resources, and help focus attention on which HR practices are most critical for an organization (Ulrich, 1989). In other word, without addressing the significance of how to assess HR effectiveness, non-HR managers may not recognize how HR contributes to the outcome of the company and HR professionals may have difficulty becoming full business partners.. 9.

(21) A Typology of Models for Assessing HR Effectiveness Ulrich (1989) proposed the typology of models based various literature reviews depicting models and methods of assessing HR effectiveness developed by numerous scholars. Typologies organize diffuse literatures, make explicit what options exist between approaches to solving a problem, and lay the foundation for debates among alternatives (Ulrich & Barney, 1984). According to Ulrich, a typology of models may be developed that distinguishes alternatives and suggest conceptual, practical, and methods differences of each model. The criteria of a typology of HR assessment models are fourfold: concept (definition of HR effectiveness), assumptions (underlying view of HR), domain (focus of HR activity) and process (how to implement the approach) and with these criteria, three models are identified: Stakeholder Model: A stakeholder or constituency (Tsui, 1984) approach focuses on the perceived value of the services of an HR/ personnel department by its users. Utility Model: A utility approach (Cascio, 1987; Cascio & Ramos, 1986; Fitz-Enz, 1980) focuses on the economic utility of HR practices by translating HR practices into financial indices. Relationship Model: A relationship approach (Tichy, et al., 1982; Ulrich, et al., 1984) focuses on the ways that HR practices impact a business ability to accomplish its strategic goals.. Stakeholder model In this model, the HR/personnel function is the central domain. HR effectiveness depends on the perceptions of users of the function or department. It assumes that effectiveness comes to HR departments when they are service-oriented, delivering responsive goods or services to customers throughout the organization. The role and effectiveness of a HR department comes from assessment and response to user needs. The stakeholder model usually follows a four step sequence: 10.

(22) 1. Identify key stakeholders 2. Formulate assessment questions 3. Collect and analyze data 4. Provide feedback. On the other hand, the stakeholder model certainly has its strengths. It involves a number of key stakeholders in the assessment of HR effectiveness, shifts responsibility for HR effectiveness from its base in the department towards reflecting responsibility with non-HR managers, and encourages a service orientation for the HR department. Weakness wise, the assessment results are not linked to business performance because stakeholders may want a particular service, but not be aware of the cost of delivery or how the service may impact overall business performance.. Table 2.1. Stakeholder Approach Dimension Domain. HR Department/ Function. Concept. In the eye of the beholder; dependent on the views of the users of the function - HR is a service function, designed to provide service to its users - Responsiveness to user needs determines effectiveness 1. Identify key stakeholders 2. Formulate assessment questions. Assumptions Process. Strengths. Weaknesses. 3. Collect/analyze data 4. Provide feedback to all interested parties - Involves people from diverse groups - Creates joint responsibility for HR - Emphasizes services nature of the HR function - Not linked to performance outcomes - Not linked directly to HR costs - Require high commitment of time and resources - May focus on doing things right vs. doing right things. Source: Ulrich, 1989.. 11.

(23) Stakeholder groups Hitt, Ireland, and Hoskisson (2005) suggested that there are three primary groups of stakeholders that are significantly prone to organizational performance. First, companies must cater the needs of capital market stakeholders – shareholders and major suppliers of capital such as bank. Second, companies must take the needs and demands of product market stakeholders – the primary customers, suppliers, and host communities with whom organizations conduct business. Third, companies must attend to the needs of organizational stakeholders – the employees and managers within the organization.. Capital market stakeholders Capital market stakeholders have been the focus of researchers in the HRM field. Rogers and Wright (1998) reviewed 59 studies that examined the relationship between HR and various organizational outcomes and revealed that only two of the studies used employee outcomes such as turnover as the outcome of interest. On the other hand, 40 of the studies reviewed by Rogers and Wright (1998) used accounting measures and financial market measures of performance such as ROA, ROE, ROI, and Tobin’s Q that directly serve the interests of the capital market stakeholders. Moreover, it’s not rare to see in the strategic HRM publications the discussions on the impact of HR practices on outcomes such as sales per employee or ROA associated with a standard deviation increase or decrease in the level of HR practices used.. Product market stakeholders One area of research that has specifically considered the impact of HR initiatives on product market stakeholder is climate for service research. In this research stream, customer satisfaction is treated as a mediating variable between HR practices and business performance and it is slightly different from more traditional strategic HRM research by its focus on the 12.

