多一些察覺，少一點壓力？創傷識讀如何幫助記者感知因採訪而得的創傷經驗 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 論文題目 More awareness, less stress?. ‧. How trauma literacy helps journalists perceive their. sit. y. Nat. traumatic experience in covering trauma news. n. er. io. 多一些察覺，少一點壓力？ al 創傷識讀如何幫助記者感知因採訪而得的創傷經驗 iv. Ch. n engchi U. Student: Lilian, Sz-Jie Sung (宋思潔) Advisor: Dr. Julia, Chiung-Wen Hsu (許瓊文博士). 中華民國 100 年 7 月 July 2011.

(2) 論文題目 More awareness, less stress? How trauma literacy helps journalists perceive their traumatic experience in covering trauma news 多一些察覺，少一點壓力？創傷識讀如何幫助記者感知因採訪而得的創傷經驗. 研究生: Lilian, Sz-Jie Sung (宋思潔) 指導教授: Advisor: Dr. Julia, Chiung-Wen Hsu 政治大(許瓊文博士). 立. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. i n U. v. e nthesis A gchi Submitted to International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master in International Communication Studies. 中華民國 100 年 7 月 July 2011.

(3) More awareness, less stress? How trauma literacy helps journalists perceive their traumatic experience in covering trauma news. A Master Thesis National Chengchi University. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. In partial fulfillment of the Requirement for the degree of Master of Arts. Ch. engchi. i n U. By Sung, Sz- Jie (Lilian). July 2011. v.

(4) Acknowledgement It is the most wonderful time for the past 10 months, because I finished my thesis! At the beginning of the Acknowledgement, I want to give thanks to Jesus my Lord, give me a kind advisor, Professor Julia Hsu who always give me useful suggestions, support me with all resource and encouraged me move forward; members of news trauma research team, Yi ting, Camel, Chaling, Fion, Zozo, Ching Chan (you all always make me feel I am so lucky to be with you and without Zozo and Camel, I couldn’t finish the 21 interviews); two angels, Chia tzu and Yi ting who helped me typing the interview transcripts; a family always supports me; friends in church keep praying for me and some friends (Julie, Siao Wun, Chia Ying, Tsai May-ya, Chloe Yeh, Chulin… ) who always on the call when I felt crazy about my thesis.. 政治大. Thanks my dissertation committees, Professor Pai-Lin Chen, and Professor Chao-Chen Lin gave me many valuable suggestions and helped me to make the research more practical. Thanks my dad and mom who had to tolerate my never-stopping complaining, meaningless distress and bad temper; my dear uncle and auntie who also supported me by whatever they could do. Also, I want to thank dispatched journalists in Taitung who always welcome me and sharing their experience with me. Because of you all, I finished the work, I can not describe my thanks in words, because many things need to be given thanks and I cannot list them all in a page. Actually, they need pages of another thesis or more.. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. er. io. sit. y. Nat. n. I chose trauma and journalism as my research field was simply because I thought a l some contributions on the i v issue. Even it is a totally it is important and hoped to make n Ch U I researched before (telecom foreign area for me and has greater difference e n g cwith h i what policies and new media), what I learned more than my expected. When I indulged in the trauma vortex or literature related to trauma, I found out most time I just struck in a cycle of avoidance, including finding excuses to stop writing, feel guilty, and force myself to write again. I found out my vulnerability, impatience, bad time management and the tendency to avoid difficult thing through the writing process and positioning my research questions. The process helped me to know more about myself from continuous thinking and questioning. For the awareness of unknown self and learned from the literature I read, I feel I have more strength to deal with the difficulties I face. The 10 months makes me stronger to respond challenges. Lilian, Sz-Jie Sung July, 2011 at NCCU I.

(5) Abstract More awareness, less stress? How trauma literacy helps journalists perceive their traumatic experience in covering trauma news By Lilian, Sz-Jie Sung. The nature of news is that journalists are often required to report traumatic events. As journalists are also the first responders to some trauma memories of people, they may see and. 政治大. be affected by other people's distress and grief.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Trainings about trauma have emerged in media organizations or some journalism educational institutes. These trauma training stressed journalists should take more concerns. ‧. about trauma on others and on self during covering traumatic events.. sit. y. Nat. a. er. io. Held a simple workshop about trauma to Taitung journalists and used in-depth interviews. n. i v trauma from covering tragedies, to analyze if raising journalistsl awareness about the possible. n U i e ng c htraumatic experience from covering trauma what has changed on their perceptions of their. Ch. news? Also what has changed on their covering about trauma news when they get more awareness about trauma?. The thesis used the concept of sense of coherence to discuss the change on journalists’ comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness about covering trauma news. Key words: Taitung journalists, Trauma news, Traumatic awareness, Trauma literacy, Trauma training. II.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS. ACKNOWLEGEMENT ........................................................................................... Ⅰ ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... Ⅱ TABLE OF CONTENTS. ......................................................................................... Ⅲ LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................... Ⅴ CHAPTER Ⅰ: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Why Trauma Gains Concerns in Journalism .................................................... 1. 1.2. Trauma and Trauma Literacy............................................................................ 5. 1.3. Taiwan Journalists and Trauma ........................................................................ 9. 1.4. The Study ........................................................................................................ 11. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 2.5. y. sit. 2.2.1. PTSD and Journalists .................................................................... 18. 2.2.2. STS and Journalists ....................................................................... 19 a v. 2.3.1. Common Practice in Other Professions........................................... 23. 2.3.2. Overview of Interventions in Journalism......................................... 27. 2.3.3. Trauma Training and Employee Assistance Programs .................... 30. er. n. 2.4. Assignment Stress Injury on Journalists ......................................................... 17. io. 2.3. Nat. 2.2. ‧. CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Trauma and Journalists ................................................................................... 13. i l C n Dealing with Traumatic Stress… 22 h e .................................................................... ngchi U. Trauma Training in Journalism....................................................................... 31 2.4.1. Trauma Education and Journalism .................................................. 32. 2.4.2. From Safety Concerns to Concerns about Mental Health................ 34. 2.4.3. Emotional Literacy Training ............................................................ 37. 2.4.4. Training about Better Tragedy Covering ......................................... 38. Gaining Resilience with Salutogenesis Approach .......................................... 41 2.5.1. Salutogenesis Theory....................................................................... 42 III.

(7) 2.5.2 2.6. Sense of Coherence ......................................................................... 43. Research Questions ......................................................................................... 49. CHAPTER Ⅲ: METHODOLOGY 3.1. Research Context ............................................................................................ 50. 3.2. Research Design.............................................................................................. 51 Research Population - Taitung Journalists ...................................... 53. 3.2.2. The Workshop ................................................................................. 56. The Interviews .............................................................................................. 56. 政治大. 3.3.1. The Interviews before the Workshop .............................................. 56. 3.3.2. The Interviews after the Workshop ................................................. 57. 3.3.3. Interview Questions......................................................................... 58. 立. 學. CHAPTER Ⅳ: ANALYSIS & DISCUSSIONS. ‧. ‧ 國. 3.3. 3.2.1. Overview......................................................................................................... 61. 4.2. Comprehensibility........................................................................................... 63. y. 4.2.2. What has Changed on Comprehensibility… v................................... 66 a. er. n. 4.4. sit. Original Awareness about Emotional Burden ................................. 63. io. 4.2.1. 4.2.3 4.3. Nat. 4.1. i l C n Contribution on thehComprehensibility e n g c h i U........................................... 74. Manageability ................................................................................................. 74 4.3.1. Original Perception about Trainings and Support ........................... 75. 4.3.2. What has Changed on Manageability .............................................. 79. 4.3.3. Contribution on the Manageability .................................................. 83. Meaningfulness ............................................................................................... 84 4.4.1. A Feeling for Couldn't Help ............................................................ 84. 4.4.2. At Least to Give a Try ..................................................................... 86. 4.4.3. Contribution on Meaningfulness ..................................................... 87. 4.5. Summary ......................................................................................................... 87. 4.6. Suggestions about the Workshop.................................................................... 88 IV.

