買或不買: 馬來西亞大學生綠色購買意向調查 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 買或不買: 馬來西亞大學生綠色購買意向調查 To Buy or Not to Buy: Malaysian University Students’ Green Purchase Intention. Student: 伊德琳 Edaline Audrey Spykerman Advisor: 施琮仁教授 Professor Tsung-Jen Shih. 中華民國 106 年 6 月 June 2017.

(2) 買或不買: 馬來西亞大學生綠色購買意向調查 To Buy or Not to Buy: Malaysian University Students’ Green Purchase Intention. Student: Edaline Audrey Spykerman 伊德琳 Advisor: Professor Tsung-Jen Shih 施琮仁教授. 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. A Thesis Submitted to the International Master Program’s in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University. In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 106 年 6 月 June 2017.

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(4) Acknowledgement. I am using this space to extend my heartfelt gratitude to everyone who supported me over the span of my Master degree. First and foremost, to my mentor Professor Tsung-Jen Shih, my gratitude to you for your expertise, relentless patience, guidance, critical advice, and suggestions that paved the way to the completion of my thesis. The door to your office was constantly open at whatever point I ran into trouble or had questions about my research. Thank you for the continuous engagement and swift replies on texts and emails. You consistently enabled this paper to be my particular work, yet steered me on the right course whenever I required it. I am gratefully indebted to you for all that you have done. I must also express my genuine appreciation to my committee members, Professor YiChieh Lin and Professor Hong-Chi Shiau, for your inspiring guidance, invaluable constructive remarks and friendly advice during the defense. I am thankful to you for illuminating your views on various issues and perspectives related to my research. I am also grateful to those who have offered me help in my questionnaire distribution. To all my classmates and friends in Taiwan that have supported me all along this challenging process of thesis writing, it was made easier by all the help and support rendered to me, thank you. Finally, and most importantly, deepest gratitude to God, my family, close and best friends in Malaysia and my boyfriend for providing me with your unconditional love, unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my two years of study. Thank you for believing in me and being there for me remotely with your words of reassurance. This accomplishment would not have been possible without you.. i.

(5) Abstract. This research was driven by Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to examine the impact of ecological knowledge, ecological concern, and man-nature orientation on green purchasing (including both intention and actual behavior), with the moderating effect of price sensitivity and allowance and/or income. This research surveyed 602 Malaysian university students within the age bracket of 18 to 25, because this specific demographic is a sizeable market and such research is lacking in an emerging economy like Malaysia. The results demonstrated that ecological concern and man-nature orientation influenced purchase intention and actual purchase. The findings also indicated that price sensitivity and allowance and/or income moderated the relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior. This study has two implications: (1) it extends TRA by exploring the potential moderating variables between behavioral intention and actual behavior, and its findings adds to the body of knowledge in the area of green consumer behavior; (2) marketing managers can formulate their green marketing strategies effectively by consistently driving heart-warming campaigns to create or stir consumers’ emotions. Marketers should keep in mind that Malaysians are highly influenced by man-nature relationship belief, and additionally, marketers need to be careful in justifying pricing difference between non-green and green products for consumers that are sensitive to price.. Keywords: Theory of Reasoned Action, price sensitivity, ecological knowledge, ecological concern, man-nature orientation, green purchase intention. ii.

(6) Table of Contents Chapter One – Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two – Literature Review.......................................................................................... 6 2.1. Green Consumerism in Malaysia ................................................................................ 6. 2.2. Underpinning Theory/ Theoretical Background ......................................................... 9. 2.3. Research Framework ................................................................................................. 12. 2.4. Green Purchase Intention .......................................................................................... 13. 2.5. Ecological Knowledge .............................................................................................. 14. 2.6. Ecological Concern ................................................................................................... 18. 2.7. Man-Nature Orientation ............................................................................................ 19. 2.8. Price Sensitivity......................................................................................................... 20. 2.9. Allowance and/or Income ......................................................................................... 21. 2.10 Proposed Framework................................................................................................. 23 Chapter Three – Research Methodology ............................................................................. 24 3.1. Sampling Design ....................................................................................................... 24. 3.2. Questionnaire Design ................................................................................................ 25. 3.3. Pilot Study ................................................................................................................. 27. 3.4. Instrument and Measures .......................................................................................... 28. Chapter Four – Research Findings ...................................................................................... 33 4.1. Demographic Features of Respondents ..................................................................... 33. 4.2. Bivariate Correlation Analysis .................................................................................. 33. 4.3. Hypotheses Testing ................................................................................................... 34. iii.