(24) customer as the main outcome of interest. In general, climate can be defined as the employees’ perceptions of the routines and rewards that characterize a setting and can be understood as the immediate environment surrounding the individuals when they enter an organization. Climate research usually has a strategic focus of interest such as service, justice, or safety, and attempts to identify those elements of the work environment described by employees that correlate to critically important organizational outcomes such as customer satisfaction. In sum, apart from the capital market stakeholder approach, HR professionals can also measure HR effectiveness from the perspective of product market stakeholders centering the level of customer satisfaction.. Organizational stakeholders Employees as a stakeholder group have been the focus of HRM researchers which examines the impact as of various HR practices and activities on employee outcomes. There have been countless research studies over the years examining the impact of HR practices such as selection, recruitment, training and development, compensation on employee-focused outcomes such as job satisfaction, motivation, socialization, career success and occupational safety. An emphasis on such employee-focused outcomes takes into account the importance of meeting the needs and interests of employees as major stakeholders in the organization. Additionally, a secondary stream that has focused on employee outcomes is the industrial relations (IR) paradigm. And one of the main differences between IR research and strategic HRM research is that strategic HRM approaches the study of work and employment from the employer’s perspective, IR research approaches the same topic from employee’s viewpoint, explaining why individual workers may be at a power disadvantage against the corporation and advocating collective forms of dealing between employees and employers. Despite the differences, strategic HRM and IR researchers both emphasize the benefits of employees as the center of their research. Also, they share common interests in a broadly 13.

(25) conceived notion of HR practices suggests research opportunities of examining the potential for mutual gains initiatives that may benefit both employees as well shareholders or stockholders.. Utility model In utility model, alternative HR practices are the domain of interest. HR effectiveness depends on the extent to which an alternative practice improves the organization’s economic gain over not using the practice. This model recognizes that people and people-related costs compose about 57% of the total value of goods and services produced. Utility, therefore assumes that reducing these costs through more efficient HR practices results in HR effectiveness. The process of adopting utility model is fourfold: 1. Specify the HR practices 2. List the activities associated with the practice 3. Estimate economic value of each activity 4. Create overall HR performance measures. The utility model has much strength. For one, it translates HR practices into economic value. This economic value is more accessible as a measure of performance. It also distinguishes more from less successful HR practices. Casio and Ramos (1986) quantified the value of assessment techniques in selection. McKeon (1981) quantified the value if off-site meetings. These empirical assessments help the firm to better allocate resources in a more efficient manner. Weakness wise, the utility model is somehow difficult to apply. Assumptions that every HR activity has its economic value can be very subjective and unacceptable to some people in the organization. Indirect costs may be estimates rather than hard facts. Moreover, this model assumes that HR practices can be translated into economic value. Some HR practices may have long term economic value (e.g., quality improvement programs, succession planning, 14.

(26) career development, etc) that may be difficult to quantify. Finally, outcomes other than costs may at times be important to an organization. New organizations, concerned with rapid growth and delivery of new products, may be less concerned about economic utility of programs than about the program’s ability to deliver new products.. Table 2.2. Utility Approach Dimension Domain Concept. HR practices Tied to business results and linked to assessing, managing, and reducing HR costs. Assumptions. - People and HR practices are and generate costs that can and should be managed - Managing HR costs leads to better organizational performance and determines HR effectiveness. Process. 1. Specify the HR practices 2. List activities associated with the practice 3. Estimate costs and/or benefits of each activity 4. Create overall HR indices. Strengths. - Translates HR practices to financial results - Likely to be accepted and understood by business executives - Focuses attention on positive or negative HR practices. Weaknesses. - Difficult to create accurate measures - Potentially measure only one aspect of HR effectiveness. Source: Ulrich, 1989.. 15.

(27) Jac Fitz-enz’s approach Dr. Jac Fitz-enz is a renowned pioneer in the measurement of human capital and performance management in HR field, who has been advocating the importance of translating the efforts of HR practices into actual numbers and figures, showing CEOs that HR function is becoming more of a business partner than a support function in the organization. Fitz-enz has led the fight to make HR a powerful position within the organizational structure. Fitz-enz believes that HR must measure the effectiveness of what it does and his focus is to help the HR professionals add value to the organization, plan strategically, and measure program effectiveness. Hard data, in Fitz-enz’s opinion, will give HR professionals the proof of program worth or, conversely, ammunition to illustrate what programs are not working and should be dropped or changed. The Saratoga Institute, a performance measurement and consulting company founded by Fitz-enz in the late 70’s, initiated a research project under the sponsorship of SHRM (Society for Human Resource Management) for the purpose of developing the first set of formulas to measure the work of HR functions. Fitz-enz had been advocating this since 1980 without support. In the end, they were able to identify a set of approximately thirty measures. Over the years there have been minor changes and some additions. These measures are the human asset management benchmarks that form basis of the annual Human Resources Effectiveness Report, and the 1994 version of formulas is shown in Table 2.3.. 16.