(8) 4.7. Other Findings ................................................................................................ 89. CHAPTER Ⅴ: CONCLUSION 5.1. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 93. 5.2. Limitations ...................................................................................................... 96. 5.3. Suggestions for Further Study ........................................................................ 97. REFERENCE Reference in English .............................................................................................. 100 Reference in Chinese ............................................................................................. 107. 政治大. Other resource ........................................................................................................ 108. 立. Questions for Interview................................................................. 109. Appendix 2. The List of Interviewees................................................................ 111. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. APPENDIX Appendix 1. sit er. Journalists accepted pre-workshop interview .......................................... 56. al. iv n C Journalists accepted after-workshop ........................................ 57 h e n g cinterview hi U n. Form 3.. io. Form 2. y. Nat. Form 1. LIST OF FORMS. Basic formulation of interview questions................................................ 58. V.

(9) Chapter Ⅰ INTRODUCTION. 1.1 Why Trauma Gains Concerns in Journalism For nearly two decades, some trauma experts and journalism educators have explored the interface of their professions (Ochberg, 1999). With a trend of discussing post-traumatic. 政治大. stress disorder (PTSD) in other professions such as police officers, firefighters and emergency. 立. rescue workers, the discussion also gradually extended to journalists for their similarity to. ‧ 國. 學. these professions which is often need to be in the frontline of traumatic scenes. No matter journalists are at the scene of a fatal car accident, an apartment fire and murders, to report. ‧. story of the tragedy or contacting and interviewing survivors of trauma weeks, months or even. y. Nat. io. sit. years after a traumatic event has occurred, they are inevitably to interview some people who. n. al. er. have experienced a traumatic event and that make trauma has become a part of their daily assignments.. Ch. en chi. i n U. v. g and photographers detailing how covering With a number of anecdotes from reporters trauma has adversely affected them, and how these covering may make them as a potential group suffer from PTSD as well. Teams of psychologists, psychiatrists and journalism scholars have taken concerns about the post-traumatic symptoms on journalists, Ochberg (1996) pointed out journalists are candidates for secondary traumatic stress disorder which is often resulted from the empathic response of others’trauma or cumulative exposure to trauma. Secondary traumatic stress may bring anxiety, depression, hyperarousal, Intrusive memory, avoidance of some trauma reminders and emotional numbing (Dart Center, Journalism and Trauma). Some experts and scholars also pointed out that journalists are suffering with 1.

(10) directly exposure to traumatic scenes and related materials as witnesses and other trauma workers. (Simpson & Bogg, 1999; Feinstain & Owen, 2002; Himmelstein & Faithorn, 2002; Rentschler, 2003). Even some journalists believe that professional detachment can protect them, but when the detachment is overwhelmed by certain life events or critical incident which out of human control, things would be different.. Traumatic stress and trauma news. 政治大. Trauma is a specific devastating and often long lasting wound to those who suffer. 立. violence. Emotional trauma is not only resulted in a single shock, some people suffer from. ‧ 國. 學. continuing attacks on their emotional stability. Different from normal work related stress, “Traumatic stress” here can be defined as a brief definition from the online module. ‧. “Journalism & Trauma” of Dart Center for Journalism & Trauma, stated as “the pressure,. y. Nat. n. a. Traumatic stress is resulted from traumatic events and can take. er. io. shocks, stuns and horrifies”.. sit. force or strain on the human mind and body from a specific event of major dimension that. v. i did not have made physical l involved, even if thenevent a serious emotional toll on those. Ch. engchi U. damage. The traumatic events according to the DSM-IV was defined as one in which we experience an actual or perceived threat of death or serious injury to self or others, with a response of intense fear, helplessness or horror. And in other words, it is not the event itself, but the meaning it has for the individual that makes it traumatic. Simply put, traumatic stress is the effect of overwhelming experiences on mind, body or society. It is not only emotionally feel bad but also lead to some physically symptoms such as headaches, insomnia, and reducing immunity. Moreover, it has also influence on one’s cognition, interpersonal interactions and the responses to the stressful situations (Dart center, trauma and journalism). 2.

(11) When “trauma” has become a research field in journalism, there are many related issues started to gain awareness. The term “Trauma news” once appeared in the topic of Ochberg’s article:” Three Acts of Trauma news” (1999), and it referred “Trauma news” as a general term for news stories about crime, cruelty, violence and trauma. It included news about “any factual story about crime, cruelty, violence or trauma will create arousal, interest and paradoxical emotion” (1999:2). Ochberg (1999) raised that there are three acts of trauma news, the Act one is the traumatic event itself such as crime scenes; Act two unfolds the. 政治大. trauma history of news subjects and the recovery process of victims; Act three mentioned. 立. about the unmitigated destruction of humanity for many years. Normally, news media often. ‧ 國. 學. overdose on Act one of trauma news, but Ochberg stressed that the Act two of trauma news such as topics about the heal process of victims and inflicted wounds on victims and audience. ‧. are important as well, it offers experience about how to gain resilience from trauma.. y. Nat. io. sit. Also, for the purpose of protecting victims, scholars and psychiatrists also claimed. n. a. er. journalists should be “equipped” with the knowledge about the reactions on trauma and. v. i about may still be in a process traumatic stress, because those lpeople they interview andnwrite. Ch. engchi U. of healing and recovery from different trauma and traumatic situations (Ochberg, 1996; 1999). A sensitive explanation of the traumatic stress response aids recovery. Even journalists cannot make medical diagnoses to their subjects, but the basic knowledge about trauma can help them to be more sensitive to news subjects’ response and seeing the logic of different psychological consequences. Other trauma related issues in journalism including: . How do news about traumatic events have impact on audiences (Klein, 2003; Moller,. 1999), victims (McLellan, 1999) and related community (Kay, Reilly, Connolly, & Cohen, 2010a; Otero & Njeaga, 2006). 3.

(12) . The interaction between journalists and victims, such as how to avoid re-traumatizing. victims and their family in the process of news covering (Ochberg, 1996; Sykes & Green, 2003; Rentschler, 2007; Richards, 2009). . How do news media portrait tragedies (Coleman & Thorson, 2002), how to covering. trauma (Kay, Reilly, Amend, & Kyle, 2010b; Cote & Simpson, 2006; Sykes et al., 2003, Etwart, 2002). . The impact on journalists through covering tragedies (Dworznik, 2008; Keat &. 政治大. Buchanan, 2009; Bennett, 2008; Roberts, 2005), etc.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Trauma training for journalists. With understanding more about covering trauma news have impacts on journalists and a. ‧. need to search better way to covering trauma news without hurting victims, audience and also. y. Nat. io. sit. the community related to the news contexts, training about trauma has been developed in. n. a. er. journalism. Many scholars have already use a term, “trauma training” in their articles, which. v. i on journalists or the trauma l dealing with mental ntrauma often refer to the trainings about. Ch. engchi U. issues in news productions (Maxon, 1999; McMahon, 2001; Brayne, 2004; Dworznik & Grubb, 2007; Rentschler, 2007; 2010). Trauma training in Maxon’s (1999) study was training to some journalism graduates about trauma and its symptoms, how to interview trauma victims and how to cope with journalists’ own stress from covering trauma news. For McMahon (2001) was more stressing on how to cover different kinds of trauma news. Dworznik & Grubb (2007) also stressed the importance of training journalism students about what they may while covering trauma news through the result from a survey he conducted to journalism students about their trauma awareness. 4.