(7) Chapter Five – Discussion ..................................................................................................... 40 5. 1. Discussion ................................................................................................................. 40. 5.2. Limitations ................................................................................................................ 44. 5.3. Suggestions for Future Research Direction/ Recommendations ............................... 45. Chapter Six - Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 47 6. 1. Theoretical Implication ............................................................................................. 48. 6.2. Practical Implication ................................................................................................. 49. References ............................................................................................................................... 53 Appendixes.............................................................................................................................. 70 Appendix 1: Digital Poster ................................................................................................... 70 Appendix 2: Sample Profile ................................................................................................. 71. iv.

(8) List of Tables & Figures Table 1.. Pilot Test Categorical ..................................................................................................... 27. 2.. Key Construct & Scale Sources ..................................................................................... 28. 3.. List of Survey Measures (n = 602) ................................................................................. 30. 4.. Dummy Variables ........................................................................................................... 32. 5.. Construct Correlation Matrix (n = 602).......................................................................... 34. 6.. Predicting Purchase Intention & Actual Purchase (n = 602) .......................................... 34. Figure 1.. Proposed framework. ...................................................................................................... 23. 2.. Moderated regression for price sensitivity ..................................................................... 38. 3.. Moderated regression for allowance and/or income ...................................................... 38. 4.. Mapping the pathway to purchase intention and actual purchase. ................................. 39. 5.. Mapping the pathway of price sensitivity and allowance/ income as moderating variables. ......................................................................................................................... 39. v.

(9) Chapter One – Introduction. Consumption of goods and services has escalated vastly on a global scale throughout the last decade which has led to the exhaustion of raw materials and severe harm to the natural environment (Chen & Chai, 2010). As the environment increasingly deteriorates, this has caused constant concern among developing nations. Developing countries such as Malaysia are worried about over-consumption in which economic development is one of the primary causes, and many countries are driving green campaigns to safeguard the earth (Mei, Ling, & Piew, 2012). This acknowledgment and concern towards the environment has prompted the development of ‘green consumption,’ which is often called ‘ecologically mindful consumption’. As a result, green buyers consider the natural effect of obtaining, utilizing, and discarding different items, or utilizing various ecological services to minimize adverse impacts on the environment (Moisander, 2007). Green consumption is considered as the process of staying away from particular actions that cause contamination or inhumane harm to animals (Schaefer & Crane, 2001; Strong, 1996). It can likewise embody positive product choices, for example, buying environmentally friendly products (Carrigan, Szmigin, & Wright, 2004). By considering the ecological effects of their purchases and then making a conscious decision to change one’s purchasing behaviors, these buyers can be labeled as green consumers (Mohd Noor, Masuod, Abu Said, Kamaruzaman, & Mustafa, 2016). McDoughall (1993) and Wasik (1992) stressed the vital role of consumers because environmentally responsible purchasing is essential as spontaneous acquiring of goods can seriously harm the environment. Noor, Muhammad, Kassim, Jamil, Mat, and Salleh (2012) alleged that the consumption patterns of private households caused 30 to 40 percent of the total damage to nature. However, consumers have the capacity to forestall or diminish. 1.

(10) ecological harm by obtaining green products. People should be well informed about how human activities and choices have an impact on the existing environmental resources and the delicacy of the physical environment. They should be prudent about the limits and potential economic development and its effect on the general public and the environment (Joshi & Rahman, 2015). Furthermore, due to the lack of study towards the intention to make green purchases among consumers, it has become a limitation for both local and international enterprises to develop a solid business and marketing strategies for green products (Chen & Chai, 2010). Therefore, it is essential for a study as such to be done especially in Malaysia, where green consumption is still new, to fully grasp and comprehend consumer behavior towards green products. When there are increasing level of ecological concern among consumers and it is positively related to green purchases, it is likely that marketers will be firmly motivated to adopt the idea of green marketing in their enterprises (Chan & Lau, 2000). Hence, an examination of green consumerism in the growing economy of Malaysia can help organizations enhance their comprehension of green consumers and to compete in the green market effectively. Aman, Harun, and Hussein (2012) found that broad reviews have been conducted by Western scholars in regards to green purchase intention. These include Chan and Lau (2000); Follows and Jobber (1999); Laroche, Bergeron, and Barbaro-Forleo (2001); Pickett and Ozaki (2008); Schlegelmilch, Bohlen, and Diamantopoulos (1996); Stone, Montgomery, and Nkonge (2008); and past reviews on green products can be found mostly in developed countries Luzio and Lemke (2013); Marketing (2008); Matthes, Wonneberger and Schmuck (2014); Vazifehdust, Taghipourian and Gharib (2011).. 2.