(28) Table 2.3. Formulas to Measure HR Effectiveness Developed by Saratoga Institute Number 1. Formulas. Number. Revenue per employee. 14. Formulas HR department expense as a percentage of company expense. 2. Expense per employee. 15. HR headcount ratio HR employees: company employees. 3. Compensation as a percentage of revenue. 16. HR department expense per company employee. 4. 17. 21 22. Supervisory compensation percentage Worker’s compensation cost as a percentage of expense Workers’ compensation cost per employee Workers’ compensation cost per claim Absence rate Involuntary separation. 23. Voluntary separation. 11. Compensation as a percentage of expense Benefit cost as a percentage of revenue Benefit cost as a percentage of expense Benefit cost as a percentage of compensation Retiree benefit cost per retiree Retiree benefit cost as percentage of expense Hires as a percentage of total employees Cost of hire. 24. Voluntary separation by length of service. 12. Time to fill jobs. 25. Ratio of offers made to acceptance. 13. Time to start jobs. 5 6 7 8 9 10. 18 19 20. Source: Fit-enz, 1995.. Fitz-enz (1995) says that when you use just words, you leave an ambiguity in the conversation. “By helping people develop a common and precise language that makes it easier to cooperate and communicate more accurately, we can make life better. That’s the sort of chain we like to think about.” The establishment of Saratoga Institute serves the purpose of providing the grammar, syntax or semantics in this chain.. 17.

(29) Relationship model In the relationship model, HR practices are the primary domain of interest and the HR department is the secondary domain of interest. HR effectiveness occurs when strategies match or have positive relationships with HR practices, when HR practices become useful for implementing strategies plans, or when HR practices help firms generate and sustain a competitive advantage. This approach assumes that HR practices may help organizations implement strategic plan. HR practices are not created in isolation, and should link up with business strategic plan. The relationship model generally follows a five step sequence: 1. Prepare a framework to guide the assessment of relationship studies 2. Define the organizational unit of analysis 3. Collect information about organization strategy, HR practices, and performance 4. Analyze relationship data 5. Monitor results over time. Relationships models have been less common than stakeholder or utility analysis. The assessment results tie together strategy and HR practice, assess complex models of organizations (including strategy, HR, and performance), and justify the value of HR practices as a means of implementing strategies. Weakness wise, relationship model consumes extensive resources to establish and monitor, necessitate cooperation in sharing information between organization units and possibly between corporations, and require that a breadth of information to be collected from diverse business units. These difficulties imply that initial efforts will probably be more exploratory than definitive.. 18.

(30) Table 2.4. Relationship Approach Dimension Domain Concept. HR practices Found in the relationship between organization strategies and HR practices. Assumptions. - HR practices help organizations implement their strategies - HR effectiveness comes as HR practices match strategies - HR effectiveness is measured in more dynamic and interactive terms rather than single time or single index measures. Process. 1. Prepare framework for assessment of relationships 2. Define the organizational unit of analysis 3. Collect information about organization strategy, HR practice, and performance 4. Analyze relationships between strategy, practice, and performance 5. Monitor results over time. Strengths. Weaknesses. - Integrates strategy, HR practices, and performance data - Shows relationships of HR practices to financial results - Examines relationships over time - Requires large amount of resources to establish and monitor - Requires collection of sensitive data - Requires a breadth of information to be collected. Source: Ulrich, 1989.. Strategic human resource management In the light of the aggravation of the competition in the corporate world, HR function is now in the spotlight as managers begin to regard manpower as strategic assets in line with the implementation of strategic plans in the firm. In order to engage in Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM), managers should view the interactions between HRM, management functions (planning, organizing, leading, controlling) and organizational strategy from a macro-organizational perspective. As Figure 2.1 shown, externally, business operation is susceptible to factors such as politics, economics, society and technology; internally, it is susceptible to factors such as 19.

(31) strategy, objectives and organizational structure. If managers intend to obtain competitive advantages in response to business needs through proper allocation and utilization of human resources, they need to think at a strategic level, to figure out what is the best for the company (Tichy et al., 1982).. Politics. Strategy. Society. Economics SHRM Structure. Objectives. Technology. Figure 2.1. Strategic Human Resource Management Source: Tichy et al., 1982.. 20.