(13) Rentschler (2007) mentioned about the trauma training as emotional literacy training and concerns more about victims’ feelings and grief, training journalists to be an emotionally sensitive professional for being better to encourage crime victims participating in the process of news making. Also, trauma training is not only aiming to journalists but their managers. Trauma training for managers at BBC as Brayne (2004) described, including awareness about trauma; how to report tragedies to public; how to interview trauma victims and some trauma issues in media. 政治大. organizations which a manager should deal with, such as informing the loved ones of a work. 立. colleague that he or she has been killed on assignment.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. io. sit. y. Nat. Trauma. 1.2 Trauma and Trauma Literacy. n. a. er. Trauma, the etymology of the word can be traced to a Greek word for “wound”. At first it. v. was only refer to the physical l wound, and then the psychological trauma could be taken as ni. Ch. engchi U. “the wound on heart”. Gina Ross in her book, “Beyond the trauma vortex: the media’s role in healing fear, terror and violence ” (2003), put trauma in a broad definition, “trauma as the emotional, biological and psychological impact suffered in response to an actual or perceived threat to one’s life, body, and identity and that stays stuck in the system” (2003: 21). The book discussed news media have become influential on trauma healing and journalists are suffer from the secondhand trauma while covering, and Ross’ definition to “trauma” is more fit in the trauma here I mentioned which is a response to some overwhelming fact. Literatures from different fields about psychological trauma have accumulated since the 1970s, and a burgeoning awareness about trauma on a societal level also emerged at that time. 5.

(14) For instance, the broad reaches in different fields and the lasting adverse impact of traumatic events have become topics to be discussed (Courtois & Gold, 2009). Renewed awareness of trauma culminated in the inclusion of the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the dissociative disorders (DDs) in the DSM–III1 in 1980 (Courtois & Gold, 2009).. Literacy The word “literacy” is used differently in various contexts, the original definition would. 政治大. be the ability to write and read. Scribner and Cole (1981) described literacy in terms of. 立. “socially organized practices make use of a symbol system and a technology for producing. ‧ 國. 學. and disseminating it” (1981:236). Literacy is not only a matter of knowing how to read and write a particular kind of script. It is also a matter about applying knowledge for some specific. ‧. purposes in specific contexts. Applying to the health domain, such as “healthy literacy” which. y. Nat. io. sit. is defined in Health People 2010 as: "The degree to which individuals have the capacity to. n. a. er. obtain, process, and understand basic health information and services needed to make. v. appropriate health decisions".l Literacy here incorporates n iskills to read, listen, analyze, and. Ch. engchi U. make decisions, such as the abilities to understand instructions on prescription, medical educational brochures, doctor's directions, and moreover, the ability to apply these skills to health situations. From obtaining, processing, understanding to applying information acquired, to a more actively and participatory use, Lankshear and Knobel defined literacy as “socially recognized ways of generating, communicating and negotiating meaningful content through the medium. 1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition, the manual was published in 1980, by the American Psychiatric Association to set forth diagnostic criteria, descriptions and other information to guide the diagnosis of mental disorders, the first to incorporate multiaxial classification, and then was replaced in 1987 by DSM-III-R. 6.

(15) of encoded texts within contexts of participation in Discourses” (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006: 2). In short, literacy makes us to generate and communicate meanings and to invite others make meanings from our texts in turn. Such as “Media literacy”, emphasizes the skills of critical thinking about media messages— applying a process of inquiry to ask critical questions about what you watch, see, listen to, and read.. Trauma literacy. 政治大. The term “Trauma literacy” once was mentioned in a presentation which was titled. 立. “Becoming trauma literate: A practical training program for educators” by Cait McMahon. ‧ 國. 學. (2008), the manage director of Dart Center Australasia. The presentation was in conjunction with a documentary “News Media & Trauma: Stories from Australian Media Professionals. ‧. about Reporting Trauma”, which was originally produced by Dart Center Australasia with. y. Nat. n. a. er. io. traumatic stories.. sit. Brett McLeod, featured the recounting experiences of Australian journalists about covering. v. i As McMahon defined in lher presentation, trauma nliteracy incorporates understanding. Ch. engchi U. one’s own reactions to trauma and these reactions on others, and also strategies enhance resilience to deal with reactions to trauma on self. Similar to the concept of Emotional literacy, defined by Claude Steiner, as the ability to understand your emotions, the ability to listen to others and empathize with their emotions, and the ability to express emotions productively (Steiner, 2003: 11). It was described as the mutual understanding and ability for emotional problems coping. Knowledge of possible psychological and physical human responses after experiencing trauma and tragedies helps people to get aware of traumatic impacts on self and on others, and it also helps for finding out better coping strategies to deal with these traumatic impacts. As 7.

(16) trauma itself is a complex concept and journalists play a role in conveying these tragedies to the public, a skill or a better framework to describe and records tragedies to fit ethical demands is important and often needs constantly reflections. “Trauma literacy” should combine emotional literacy and literacy of telling tragedies, and I used it to discuss possible influence on journalists after covering human tragedies, their awareness of other’s grief and related practice toward covering tragedies. Earlier than journalists, other professions such emergency workers, social workers, police. 政治大. officers and paramedics these “first responders”2 have noticed they may be injured after. 立. exposing to trauma stressors while working. There are some training programs or. ‧ 國. 學. interventions have been developed for dealing with these injuries. Moreover, their awareness about trauma and its impact are not only limited in a recognition stage, and have been move. ‧. furtherer to a stage of delivering trainings and workshops as intervention and prevention of. y. Nat. io. sit. work related traumatic stress.. n. a. er. For journalists, even some foreign organizations recognized that journalists are also victims. v. to the ripple effect of coveringl traumatic events and victims’strongly emotion, urging a shift ni. Ch. engchi U. of organizational culture, and offer more well-down training and intervention programs for journalists. But research on the types of support to assist journalists with the consequences of trauma reporting is limited (Keats & Buchanan, 2009).. Moreover, with the advocacy of. victim’s right and the concerns about the mental health of journalists, emotional literacy training has been developed among journalists, some researchers also noticed that journalists need emotional literacy training for understand their interviewees and recognizing and coping their own emotion after covering tragedies (Benning, 2006). 2. “First responders” who are the first on the scene of accidents, the term has been “ used as a lingo to describe paramedics, police officers and other emergency personnel who have been classified as possible sufferers of PTSD… ” (Rentschler, 2009:167). 8.