(11) Similar studies are lacking in Malaysia, despite the observation that green consumerism is dynamically coming into existence and growing in developing countries (Chen & Chai, 2010). According to Abdul Wahid, Rahbar and Shyan (2011), there is little known about Malaysian’s green consumerism in connection to purchase intention, as research in this viewpoint is still generally low in Malaysia. Furthermore, Lee (2008) argues that green consumer studies in Asian nations are starkly different to those in Western countries. Therefore, persistent efforts should be made to encourage the expansion of green purchase knowledge in developing countries such as Malaysia in order to better examine the distinctions and likenesses of consumer purchasing that has been scrutinized in other kinds of cultural and social setting (Ritter, Borchardt, Vaccaro, Pereira, & Almeida, 2015). This study investigated green purchase intention and actual green purchase by adopting one of the earliest frameworks on green purchase behavior. Chan and Lau’s (2000) framework is the first to consider green purchase intention as a dependent variable. This study will utilize the exact variables from Chan and Lau’s (2000) study, which treated ecological knowledge, ecological concern, and man-nature orientation as the independent variables and green purchase intention and actual green purchase as the dependent variables. Their framework exhibited that there is a solid and positive relationship between ecological concern and ecological knowledge with green purchase intention and actual green purchase. In spite of the achievement of the framework, however, the results are far from conclusive, because the external influence that affects the relationship between purchase intention and actual purchase has yet to be explored. As intention does not necessarily equate to actual purchasing, it is thus important to examine the moderating effects between intention and behavior. As indicated by Niessen and Hamm (2008), in their study of organic food, half of the respondents claimed they would purchase organic products, however, in reality, just 15 percent performed an actual purchase, so this indicates a large difference between expressed. 3.

(12) intention and genuine purchasing. Prior research demonstrated that shoppers are more sensitive to a product’s cost when they buy green products (Mandese, 1991). Subsequently, components such as price, income, and accessibility of the product, may clarify the disparity (Joshi & Rahman, 2015). Therefore, this study will include “price sensitivity” and “allowance and/or income” as additional variables since researchers posit that consumers are sensitive to price when it comes to going green (D’Souza, Taghian, & Khosla, 2007). Specifically, this study will include price sensitivity and allowance and/or income as the moderating variable to look at how it might interact with purchasing intention in influencing actual purchasing practices. In sum, forming from the discussions above, this study intends to examine the following research objectives: (1) To investigate the relationship between ecological knowledge, ecological concern, and man-nature orientation on green purchase intention and actual green purchase among Malaysian university students. (2) To investigate whether price sensitivity and allowance and/or income moderates the relationship between green purchase intentions and actual green purchase among Malaysian university students. The answers to the aforementioned questions will give a better understanding of green consumer purchase, which will help mitigate environmental degradation, and also identify the source of influence in actual green purchase. Furthermore, this study will benefit green retail managers in creating their product pricing strategies that may rely on the level of consumers’ price sensitivity and other sociodemographic variables. This paper is structured as follows. First, it starts with a review of relevant literature, in which environmental issue is introduced and then the conceptualization as the following: (1) green consumerism in the emerging economy of Malaysia; (2) green purchase intention; (3). 4.

(13) ecological knowledge; (4) ecological concern; (5) man-nature orientation; (6) price sensitivity; (7) allowance and/or income, and a framework in which a number of research questions and hypotheses will be proposed. Specifically, this study examines the moderating role of price sensitivity and allowance and/or income in the relationship between green purchase intention and actual green purchase. The next chapter is followed by a description of the research methodology employed in this study. Chapter four is a presentation of the empirical results. Then, chapter five includes discussions of the findings along with limitations and future research directions. Finally, conclusions and implications are provided in the concluding chapter.. 5.