(32) Measuring by the Level of Outcome Proximity Dyer and Reeves (1995) suggested that the assessment of HR effectiveness may be viewed from a different perspective, the level of outcome proximity to the HR practices. The first and the most proximal category centers on employee outcomes such as turnover, absenteeism, job satisfaction, commitment, and motivation which HR practices have the most immediate impact on, are in a closer line of sight to HR practices. They also have the strongest effect on such employee outcomes, to some extent, they are the initial goal for designing HR practices. The secondary category focuses on a more macro level performance associated with aggregates of individual efforts such as productivity, quality of products and customer service. These aggregate level outcomes can further be differentiated by department level, plant level, business unit level, and firm level performance measures (Rogers & Wright, 1998). The third category accounts for financial and accounting outcomes in terms of ROA, ROI and profitability. This category has been the focal point of many strategic HR studies and is quite illuminating for researchers and convincing managers to acknowledge the significance of HR practices in terms of financial or market performance. Finally, the fourth and the least proximal category is the capital market outcome in terms of stock price, growth and return. Although corporate or firm performance metrics i.e. the third and fourth categories are important, it cannot be drawn that certain outcomes are definitely better than others. Corporate performance metrics may be viewed as quite distal from HR practices and likely to be influenced by more proximal level of outcomes related to HR initiatives. Rogers and Wright pointed out that more proximal outcomes serve as a means for achieving those higher-level outcomes. For instance, employee motivation may serve to enhance employees’ efforts and performance and subsequently their aggregated performance.. 21.

(33) Saratoga Approach Saratoga Institute, a HR performance measurement research and consulting company founded by Dr. Jac Fitz-Enz, a pioneer in human capital management, and headquartered in Saratoga, California, with offices throughout Asia, the Pacific, the Americas, and the Europe. Saratoga released its first Best Practices Report in 1992 and it became an annual publication ever since. The Best Practice Report is a study of companies that fall within the top 25th percentile in Saratoga’s Human Resource Effectiveness Report. Over more than a decade, Saratoga has summarized particular commonalities from numerous companies that have been commended for best HR practices. The following are the commonalities which can serve as indicators or criteria when evaluating HR effectiveness: Communication: How much the company care about the financial state and physical health of employees? What action has been taken? Strategy and planning: What program or scheme has been developed to help the company from the aspects of profitability, minimizing litigation, cost control, operational and technological skills shortage, and total customer satisfaction? How does staff respond to such program in terms of cost, sales, quality of service/product, etc? Interdependence: Do HR goals link to the company’s strategic business plan? Does HR department conduct any workshop or seminar with the company’s executives committee to discuss how much HR function contributes to the outcomes of the company and how much resource the company offers to the HR department in terms of cost, time, technology, etc? Risk taking: Does HR professionals quantify the data (such as training data) with computer technology so they can calculate the training cost and hours per employee and determine whether a training program should continue or be terminated? Relationships: Do HR professionals spend time on cultivating their relationships with people both within and outside HR department? If they do, how do relationships 22.

(34) influence their work in terms of cost, time, etc? Fitz-enz (1995) believes that HR must approach the design of its programs and services with its internal customers uppermost in mind. This means that if a program isn’t working, HR must first have the data to show what and why, then the ability to communicate with supervisors and managers about working towards the solution, and finally the courage to change it, either by eliminating it or somehow making it serve the purpose it was intended for. To give HR professionals more tools to do this, the Saratoga Institute has formed a national benchmarking network and the objective is to advance the state of benchmarking and do it in real time with real cases, not simply with numbers. Companies who join the network will identify what they want to benchmark, and projects will be selected from their suggestions. Only members in the network will have access to the results, which probably will be separated by company size. Out of the database created through the network, Saratoga hopes to continue establishing norms for which it will be able to push numbers.. Human Resource Scorecard In 2001, a book entitled “ The HR Scorecard: Linking People, Strategy and Performance” was published under the collaboration of three authors, Becker, Huselid and Ulrich, which was considered an innovation by representing performance evaluation in HR area in a more systemic and physical manner. Grounding on the notion of BSC, the HRSC consists of similar dimensions including financial, customer, internal business process and learning and growth. The content of each dimension is developed exclusively from the HR perspective. 1. Financial perspective This dimension is to evaluate the financial values created by all HR activities with in a certain period of time in terms of ROI and the cost generated by the service provided overtime. 23.