(17) 1.3 Taiwan Journalists and Trauma Trauma news in Taiwan as I defined earlier may be disasters, some historical trauma, and crime news. Taiwan journalists don’t have many chances to cover war or international conflicts, disasters such as Typhoon, earthquake are more familiar contexts which Taiwanese journalists may confront.. Reviewing the past two decades, such as the air crash of Flight. 政治 are大critical traumatic disasters impressed. CI6763, 921 Earthquake4, and Typhoon Morakot. 立. 5. Taiwan people. Journalists who covered these events feel the traumatic scenes sometimes still. ‧ 國. 學. intrude in their mind.. Also crime news in Taiwan accounts for a certain ratio for the rigid competitions. ‧. between many news outlets. Many journalists especially who have longer covering experience,. y. Nat. n. a. er. io. have compassion fatigue (Wang, 2010; Lu, 2009).. sit. have covered some big disasters or severe crime news may feel numbing to tragedies and. v. i l Reviewing domestic literature which concernedn about trauma and its impact on. Ch. engchi U. journalists, I found four master theses had more in-depth discussions, these are “Occupational Accidents Encountered by Journalists in Taiwan” (Lai, 2010), “Journalist Suffering from Workplace Violence” (Xiong, 2007), “The Psychological Impact of Covering Disaster on 3. On February 16, 1998, China Airlines Flight 676 crashed into a road and residential area near Chiang Kai-shek International Airport in Taoyuan County. All 196 people on board and along with six people on the ground were dead. The air crash was also called “Da Yun” air crash which was named by location of the crash. 4. 921 Earthquake (21 September, 1999) reached 7.3 on the Richter scale and claimed 2,415 people’s life, severely injured 11,305 others. It was the second-deadliest quake in recorded history in Taiwan. 5. Typhoon Morakot (August 2-11, 2009) was the deadliest typhoon to impact Taiwan in recorded history. It brought extreme amount of rainfall and triggered enormous mudslides and severe flooding throughout southern Taiwan. One mudslide buried the entire town of Xiaolin and killing an estimated 500 people in the village alone. The Typhoon claimed 461 people dead and make 192 others missing.. 9.

(18) Journalists” (Lu, 2009), and “The Relationship between the Social Support Mechanism and Traumatic Stress Journalists Bear after Covering Trauma News Events or Traumatized Victims”(Wang, 2010). Xiong (2007) noticed journalists often are threaten by some power, he focused on the violence in workplace which Taiwanese journalists may confront, form clarifying different types of workplace violence to journalists, finding out some strategies to avoid being subjected to violence and other threats. Lai (2010) moved further, investigated different types. 政治大. of occupational accidents encountered by journalists in Taiwan, and noted common ignorance. 立. of the labor identity of journalists, and the demand of official protection and welfare support. ‧ 國. 學. for journalists, also Lai questioned about whether media organizations in Taiwan provide a safe and healthy work environment or helping resources to their employee.. ‧. Through a series of interviews to journalists and media managers, Lu (2009) found that. y. Nat. io. sit. Taiwan journalists didn’t have enough awareness about the possibility of being mentally hurt. n. a. er. from their assignments. Time pressure and stress from the highly competitions between media. v. l no time to perceive their industries made journalists have n i emotional suffering at the scene,. Ch. engchi U. and later the delayed emotional reactions will appear whenever memory intruded in their mind. The same claims were proposed by Wang’s research in 2010. After interviewed 13 journalists in Taiwan encompass different news beats and media, she found out her interviewees have suffered from traumatic stress which emerged as intruded memory, avoidance of any reminders of the specific traumatic events, a distance with others, emotion hiding until being numb, loss of compassion and hyper-arousal to every potential threats. These interviews as proofs that journalists in Taiwan also suffer from traumatic stress even they don’t admit. Moreover, she found characters, gender, specialty, position, and the 10.

(19) positions of media would be variable for influencing the affordability of journalists when covering traumatic events. As Wang tried to formulate a framework for developing support mechanism in future and investigated the existed social support for dealing with traumatic stress to Taiwan journalists, she found most journalists adopt two approaches, self-care and seeking social support. In the part of social support, Wang divided it to three types: Emotional Support, Informational Support (offer information about the stress context) and Tangible (material and. 政治大. service) Support and also divided the source of support to three categories: Peers,. 立. Organizations and Religion & Family. Her research pointed out these journalists from their. ‧ 國. 學. peers can acquire more informational support, but limited emotional support for the sake of competitions, and religious support plays an important role in the ways of Taiwanese. ‧. journalists to deal with traumatic stress. Moreover, Journalists in Taiwan are often criticized. y. Nat. io. sit. about lacking empathy, because for the deadline pressure and competing for rating, some of. n. al. er. them often ask the news subjects some inconsiderate questions, for getting some useful quote in the news reports.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 1.4 The Study Instead of reconfirming the impacts on journalists from covering traumatic events, which Lu (2009) has already discussed in her master thesis, and papers contributed to find solutions or builded a model for dealing with the impacts related to trauma (Wang, 2010; Castle, 1999; Rentschler, 2010); I tried to discuss a better way to help journalists dealing with their traumatic experience from covering tragedies. Most Taiwan journalists don’t have awareness about the potential trauma, and nothing is 11.

(20) systematically set up in the newsrooms for helping journalists who suffered by witnessing tragedies and covering traumatic events (Lu, 2009). In this stage, building awareness about trauma and helping them have a positive attitude to seek some feasible frameworks for better coverage are things we could do. An awareness building may be the first step for creating more appropriate solutions. Trainings or workshops may be an approach to build awareness. In view of these, I helped to release a simple workshop about trauma literacy. It was as an informant for Taitung journalists. And then I used in-depth interview as an approach to. 政治大. consider whether trauma literacy makes difference, especially on journalists’ perception of. 立. their traumatic stress. I hope the research would be a proposal to urge the importance of. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. building trauma awareness among journalists.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 12. i n U. v.

(21) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW. 2.1 Trauma and Journalists Journalism has been discussed as a hazardous profession, because journalists, especially war journalists would suffer from traumatic stress and sometimes safety threats from their. 政治大. assignments (Feinstein, 2002). After covering war, humanity crisis, and disasters, foreign. 立. correspondents and journalists would have some emotional scars, lingering memory and even. ‧ 國. 學. problems of substance abuse. Psychiatrist Feinstein also wrote that” There is a notion within war journalism that even reporters are not combatants, they can confront war with impunity. ‧. as well” (Feinstein, 2003: 8).. y. Nat. io. sit. With the improved technology, increased production expectations and spiraling. n. a. er. competition between a greater number of domestic news outlets, trauma news and live. v. l coverage increased as well (McMahon & McLellan, 2008). n i News about disaster, war, riots,. Ch. engchi U. genocides and terrorism which seems full of trauma are significant to link trauma and its consequences to journalistic practice, and occurring news about criminal incidents such as drug abuse, suicide, sexual assault, rape, child abuse, domestic violence, and what require to interview victims, survivors, victims’ families and first responders are have strong links to trauma as well. In fact, not only war journalists but almost every reporter or editor may be involved in the coverage of tragedies which have victims and have influence on the society, such as automobile accidents, fire, murders and crime news (Hight & Smyth, 2003; Smith, 2008; Dworznik, 2006). 13.

(22) In a research by McMahon and McLellan (2008) showed that many journalists who covered the Indian Ocean Tsunami in December 2004, were confronted a number of deficits in five fields, including control, safety, trust, self-esteem and intimacy. In spite of a single, serious traumatic event, Van der Merwe (2003:11) noted that there are some responses which appear on journalists are resulted from traumatic stress, especially when they repeatedly cover traumatic events. These responses include being cynical, have a limit hope in human kindness, being lethargic, withdrawing from intimacy and a loss of belief in self, etc.. 政治大. Matloff (2004) also noted that reporters sometimes may experience “survivor guilt”6 in. 立. their work. Journalists’guilt feeling is come from identification with the victims. The kind of. ‧ 國. 學. guilty feeling in the context of the health profession may be put as a kind of “vicarious trauma” which makes a shift of schema and the belief about self and others after constantly. ‧. exposing to traumatic stories of others.. n. a. er. io. sit. y. Nat Traumatic exposure. v. i traumatic stress symptoms on Simpson and Boggs (1999)l did an exploratory studynabout. Ch. engchi U. press journalists. They surveyed 131 American newspaper reporters, photo journalists and editors in Michigan and Washington State, and found that interviewing victims or survivors, as well as witnessing traumatic events made these journalists have traumatic symptoms. Symptoms of the secondary exposure to traumatic events may persist for months or years, and could be triggered by some reminders about the specific traumatic events. To these journalists, the most mentioned symptoms are sadness, exhaustion, excitement, guilt, apprehension, anger,. 6. “Survivor guilt” is also called survival guilt. It is the feeling of guilt for surviving from a tragedy in which others died. In some cases, the person may believe the tragedy occurred because he or she did something bad. In others, the person may feel guilty for not taking proper steps to avert the tragedy (Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition). 14.