(14) Chapter Two – Literature Review. 2.1. Green Consumerism in Malaysia According to Central Intelligence Agency (2017) World Factbook, the official. estimated population in Malaysia is approximately 31 million as of 2016. The median age of the population in total is 28.2 years old, a relatively young population; furthermore, it is close to the age bracket for this study, which is between 18 to 25 years old. The gender ratio of Malaysian is 1.03 male to one female. Kuala Lumpur is the capital city of Malaysia, and it is inhabited by an estimated population of 6.837 million. According to a 2010 census, major ethnic groups in Kuala Lumpur are Malay 45.9 percent, Chinese 43.2 percent, Indians 10.3 percent, and Others 1.6 percent (World Population Review, 2017). The expansion and development of the global economy are results from the growth of consumers’ consumption around the world; however, unfortunately today’s consumption is also a major antecedent of environmental degradation (Shah, 2005). The national statistics showed that some parts of Malaysia’s environment are in rather stressful conditions. Some of the environmental issues faced are poor air quality in the city, river pollution, deforestation, and increasing waste generation (Aini, Fakhru'l‐Razi, Laily, & Jariah, 2003). Accordingly, as a developing nation, the Malaysian government has exhibited a genuine care and commitment in addressing sustainability by implementing various policies and strategies to ensure sustainable development. As part of the nation’s commitment to achieving a ‘Green Malaysia,’ the Prime Minister of Malaysia introduced the Malaysian Green Technology Policy on 24th July 2009 (Desan, 2009). This policy is a promotion of foreign direct investments in green technology.. 6.

(15) Nevertheless, studies have shown that the underlying factors of ecological issues are not affected by environmental policies, but rather public awareness (Chukwuma, 1998). Ramsey and Rickson (1976) agree that the most significant factor for protecting the environment is a public concern and the willingness of man to minimize behaviors that are unfavorable to nature. It is paramount for humankind to identify that the roots of the environmental issue derives from human action, and patterns of consumption. Those that understand and wish to counter such effects have to resort to ethical consumption or green consumption in the hope of attaining sustainable development. Scheffer (1991) depicted green consumerism as a particular socially responsible consumer behavior that involves an environmentalist point of view. Likewise, Henion (1976) describes green consumerism as environmentally concerned consumption. Green consumers are defined as users who support organizations that are engaged in pro-environmental kinds of operations (Renfro, 2010). These customers care about whether their purchases are ecofriendly or not. Ottman (1992) defined green products as products that are produced using reused materials or those that are minimally packaged and non-lethal to nature. ‘Ecological or environmental products’ are business terms that are regularly utilized to depict products which safeguard the natural environment; these products are given this label if they preserve energy and resources and they decrease use or eliminate toxic agents, pollution, and waste (Pavan & Payal, 2010). In short, green products are known as green or environmentally friendly products that cause minimal damage to the environment all the way from the production, to the consumption, and right until to the disposal of the goods. Additionally, Pavan and Payal characterized the attributes of green products as items that are not tested on animals and instead uses chemicals that are approved, do not contaminate the earth, and contain natural ingredients that are organically grown, or are made from recyclable and reusable content.. 7.

(16) Some data has shown that because conventional enterprises are financially benefiting after the switch to green processes, hence numerous other types of organizations are adopting green methodologies (Taylor, Chuang & Yang, 2013). Namely, the retail outlet is following the footsteps in promoting green consumption (Yusof, Musa, & Rahman, 2012). Agriculture industries also react in producing foods without causing harm to the environment and consumers health (Pellegrini & Farinello, 2009). Besides, hotel and tourism industries also have been involved in changing their business methods towards attaining the label as a green hotel and eco-tourism location (Chan, 2013; Graci & Dodds, 2008; Punitha & Mohd Rasdi, 2013). Moreover, because of the increase in the number of consumers that are willing to buy green products, the concept of green consumption has become distinctly prevalent. Dangelico and Pujari (2010) reported that the size of green markets is also rising and it will continue to expand and grow in the future. According to studies, it is found that there is an increased interest in eco-friendly products in Malaysia (Cheah, 2009, and Chen & Chai, 2010).. Leading market survey. specialist, Marketsensus, asserts that green consumers in developing countries expressed the most inclination to support green consumerism compared to other Asia Pacific countries (Lung, 2010). Consumers from developing markets in the region were more willing to pay a higher price for eco-friendly products. Highest was Thai consumers with 95 percent prepared to pay more, followed by Malaysians and Koreans with over 80 percent, then Hong Kong and Australia with 60 percent of consumers (Lung, 2010). While the trend of green consumption is on the rise, there has been very few studies conducted on green purchasing behavior in developing countries. Such an absence poses a substantial obstacle for marketers as they seek a thorough understanding of consumer’s behavior regarding green marketing and green purchasing (Cheah, 2009; Lee, 2008; Soonthonsmai, 2007; Tanner & Wölfing-Kast, 2003).. 8.