(35) 2. Customer perspective This dimension is to evaluate the satisfaction level of target customer groups, to see how they feel about the service quality delivered by employees and use it to determine whether the competitiveness and productivity of the employees meet the requirements or not. This dimension views competitiveness and productivity of employees as indicators. 3. Internal business process perspective This dimension is to evaluate the outcome of operation process regarding HR practices in terms of the technology involved and the administrative affairs to be attended to. The ultimate purpose of this dimension is to establish a value chain that fulfills the requirements for the entire operation process to go smoothly. 4. Learning and growth perspective This dimension is to evaluate how well the outcome of HR activities aligns with the organization’s strategy in terms of talent, leadership, customer service and support, organizational integration and HR capability. More importantly, this dimension is thought to be the most crucial part among others. It helps facilitate the process within an organization to attain long term goals by monitoring and controlling the direction of HR policies and practices, making sure they are in line with the organization’s strategy.. Criteria in Measuring HRM Performance There are two significant criteria to a successful HRM performance identified by numerous researchers: productivity and efficiency in measuring the HR effectiveness on HRM functional tasks including work flows, staffing, employee separations, performance appraisal, training and development, compensation, employee relations, employee rights and international management. The literature on the two criteria will be discussed followed by the literature detailing the nine HRM functional tasks in the following section.. 24.

(36) Productivity Drucker (2001) observed a link between HRM, productivity, and the success of the firms by stating that business enterprises or any other institutions can only succeed by making human resources productive. Therefore, to make work productive is the essential task for the HRM practitioners (Drunker, 2001). Mathis and Jackson (1997) reported a national survey on the top concerns of HRM executives regarding HR work; the most important concerns identified were productivity, quality and service. Further, to HRM executives, “to improve productivity” has also become more critical and urgent when global competition has intensified along with the technology breakthroughs. Mathis and Jackson further defines productivity as “the amount if output per employee”, while Gomez-Mejia, Balkin and Cardy (2001) define productivity as “a measure of how much value individual employees add to the goods or services that the organization produces”, and label it as “the greatest organizational challenge for HRM managers”; the greater the output per individual, the higher the organizational productivity is. Especially in the “knowledge-based economy” we are living in, productivity is the primary key to organizational success because it is “a key indicator of an organization’s economic health” (Cascio & Award, 1981).. Efficiency According to Kelly and Booth (2004), efficiency is the achievement of goals in an economic way which involves seeking a good balance between the economical use of resources such as time, money, space, and materials and the achievement of an organization’s aims and objectives. This is especially critical for today’s HRM practitioners since resources are what firms are competing for.. 25.

(37) Drucker (2001) also pointed out that efficiency is doing the right things, while the effectiveness is doing the things right, implying efficiency moves the HRM activities towards the right direction. For Cardy and Miller (2005), efficiency demonstrated by HR professionals have to be economical, flexible, innovative, balancing and very effective in utilizing their organizational resources strategically.. Strategic HRM functional tasks Renckly (1997) stated that the focus or areas of responsibility of the HRM in business organizations remains the same despite of the differences in size and organizational structure. Mainly, these areas of responsibility include recruiting, employment, compensation, training, employee relations, and benefits. Furthermore, in response to the increasingly intensified competition in the corporate world, firms must realize that the re-engineering and re-design HRM strategies in these areas of responsibility to utilize its human resources in order to gain a competitive edge (Druker, 2001). To address this concern, Gomez-Mejia, Balkin and Cardy (2000) suggested that nine strategic HRM’s areas of responsibility based on the strategic HRM’s choices available to the firms. And these strategic choices are HRM options “flexible enough to accommodate change “in the long run. The nine strategic HRM functional tasks and their strategic options are defined by Gomez-Mejia, Balkin and Cardy and listed as follows:. 26.

(38) Table 2.5. Strategic HRM Functional Tasks HRM Functional Tasks 1. 2. Range of Strategic HRM Choices. Work Flows. (1) Efficiency. (1) Innovations. (The ways tasks are. (2) Contract. (2) Flexibility. organized to meet. (3) Explicit job descriptions. (3) Broad job classes. production or service goals.). (4) Detailed work planning. (4) Loose work planning. Staffing. (1) Internal recruitment. (1) External recruitment. (HR activities designed. (2) Supervisor makes hiring. (2) HR department makes. to secure the right employee at the right place at the right time.). decisions (3) Emphasis on fit of applicant with firm culture (4) Informal hiring of new employees. 3. 4. (1) Voluntary inducements to Employee Separations (Occurring when retire employees leave the firm, (2) Hiring freeze (3) Continuing support for either voluntarily or terminated employee involuntarily.) (4) Preferential rehiring policy Performance Appraisal (1) Customized appraisals (Managers assess how (2) Developmental well employees are carrying out assigned duties by conducting performance separations ). 5. Training and Development (Designed to help organizations meet their skills requirements and to help their employees realize their maximum potential.). (3) (4). (1) (2) (3) (4). appraisals Multipurpose appraisals Multiple inputs for appraisals (supervisors, peers, subordinates) Individual training On-the-job training Job-specific training Buy skills by hiring experienced workers at a higher wage. (3). (4) (1) (2) (3). (4). hiring decision Emphasis on applicants’ technical qualifications and skills Formal hiring of new employees Layoffs Recruit as needed Letting laid-off workers tend for themselves No preferential treatment. (1) Uniform appraisal (2) Control-oriented appraisals (3) Narrow-forces appraisals (4) Supervisory input only (1) (2) (3) (4). Team-based training External training Generic training Make skills providing training to less experienced workers hired at a lower wage (table continues). 27.