(23) fear for self and fear for family members. Traumatic stress strikes from journalists’duty are similar to the emotional response public-safety workers take in their work. The studies also showed that journalists are at risk of symptoms such as the intrusion of unwanted recollection and avoidance as early as their first violent assignment and with the accumulation of covering traumatic event without dealing, affect journalists adversely, and Simpson and Boggs suspected that may “drain on one's consciousness, and diminishes the capacity for accurate, creative work” (Simpaon & Boggs, 1999:18).. 政治大. Traumatic exposure did bring traumatic stress on journalists, in spite of Simpson and. 立. Boggs’ research, Ross (2003) also suggests: “Media members are often exposed to direct. ‧ 國. 學. trauma when they witness violence and tragedy first-hand, or second-hand trauma from repetitive exposure in the aftermath of tragedy” (2003:74). Studies of journalistic trauma. ‧. authorized the “journalistic witnessing” by making it medical (Conrad, 1992; Ochberg, 1996),. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. codifying the horrors reporters saw may have possible lead to PTSD.. Other factors. Ch. en chi. i n U. v. g and Faithorn (2002) also pointed out while In spite of traumatic exposure, Himmelstein journalists lose a sense of mission may suffer from a loss of conviction and depression, and feel helpless to affect the society. That means that only traumatic stress from the tragedies journalists cover but the following questioning about their ethical reasoning or condemn also make they traumatized. Moreover, when journalists have the same experience with the trauma victims or have some similar background with the subjects, they feel more traumatic stress.. Professional detachment Many journalists employ the “professional detachment” which is a short-term technique to 15.

(24) be selectively dissociated and keep a distance to the news targets, making journalists to function “professionally” and to file their stories on time (McMahon & McLellan, 2008). The compartmentalize behavior make journalists continue their work instead of overwhelming on the spot but as Simpson and Boggs questioned, “Can journalists truly compartmentalize or repress the horror while they go about the routine of producing the news?” (Simpson & Boggs, 1999:2) Moreover the “macho culture” which is the culture of being “tough, ruthless and devoid of. 政治大. emotions”, is still popular in most newsrooms. And that culture makes few journalists want to. 立. talk about how traumatic stories have affected them, because they thought that it is not a way. ‧ 國. 學. that a good journalist has been expected to be. Newman, Simpson and Handschuh (2003) in their research also showed that low perceived social support may increase the rate of PTSD. ‧. among photojournalists. Organizational support and training program about trauma are. y. Nat. io. sit. important for journalists to learn how to deal with the trauma they cover and the following. n. a. er. potential stressful impact on them.. v. Therefore awareness of thel traumatic stress and help n iseeking for dealing the traumatic. Ch. engchi U. assignments and the following impact are still need to be promoted, and urging a shift of culture in better preparing or supporting media staff to deal with traumatic stress which may make impact on their mental health (Brayne, 2004). With finding out journalists inevitably have some traumatic stress from their daily work, in recent years, many training courses, experience sharing gathering, workshops which set up for journalists are come with the trauma concerns (Brayne,2004; Bennett, 2008; Simpson, 2004; Frank & Perigoe, 2009; Wang, 2010). Organizations such as Dart Center for journalism and trauma have started to notice the trauma related problems, and cooperated with psychological scholars to release or to deliver materials about trauma issues in 16.

(25) journalism to journalists. The trauma issues in journalism have not been in the corner anymore.. As a BBC correspondent David Loyn described trauma therapy as a process of. vacuuming a carpet: “If an ordinary sentient human being is exposed to a lot of violence, then you need a cleaning.”(as cited in Matloff, 2004: 20).. 2.2 Assignment Stress Injury on Journalists. 政治大. Casualties and physical persecution of journalists in war zone and conflict areas note the. 立. importance of safety issues in journalism. Not only War journalists, foreign correspondents. ‧ 國. 學. and local journalists are often facing life threats and at the risk of being severe injury physically on their way to cover stories or rush into the scene of accidents and disasters (CPJ. ‧. report, 2003). Keat and Buchanan (2009) proposed a term, “Assignment Stress Injury” (ASI),. y. Nat. io. sit. to describe a type of injury that developing on trauma assignments and in newsroom, that kind. n. a. er. of injury often comes from traumatic stress. To journalists, their work routines often place. v. them in dangerous situations l where they may confront n i their own vulnerability and the. Ch. engchi U. psychological impact of subjects in their stories, such as grief, shock and disorientation (Himmelstein and Faithorn, 2002). Journalists may be affected by traumatic exposure at three different levels (Cameron, 2007): (1) Direct exposure, where a traumatic event is personally experienced or witnessed; (2) Secondary exposure, which exposed via sympathetic involvement in the experiences of another (3) Vicarious exposure, where traumatization occurs in the absence of personal contact. The direct exposure is easy to understand, which may give rise to Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) or Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD); and secondary or vicarious exposure is leaded to Secondary Trauma Stress (STS). 17.

(26) 2. 2.1. PTSD and Journalists. Some studies have examined the PTSD on journalists. Some Journalists and photojournalists who covered large-scale disasters confirmed symptoms of PTSD (Cote & Simpson, 2006; Palm et al, 2004). According to previous research about the ratio of journalists who suffer from PTSD, the results were ranging from 4.3 percent in a study with newspaper journalists (Pyevich, Newman, & Daleiden, 2003); 6.7 percent in a study to 875. 政治大. media professionals, 98.4% of them are photojournalists who have experience about covering. 立. traumatic events7(Newman, Simpson, & Handschuh, 2003); 30 percent in a study with 140. ‧ 國. 學. war correspondents (Feinstein, Owen, & Blair, 2002) and gradually elevated rates of depressive symptoms have been found with regard to journalists (Feinstein et al., 2002).. ‧. PTSD is often associated with soldiers, prisoners of war, or rape victims, and usually it. y. Nat. io. sit. associates with one traumatic event rather than an accumulation of smaller events. The threats. n. a. er. of physical harm, witnessing a tragic event, and immediate feelings of fear, horror, and. v. helplessness are necessary for lthe diagnosis of PTSD (Dworznik, 2008). Different from the ni. Ch. engchi U. instant stress response such as Acute Stress Disorder (ASD)8, PTSD is a chronic response to trauma, lasting at least a month and occurring anytime after a genuine trauma (Ochberg, 1996). The diagnostic criteria for PTSD include a history of exposure to traumatic events, such as people who have experienced a threat of harm or death on themselves or those they love. The main symptoms of PTSD are intrusive recollections of the trauma event; avoidance of reminders of the event and emotional numbing; hyper arousal 7. 9. (DSM-Ⅳ-TR, 2000).. This rate (6%) is roughly consistent with rates in the general population (Newman et al, 2003). Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) is an anxiety disorder characterized by a cluster of dissociative and anxiety symptoms occurring within one month of a traumatic event (Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine, 2008). 9 Hyper arousal is a state or condition of muscular and emotional tension produced by hormones released (Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine, 2008). 8. 18.