(39) Table 2.5. (Continued) HRM Functional Tasks 6. Range of Strategic HRM Choices. Compensation. (1) Fixed pay. (1) Variable pay. (The payment that. (2) Job-based pay. (2) Individual-based pay. employees receive in. (3) Seniority-based pay. (3) Performance-based. exchange for their labor.). (4) Centralized pay decisions. pay (4) Decentralized pay decisions. 7. 8. 9. Employee Relations (Refer to the interaction. (1) Top-down communication. between workers-either as individuals or as represented by an union-and management ) Employee Rights (Concern the relationship between the organization and individual employees.). (2) Union suppression (3) Adversarial approach. International Management (A set of strategic HRM options regarding how to manage human resources as a global basis.). (1) Emphasis on disciplines to reduce mistakes (2) Emphasis on employer protection (3) Informal ethical standards. (1) Create global company culture (2) Rely on expatriates (3) Repatriation agreement (4) Universal company policies. (1) Bottom-up communication and (2) (3) (1). (2) (3). feedback Union acceptance Enlightened management Emphasis on prevention action to reduce mistakes Emphasis on employee protection Explicit ethical codes and enforcement procedures. (1) Adapt to local culture (2) Rely on country nationals (3) No formal repatriation agreement (4) Country-specific company policies. Source: Gomez-Mejia et al., (2001).. To be more specific, work flow includes virtual teams and problem-solving teams, and contingent workers. Staffing includes recruiting, selecting, maintaining and managing a diverse global workforce in a web-based fashion. It also covers senior and special-need employees. Employee separations not only include voluntary separation and re-hiring, but 28.

(40) also include downsizing management, and recent trends such as options for outplacement. Performance appraisal is expanded to include team appraisal, global appraisal, and role-based performance. Training and Development is expanded to include training trends like on-line, virtual, cross-functional, basic skill, goal-based training, self development, counseling, mentoring and competency-based career development. Compensation is updated to include flexibility, work/life balance, cutting-edge pay incentive, trends like directors and shareholders as equity partners, and new CEO compensation. Moreover, it includes revolutionary designing and administering customized pension benefits. Employee relations has increased emphasis on developing relationship between HR professionals and employees, coaching and feedback skills, and working with labor union, outsourcing, labor relations in other countries. Employee rights not only includes equal opportunities and legal environment, but also the rights of employees/employers regarding trade secrets, soliciting, recruiting co-workers from a previous jobs, e-main privacy, and on-line web use. In addition, it is also expanded to cover managing the onsite health and safety centers, decrease workplace violence, organizational culture and safety. International management has been thoroughly updates lately to focus on technology and its effects on global HRM practices, from recruiting and motivating to retaining, developing, and monitoring international employees. It also includes topics such as self-directed international management team, compensation in multinational organizations, and the globalization of HRM practices such as lower job security, flatter organizations, pay-for-performance, and promotion based on merit.. 29.

(41) Job Satisfaction Back in 1912, F. W. Taylor introduced the notion of scientific management, emphasizing the importance of mechanical production system was the solution to increasing productivity and production efficiency. He then found out that there is a positive correlation between compensation and productivity. Initially, the feelings and attitudes of workers caught employers’ attention, but people were still treated as a tool, not an asset at this point. Later in the 1930s, the famous Hawthorne Experiments showed that the emotions of workers have direct effects on their work behaviors suggesting social and psychological factors of workers are the determinants of job satisfaction and group productivity. The people issues were heating up as many scholars pointed out that leadership, performance and efficiency are critically linked with job satisfaction. In other word, employers should focus on seeking to identify and fulfill employers’ needs in order to increase their satisfaction, so organization outcome could relatively be improved. Hoppock conducted the first research project on job satisfaction, which involved the discussions on the correlations between achieving organization’s goals, production efficiency and job satisfaction. Later studies focused on how personal attributes dedicate to the level of job satisfaction in which determined whether employees were provided with the opportunities to learn, to grow, to be creative and to receive feedbacks in the work environment. Understanding a worker’s level of satisfaction will provide insights into both the worker and into the job. Similarly, summing across an organization’s staff provides a perspective of the work force and into the organization itself. A number of factors enter into a worker’s feeling of satisfaction with his/her job. Robbins (1998) identified some factors that enter into the equation. First is challenging work. Rather than routine, understanding jobs, workers would prefer to be stimulated and challenged through their work. Fair pay is a second criterion of job satisfaction for workers. Here the key is “fair” as much “high”. A sense of justice in how pay is allocated is crucial for satisfied workers. Working conditions also enter 30.