(27) Further symptoms of PTSD include depression, grief and loss, helplessness, guilt and fear of the traumatic event recurring. These symptoms may appear shortly after the trauma, but some victims may be symptom free for weeks before symptoms begin to surface (DSM-Ⅳ-TR, 2000). Studies showed that the ratios of PTSD are not significant among local journalists as war correspondent. Even Pyevich, Newman, and Daleiden (2003) attempted to improve the study of PTSD in local journalists by increasing their sample size. They surveyed total 866 local. 政治大. newspaper journalists for PTSD and their traumatic exposure in 2000. The result were that 96. 立. % of the sample had covered at least one incident in which someone was hurt or killed, but. ‧ 國. 學. only 4.3% have PTSD. Dworznik (2008) thought the result was due to the fact that local reporters and photographers rarely contact with a single event which is traumatic enough to. ‧. trigger PTSD. Instead, they expose to an accumulation of trauma aftermath and victims’. y. Nat. io. sit. stories, which is indicative of compassion fatigue. Adding compassion fatigue to trauma. n. a. er. studies in journalism may offer a more complete picture of how journalists are being affected. l by their work (Dworznik, 2008).. 2.2.2. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. STS and Journalists. Sommer (2008:62) mentioned that there is “a variety of terms have been used to describe the deleterious effects experienced by some professionals who provide services to those who directly affected by traumatic stressors”. Secondary Traumatic Stress is the most comprehensive term that can be interchangeably used to describe vicarious trauma,. 19.

(28) countertransference10, compassion fatigue and burnout, reactions to the emotional demands on people from witnessing or being exposed to others’ suffering through graphics, images, testimonies, etc. (Sanchez, 2010: 8). It is a natural consequence, and it is also stressed by Keat & Buchanan (2009) as an assignment stress injury to journalists. As Dworznik (2008) wrote in his doctoral thesis,. “Near constant exposure to people in trauma coupled with long or irregular work. 政治大. routine, deadline pressure, and lack of social support make journalists a prime. 立. candidate for secondary traumatic stress, burnout and compassion fatigue”(2008:71).. ‧ 國. 學. Compassion fatigue is a biologically, psychologically and socially state of exhaustion and. ‧. dysfunction and was first used for describing the emotional exhaustion of nurses who are over. y. Nat. sit. emotionally involved with the plights of their patients (Joinson, 1992). Dworznik described. n. a. er. io. compassion fatigue as the result of “the emotional exhaustion, depersonalization11 , and. v. l reduced personal accomplishment combine with the n i inability to process traumatic. Ch. engchi U. information” (2008:69). People who frequently exposed to dangerous situations, witnessing property damage and loss, working under bad conditions, the physical strain associated with their work, and have the necessity of conveying bad news to friends and family of victims are at risk for compassion fatigue (Beaton & Murphy, 1995). Dworznik (2006) put symptoms of compassion fatigue as these of secondary traumatic 10. Countertransference traditionally has referred to the activation of the therapist's unresolved or unconscious conflicts or concerns, and can be more broadly incorporated the painful feelings, images, and thoughts that accompany the work with trauma survivors (McCann & Pearlman, 1990). 11. Depersonalization: Persistent or recurrent experiences of feeling detached from, and as if one is an outside observer of, one’s mental processes or body (e.g., feeling as though one is in a dream; sense of unreality of self or body; or time moving slowly)(APA, DSM-5). 20.

(29) stress, and reviewed research from Bull and Newman (2003), Zalin(2001) and Steele(2001) , reported compassion fatigue on news workers may have these symptoms including fear, shock and social disconnection, sadness, exhaustion and guilt, and nightmares and headaches. Some research showed that compassion fatigue can make journalists change the way they shoot and write stories, affecting the media message itself and audience (Dworznik, 2008: 72). Compassion fatigue in journalists can impact both their interpersonal relationships with new subjects they interview and also the messages they construct for mass audiences. 政治大. (Dworznik, 2008). For compassion fatigue on journalists makes them emotionally. 立. over-distancing themselves from their news subject in grief, in this way they may have. ‧ 國. 學. difficulty to really understand their grief. Moreover, Reporters with compassion fatigue may choose or present more sensational and horrific stories, and pass along their compassion. ‧. fatigue to the audience for they are emotionally drained.. y. Nat. io. sit. Pearlman and McCann (1995) defined vicarious traumatization as the cumulative effect. n. a. er. on a therapist for engaging in therapeutic relationships with trauma victims, and the effects. v. l may influence the helpers’ cognitive schema, feelings, n thei sense of safety, self-esteem and. Ch. engchi U. memories, and lead to cognitive shifts and intrusive imagery. Van der Merwe (2003) pointed that journalists and press photographers should be aware of the danger of vicarious trauma12, because constantly exposure to trauma story of others are pervasive in the lives of journalists and can potentially affect all realms of their lives, and it is a long-term alternations in cognitive schemas or mental frameworks about self and others. Burnout is a kind of cumulative stress, a state of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion caused by the loss of ability to cope with one’s everyday environment. It was 12. Vicarious traumatization (VT) is specific to trauma workers. As McCann and Pearlman (1990) argued that working with victims could have lasting and profound psychological effects on counselors and therapists. They termed this traumatizing phenomenon as “vicarious traumatization”. 21.

(30) introduced to describe feelings of emotional and physical exhaustion related to one’s work. Depression, cynicism, boredom, loss of compassion and discouragement are often come with burnout (Dworznik, 2008). Research about journalists’ burnout showed that younger, less experienced journalists often suffer from higher rates of burnout than their older, seasoned colleagues (Reinardy, 2007). Moreover, there is a strong linkage between burnout and intentions to leave journalism and mostly female journalists reported higher level of exhaustion (Reinardy, 2009).. 2.3 Dealing with Traumatic Stress. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大. Traumatic stress and first responders. ‧. Concerns on the psychological sequelae to trauma have not only on primary victims but. y. Nat. io. sit. some victims suffer from their work which have some strong connections to others’ trauma. n. a. er. such as military personnel, domestic rescue workers, the police, and psychologists as well.. v. l been recognized traumatic There are many research has n istress on so-called first responders.. Ch. engchi U. Regehr, Goldberg and Hugh (2002) have recognized that the exposure to death and destruction can result in posttraumatic stress symptoms and depressive symptoms in emergency workers and paramedics. And Shepherd and Hodgkins (1990) pointed out that mental health workers in disasters may be the hidden victims from some psychological response in their emotion, cognition, behaviors. With recognizing these “sequelae”, these professionals have some interventions or trainings to help them to deal with the potential impact come with their work. After recognizing journalists may suffer from traumatic stress as first responders from the past research, the coping strategies for journalists are what I really concern, but the practical 22.

(31) related research are few. To first responders, early organizational interventions following traumatic exposures, such as understanding from their manager and immediate practical support can reduce psychological effects of trauma and lower absence rates (Rick, O’Regan & Kinder, 2006). Most interventions which are designed to reduce occupational stress can be categorized as (1) aiming to increase individual psychological resources and responses (e.g., coping), simply put, stress management training ; and (2) aiming to change the occupational context (van der. 政治大. Klink, Blonk, Scheme, & van Dijk, 2001).. 立. Van der Klink, Blonk, Schene, and van Dijk (2001), did a quantitative meta-analysis. ‧ 國. 學. research which distinguished four types of intervention after reviewing 48 experimental studies. The four types are cognitive–behavioral interventions, relaxation techniques,. ‧. multimodal programs, and organization-focused interventions. The cognitive–behavioral. y. Nat. io. sit. interventions is aiming at changing cognitions and subsequently reinforcing active coping. n. a. er. skills; Relaxation techniques focus on physical or mental relaxation to cope with the. v. l interventions emphasize consequences of stress; Multimodal n i the acquisition of both passive. Ch. engchi U. and active coping skills and organizational-focus intervention, different from the other three which caring about individual demands, make concerns of organizational interventions. Within the four types, cognitive–behavioral interventions are more effective than the other intervention types.. 2.3.1 Common Practice in Other Professions Psychological debriefing Initiated by U.S. army and usually be held in 24-72 hours after traumatic events, to boost 23.