(42) the worker’s calculus of job satisfaction. The fit between the worker’s personality and the job itself is also critical for satisfaction. A square peg in a round ole will never be satisfied regardless of the other factors. Finally, Robbins notes that approximately 30 percent of a worker’s satisfaction is genetically determined. Some workers are predisposed to be happy, some are not. The former are more likely to be satisfied than are the latter. The effects of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction are important to the worker and to the firm. Dissatisfied workers carry within themselves a negative attitude that colors their perspective and can have an impact on other aspects of their lives. In particular, Robbins notes that satisfaction and dissatisfaction will be reflected in a worker’s productivity. The assumption made is that more satisfied workers will be more productive. Nonetheless it is difficult to imagine that a worker’s output will remain completely unaffected by his or her level of satisfaction with the job performed. Absenteeism is the second effect that Robbins notes as related to satisfaction. Again, the assumption is that more dissatisfied workers will participate in more absences from the worksite, an assumption that is worthy of assessment. Job satisfaction can serve as an indicator. If the level of employees’ job satisfaction can be continually monitored, then problems like miscommunications between superiors and subordinates, inappropriate working conditions, inclining staff turnover rate, etc can be identified and dealt in time before it gets serious.. Job descriptive index and job in general scale The Job Descriptive Index, an instrument developed by the staff at Bowling Green University (1997), is widely regarded as being one of the best available measures of job satisfaction (Balzer et al., 2000). The JDI is easy to administer and score, easy to read, simple in format, and nationally normed. After more than 40 years of research and application it remains one of the most widely used measures of job satisfaction. The five facets of the JDI are Work on Present Job, Present Pay, Opportunities for Promotion, Supervision, and 31.

(43) Coworkers. These serve to diagnose important aspects of the job. The Job in General Scale was later developed to evaluate overall, global satisfaction with the job. The full-length JDI subscales contain 90 items intended to measure employee satisfaction in the following: work on present job (18 items), present pay (9 items), opportunities for promotion (9 items), supervision (18 items), coworkers (18 items), and the job in general (18 items). Each item is very short-a descriptive word or phrase. The sample JDI items were shown as follows: Think of the work you do at present. How well does each of the following words or phrases describe your job? In the blank beside each word or phrase below, write: Y. for Yes if it describes your work. N. for No if it does NOT describe it. ?. for ? if you cannot decide. WORK ON PRESENT JOB Fascinating Boring Can see results. The JDI has been translated into many different languages and dialects. A considerable body of research on the instrument since its publication has provided support for its reliability and validity. These are reported in the revised manual together with new national norms for JDI. Smith, Kendall, and Hulin’s publication of the Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement (1969) described the painstakingly careful development of the JDI. Patricia Cain Smith’s relocation from Cornell to Bowling Green State University in the mid-1960’s brought with her the JDI and its growing community of users. In an effort to manage the administrative aspects of the JDI for organizational and academic users, and to continue her 32.

(44) research in the areas of job attitudes, Smith founded the JDI Research Group, an evolving community of industrial-organizational faculty and graduate students. The JDI research group continues to the present day and is active in efforts to research refine develop and norm the instrument as well as a family of other organizationally relevant measures (e.g., work stress). Over a period of more than 25 years of continuous research and data collection using the JDI, the JDI research group has archived a variety of JDI datasets that use different research design, types of organizations, types of employees, and comparison variables. Furthermore, the JDI research group encourages and supports new research proposals for future uses of the JDI. By utilizing these data, researchers with an interest in work attitudes can explore research questions pertaining to job satisfaction, work stress, control perceptions, trust, and a myriad of other related constructs.. Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was constructed by Weiss et al. (1967) while researching job satisfaction and work adjustment to sample both intrinsic and extrinsic reinforcement dimensions and overall job satisfaction. Phelps and Waskel (1994) explained the theory of work adjustment broadened the concept of job satisfaction, clarifying the relationship between individual needs and the work environment. Thus, the MSQ served to measure one of the primary indicators of work adjustment and constructed to sample both extrinsic and intrinsic increment dimensions. The MSQ was created in response to the first instrument in the Work Adjustment Project (Hoppock Job Satisfaction Blank, the Employee Attitude Scale, and 22 experimental items), which resulted in adjusted reliability but cumbersome scoring. The MSQ allows computation of more facet-specific levels of job satisfaction than the other reputable instrument and offers a general job satisfaction category, which provides 33.

(45) researchers the ability to interpret global measures as indices of general affect phenomena and to employ facet-specific measure when knowledge of underlying components of job satisfaction is sought (Weaver, 1980). The industry is concerned with determining facet-specific information on inmate job satisfaction to enable the company to improve inmate job satisfaction by modifying policies and procedures where possible. The MSQ is available in three formats: two long forms (1967 and 1977) and one short form. The long forms differ primarily in the Likert scales responses. The 1977 form consists of 100 items covering the following scales: (1) intrinsic satisfaction, (2) extrinsic satisfaction, and (3) general overall satisfaction, and utilizes a 20-dimension, 5 point Likert type scale format: Very Satisfied, Satisfied, Neutral, Dissatisfied, and Very Dissatisfied. The short form requires just five minutes to complete, consists of 20 items covering the same scales as the 1977 long form and uses the same Likert responses as the 1977 long form. These 20 dimensions represent work reinforcers and are under three types of scales: the intrinsic scale is composed of 12 items, the extrinsic scale is composed of 6 items and the remaining two reflect general satisfaction and relate to neither intrinsic nor extrinsic satisfaction. Weiss et al. (1967) strongly recommended use of the long form because it provides significantly more information for the few additional minutes required to complete it. Regardless of the version, the MSQ is a gender-neutral, paper-and-pencil instrument appropriate for participants with reading levels as low as the fifth grade and can be administered to groups or individuals.. 34.

(46) Organizational Performance A variety of terms, concepts and definitions have been employed with regard to organizational performance. However, there is little consensus on basic definitions and technical issues. Kanter (1981) stated that the problem is “not how to measure effectiveness or productivity, but what to measure; how definitions and techniques are chosen.” Studies about the impact of HRM on firm performance have adopted measures or indicators of firm performance without prior conceptual questioning of what to measure, how measure are defined, and why they are chosen. Georgoopoulos and Tannebaum (1957) were among the first to study organizational performance using specific, quantitative measures. They described the common approaches of the day as generally referring to goal-attainment, with a focus on productivity, net profit, the extent to which the organization accomplishes its various missions, and the success of the organization in maintaining or expanding itself. According to them, organizational performance could better be defined as “the extent to which an organization as a social system, given certain resources and means, fulfills its objectives without incapacitating its means and resources”. Venkatraman and Ramnujam (1986) proposed that organizational performance can be viewed from two perspectives: narrow sense and broad sense. In the narrow sense, financial performance indicators such as sales growth rate and ROI are the primary indicators; in the broad sense, apart from financial dimension, there are other two types of indicators which can be utilized for evaluation: business performance indicators (market share, product quality, etc) and organizational effectiveness indicators (workplace climate, morale, etc) (Rogers & Wright, 1998). In addition, Choi and Mueler (1992) claimed that organizations should place equal emphasis on financial and non-financial indicators, meaning both quantitative and qualitative approaches should be considered when conducting evaluation.. 35.

參考文獻

相關文件

The learning and teaching in the Units of Work provides opportunities for students to work towards the development of the Level I, II and III Reading Skills.. The Units of Work also

 Promote project learning, mathematical modeling, and problem-based learning to strengthen the ability to integrate and apply knowledge and skills, and make. calculated

 After a school term ends, schools should evaluate the effectiveness of work plans and all aspects of their work over the past year (Evaluation) before setting up

Humanistic Buddhism is, no doubt, a very important stage in the development of Chinese Buddhism, and is exemplified by Venerable Master Hsing Yun’s thoughts and deeds, particularly

Parent effectiveness training: The tested way to raise responsible children. Parent-child relations: An introduction to parenting

questions and we are dedicated to are dedicated to are dedicated to are dedicated to future research and development to bring you the future research and development to bring you the

means the Proposed School Development Plan (including its amendments and supplements, if any) as approved by the Government, a copy of which is at Schedule III

 Teacher extends the discussion of a series of cash flows to uneven cash flows and explains the calculations of future and present value of a series of uneven cash flows. PPT#56