(32) the soldiers' morale by having them share stories about what happened during battles. In 1983, Dr. Jeffrey Mitchell, based on his career as a firefighter and a paramedic, proposed debriefing might diminish stress reactions among emergency workers, such as firefighters, emergency medical technicians, and police officers as well (Dyregrov, 1997). Now it is an immediate intervention following by trauma, to relieve stress and prevent long-term pathology reactions. Mitchell believed that the mental health of emergency personnel would be best served if they are provided with a structured session that enabled them to talk about their emotions and. 政治大. the fact they experience or witness after traumatic assignments. He developed a model of. 立. debriefing, “Critical Incident Stress Debriefing” (CISD), which is often applied as a group. ‧ 國. 學. intervention for emergency workers and incorporated into disaster counseling to victims of community-wide disasters as well (Barboza, 2005). The presumption of CISD is that “the. ‧. cognitive structure of the event, such as thoughts, feelings, memories, and behaviors, is. y. Nat. io. sit. modified through retelling the event and experiencing emotional release" (Bledsoe, 2003).. n. a. er. Any intervention program which is designed for the ongoing threats should incorporate. v. l safety, efficacy, stay calming elements such as installing hope, and connectedness (Hobfall ni. Ch. engchi U. and Watson, 2005). About the connectedness, most professionals engaged in helping roles have managed to design and implement support systems, such as a “buddy program” which based mainly on social networks and professional colleagues, through sharing concerns and experiences with each other to avoid emotional burnout (Bell, 2003).. One-shot remedy may be not enough Building strength before exposing to traumatic stressors can be another useful intervene approach. For potential victims of trauma who expose to trauma for their work, pre-exposure education and preparation have been found to minimize negative outcomes and promote 24.

(33) adaptive coping skills (Rick, Young and Guppy, 1998). CISD is not intended as a “one shot” remedy, and it later became a part of components in “Critical incident stress management” (CISM), which was developed by Everly and Mitchell in 1997, as a comprehensive, integrative, multi-component crisis intervention model. Simply put, CISM is a “psychological first aid” or “emotional first aid” toolbox for with many tools for different purposes. It consists of multiple components, from the pre-crisis phase, the acute response phase into the post-crisis phase, and can be applied to individuals and groups. The basic components of a. 政治大. CISM program typically include pre-crisis preparedness training; individual crisis counseling;. 立. short group psycho-educational interventions, defusings (following disengagement from the. ‧ 國. 學. critical incident); demobilizations (short group interventions following disengagement, such as offer instant physical needs); critical incident stress debriefings (CISD); family support. ‧. interventions; and follow-up and professional referrals to mental health counselors (Everly,. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. Flannery, & Mitchell, 2000).. Trainings. Ch. en chi. i n U. v. g that training or education can be a good Researches in other professions indicated approach for building that kind of awareness and providing information about problems and solutions (Hernández et al., 2010; Bell, 2003). Deahl (1998:532) also pointed that “training may also limit or alter the type of exposure to potentially traumatizing events, decrease the unexpected, maximize a sense of hope, and prepare individuals for the unexpected need to act”.. Professionals without knowledge about trauma and its consequences may have. possible to erroneously assume that they have enough competence than they really have and make critical mistakes. Pearlman & Saakvitne (1995) pointed out information from training can help individuals 25.

(34) to name their experience and provide a framework for responding to it. With the understanding social workers may feel more competent and have more realistic expectations about what they can accomplish in their professional role. Health care professionals, emergency service workers, volunteers also have some training about mental trauma before they do their job. Different workshops and trainings has come out for teaching professionals how to identify potential symptoms of stress and burnout, promoting the development of self-care (Shapiro,. 政治大. Brown, & Biegel, 2007; Trippany, White Kress, & Wilcoxon, 2004), and improving. 立. problem-solving abilities, particularly in situations requiring teamwork coordination (Arnetz,. ‧ 國. 學. 2009). That kind of training in practice have different names such as trauma resilience training, crisis response training, and stress inoculation training, etc. For instance, crisis. ‧. simulation training for police and fire workers is a way to prepare staff to deal with the. y. Nat. io. sit. possible threats they may confront with (Arnetz, 2009). Training about crisis prevention and. n. a. er. management are often recommended as one part of a staff development program, for. v. l paramedics, “visualization” training can help to determine n i the next course of action when. Ch. engchi U. confronted with a scene where people are in a state of high anxiety and hysteria (Regehr, Goldberg, &Hughes, 2002). Training courses or workshop for trauma help people to be “innoculated” or have more ability to deal with the coming trauma and cultivated strength for better resilience. Meichenbaum (2007) reviewed many stress prevention interventions in the past 30 years under a label of Stress Inoculation Training (SIT), noted that kind of training could be tailored to a variety of stressed populations in both a treatment and a preventative manner. It can be applied to medical patients, psychiatric patients, individual with circumscribed fears, people have performance anxiety and specific professional groups (Meichenbaum, 2007). In practice, 26.

(35) SIT maybe a part of a broader-based intervention aligned with diverse cognitive-behavioral interventions, and be used for reducing anxiety and improving performance (Saunder, Driskell, Johnston, & Salas, 1996). The Stress Inoculation Training usually contains three phases, which includes conceptual education phrase, a phrase to acquire coping skills, and a phrase to relapse prevention procedure. It is a flexible, individually tailored, multifaceted form of cognitive-behavioral therapy. The training content are not fixed, it may be different by situations, training aims and. 政治大. target groups (Meichenbaum, 2007). The conceptual education phase of training helps the. 立. individual to better understand the nature of stress and stress effects. The skill acquisition. ‧ 國. 學. phrase will develop and practice skills to reduce anxiety and enhance the capability to respond to the stressful situation. The relapse prevention phase is aim to enhance the transfer of. ‧. training to critical situations, in this phrase, trainees may engage in guided imagery or. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. role-play activities for simulating practice(Saunder et al, 1996 ).. Ch. hi. en. i n U. v. c 2.3.2 Overview of Interventions ingJournalism. Green and Sykes (2005) reviewed the solutions to traumatic stress which already used in some Australian media organizations, and categorized to three models which journalists may use to deal with emotional injury. The three models are post-trauma counseling, peer support model and inoculation by preparation. In 1990s, Nic Place (1992) believed it is no longer appropriate for media organizations to deny the need for counseling (Sykes, 2003). The claim was made after interviewing journalists and four counselors. Place (1992) thought that counseling may be a way to help journalists improving their preparation for the emotional side of journalism, including positive listening 27.

(36) skills and an awareness of their own feelings when attending disaster scenes, conducting intrusive interviews, and seeing a corpse for the first time (Sykes, 2003). Counseling has become a kind of employee assistance program in media organizations. For instance, Reuters has been dedicated to making global support services and trauma training available from employee assistance provider CiC.13 Anecdotal evidences in the past has also indicated that there is a poor access for journalists to counsel their suffering, because those who need support may not know they. 政治大. need it and hence may not avail themselves of counseling (Green & Sykes, 2005; Brayne,. 立. 2004 ). For journalists, showing emotion or admitting to any difficulties is contrast to the. ‧ 國. 學. attitude that they’ve been taught to. This denial is similar to the initial reaction of senior police to counseling, an attitude that has now changed completely (Place, 1992).. ‧. Instead of compulsory commanding journalists to receive counseling after traumatic. sit. y. Nat. io. er. assignments, as a part of counseling services, the BBC has introduced a Traumatic Risk Management (TRiM) model which is developed by the British Marines. It trains up some. al. n. iv n C media staffs as practitioners to identify risk factors and the level of trauma on individual h ethe ngchi U who just finished covering to critical incidents and traumatic events. It is a peer-driven and active monitoring mechanism (Bennett, 2008; Brayne, 2004; Frölich, 2004). A former director of Dart Center Europe, Mark Brayne once mentioned that:. “Rather than putting everyone who has experienced trauma through the same kind of professional debriefing, we now feel it is better to have simple peer-driven processes that can identify within the organizational culture who has taken on more trauma than 13. CiC provides 24-hour trauma support for international companies including emotional support, counseling and information services. It is a UK based support organization and as a resources for organizational employee assistant programs. It website: http://www.cic-eap.co.uk/index.html 28.

(37) they are able to handle.” (Brayne, 2004: 5). Also even three of the four counselors Place (1992) interviewed advocated some forms of debriefing or counseling. But one of the four, Sue McNulty, rejected complete debriefing sessions in favor of a peer-based system of support in the workplace (Syke, 2003). Two major print news publishers in Australia (News Ltd. and Fairfax Publications) have instituted a system of peer support from their journalists (Green & Sykes, 2005). Robert M.. 政治大. Frank promoted a training for training journalists about how to support their colleague, and he. 立. believe that openness, mutual support within the craft is a powerful means of healing (Frank. ‧ 國. 學. and Perigoe, 2009).As journalists may have similar experiences or be familiar with this profession, make the suffering one feel more easily to pour out or accept the assistance, the. ‧. mentorship in the newsroom is also a strategy to make younger journalists understand the. y. Nat. n. a. er. io. 2010; Castle, 1999).. sit. potential threats and normalize their reactions after covering trauma and coping strategies (Lai,. v. l also mentioned that nifijournalists don’t get the necessary McMahon and McLellan (2008). Ch. engchi U. awareness on the depth of traumatic impact until they in person experience traumatic event, they are in danger of being precipitated in an awful realization about the potential impact of their past report actions. Especially journalists also have chances to be reminded of their own past experience when they cover similar stories (Newsman et al, 2003).. The experience. from senior journalists, other trainings about trauma and peer support give insight to identify risk factors, recognize danger signs of colleagues. Safety training, training for mutual support, and training seminars or workshops about trauma and training about how to deal with trauma are also as “inoculation” before exposing to traumatic stressors. Trauma training in this way is not only bring some cognitive change but can function as 29.

(38) a gathering help journalists to find someone to talk about their concerns and their emotional burden, make them feel they are not alone and maybe it can promote a shift of culture- talk out and discuss more positive strategies toward their challenge, or at least a priming to make them start to think.. 2.3.3 Trauma Training and Employee Assistance Programs. 政治大. In fact, many industries have already noticed the importance of occupational health and. 立. started some employee assistance practice/ programs (EAPs) to deal with workplace stress on. ‧ 國. 學. two levels: advising company leaders about strategies for preventing exposures to workplace stressors and helping individual employees to manage their responses to stressors (Nobrega et. ‧. al., 2010). As EAPs is designed to response to job stress, which defined as the physical and. y. Nat. n. a. er. io. resources, or needs of the worker (NIOSH, 1999).. sit. emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities,. v. Maria. M. Pieton (2009) l in her thesis studied about n i the media company’s policy for. Ch. engchi U. journalists who cover traumatic events. Through an online survey to media managers and editors in the U.S, she found out that most available programs or policies in media companies for journalist’s mental health including outside counseling, a confidential hotline, options to rotate assignments without penalty, co-worker support and special training (disaster training, special on-site training etc.). And interestingly, being resulted from the stoic culture of organizations which make journalists afraid of being regarded as weak people or lack awareness about their emotional pain, journalists may choose not use these resources. Trauma training can function as special training or employee assistance programs, educateing journalists to get aware about the emotional burden on themselves. But as media is a public 30.

(39) sphere, trauma training for journalists is not only focus on assist news staffs, it also concern about the impact on victims, audience and demands from the society. In Taiwan, that kind of mechanism is not popular or common, and with cultural differences about interpretation to trauma and dissimilar social contexts, the questions about what can trauma training do; what kind of trauma training do we need; and who should be trained are still need a further clarification.. 政治大. 立. 2.4 Trauma Training in Journalism. ‧ 國. 學. In recent years, many training courses, experience sharing gathering, workshops which set up for journalists are come with the trauma concerns (Brayne,2004; Bennett, 2008; Simpson,. ‧. 2004; Frank & Perigoe, 2009; Wang, 2010 ). Organizations such as Dart Center for. y. Nat. io. sit. journalism and trauma have started to notice the trauma related problems, and cooperated. n. a. er. with psychological scholars to release or deliver materials about trauma issues in journalism. v. l in journalism have not been to journalists. The trauma issues n i in the corner anymore.. Ch. engchi U. Moreover, Hight and Smyth, two seasoned journalists wrote a guide to help journalists, photojournalists and editors how to interview victims, report violence and protect self from being overwhelming by the trauma and related stress response from the covering job. These training and guide are based on the awareness of trauma on journalists, news subjects and audience in the journalistic work.. “Without proper awareness and preparation, journalists might believe that the emotional reactions they experience reflect their lack of competency as journalists further putting in jeopardy their emotional and physical health” (Gutkowska, as cited 31.

(40) in Bennett, 2008:21).. Trauma training is expected to help journalists to cope with the trauma they suffer from assignments, it also offers a route for journalists to realize their suffering interviewees (Castle, 1999; Rentschler, 2007; 2010). Rentschler (2010) pointed that in the journalistic contexts, trauma is both a cultivated news value and a part of practice in the process of news production, and trauma training for journalists can be seen as a “reparative work” which focused on “what. 政治大. does the knowledge do?”, helping trainees to put the knowledge about trauma and trauma. 立. coping into practice. There are different ways to deliver trauma training, and the content can. ‧ 國. 學. be multi-faceted as well.. Journalists often learn from their own or senior journalists’ experiences about how to deal. ‧. with trauma. But these experiences are not applicable for everyone. Creating a public space. y. Nat. io. sit. for collective reflection can allow journalists to develop more refined notions of the. n. a. l flexible design. as the public space, if it have more. Ch. engchi. er. ever-evolving concept of real public interest (Kay et al, 2010b), and a workshop can function. i n U. v. 2.4.1 Trauma Education and Journalism Some journalism schools in the U.S. have began to set up trauma curricula in the early 1990s, for the criticisms by advocates about news media and its conducts toward crime victims. Several educational institutions in the U.S. such as Michigan State University, Central Oklahoma University, and the University of Washington have trauma training in its curriculum, started to initiate professional training protocols in how to covering disaster and tragedies (Bucqueroux, 2004; Dworznik & Grubb, 2007). Moreover, the Dart Center for 32.

多一些察覺，少一點壓力？ 創傷識讀如何幫助記者感知因採訪而得的創傷經驗 - 政大學術集成

多一些察覺，少一點壓力？創傷識讀如何幫助記者感知因採訪而得的創傷經驗 - 政大學術集成