(17) The knowledge in the green consumerism of Malaysia has been somewhat restricted because the level of understanding is still at its early stages (Hasan & Ali, 2015; Suki, 2013). Consequently, considering the lack of such research, it is intriguing for this study to reveal closer examination of Malaysia’s green consumers’ purchasing factors. The findings of this study will add knowledge to marketers’ understanding to improve their green marketing strategies in Malaysia. There are few studies that have been conducted to test the antecedents of green purchase intention and actual green purchase based on the combination of the selected variables used in this research framework in the Malaysian context. In order to narrow the research gap, this research focused on identifying the determinants of green purchase intention and actual green purchase in the context of Malaysian university students.. 2.2. Underpinning Theory/ Theoretical Background Using the context of ecology, this paper is adapting the Theory of Reasoned Action. (TRA) by Fishbein and Ajzen (1967) as the underpinning theory. The foundation of TRA is that human beings rely on particular motivation to perform an action. TRA predicts that behavior is a result of intention, and therefore, the behavioral intention should precede behavior. The intention is kept as a variable in this study because the intention is a necessary antecedent of actual behavior. ‘Intention’ describes a person’s willingness to show a particular behavior, and intention indicates the extent of consumer performing a certain conduct. Therefore, the stronger the intention to perform a specific behavior, the greater likelihood a particular behavior is performed (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Several researchers have criticized TRA for ignoring the emotional determinants of behavior as it does not describe the role of affect (Conner & Armitage, 1998). Godin and Kok (1996) pointed out that TRA appears to perform less efficiently in the prediction of behaviors which have a high affective or irrational component rather than cognitive one. To predict and. 9.

(18) explain societal decision making and behavior more accurately, non-cognitive and affective aspects of behavior also need to be taken into account (Edwards, 1990; Richard, van-der Pligt, & de Vries, 1996) especially when ecological behavior cannot be considered as a mere result of a rational choice (Kals, Schumacher, & Montada, 1999). Accordingly, this study includes emotional constructs of ecological concern to predict and explain green consumer behavioral intention. It is in support to Laroche et al. (2001) that alleged consumers with higher levels of environmental concerns would be more likely to exert environmentally friendly consumption. Also, TRA contends that attitude influences behavior. Given that factual knowledge or salient information about the environment can be seen as a precondition of any attitude (Kaiser, Wölfing-Kast, & Fuhrer, 1999; Stutzman & Green, 1982). Balderjahn (1988) believed that attitudes were the primary predictor of environmentally friendly behavior. Therefore, the relationship between factual knowledge and behavior is measured in this study. Both ecological knowledge and concern are added as a variable in this study because these two determinants are aligned with TRA environmental attitude to predict ecological behavior (Axelrod & Lehman, 1993; Berger & Corbin, 1992). Also following one of the earlier frameworks on green purchases, Chan and Lau (2000), the man-nature orientation variable is added because there is the possibility that this cultural value belief of “man-nature” may have an influence on green purchasing. As culture is an effective influencer and hence it is rational to exert that this influencer should not be taken for granted (Kongsompong, Green, & Patterson, 2009). Furthermore, Norberg, Horne, and Horne (2007) postulate that behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Additionally, Ajzen (1991) acknowledged that there’s considerable uncertainty for an intention to be carried out as actual behavior.. 10.

(19) Currently, there are no variables for moderating the relationship between green purchase intention and actual green purchase. However, there is extensive empirical evidence that price sensitivity is a powerful predictor of product evaluation and buying decisions. (Hsu, Chang, & Yansritakul, 2017). Thus, the present study attempts to extend the TRA model by including constructs that are important in a green context, such as price sensitivity. By adding price sensitivity as a moderating variable in the equation to predict actual behavior, this would better identify the sources or influence for actual green purchase. Additionally, one of the limitations of the TRA model is the lack of factors such as demographics. Though demographics are not directly addressed in the TRA model, allowance and/or income is taken into account, because it might have an indirect effect on the relationship. The proportion of people consuming organic food has been found to rise with an increase in income (Torjusen, Lieblien, Wandel, & Francis, 2001). Hence, allowance and/or income is added to the framework as a moderating variable to improve the ability to predict and understand green purchase decision. According to previous studies, TRA models were used to examine green purchase intentions by examining several key factors, including environmental concern, knowledge, and product price as antecedents of green purchase intention (Hu, Parsa, & Self, 2010). Hence, following the footsteps of previous research, this study examines ecological knowledge, ecological concern, and man-nature orientation as the independent variable. Augmenting the TRA, this study has detached from the vein of TRA and thus has differentiated itself by including the moderating effects of price sensitivity and allowance and/or income to examine its effects on the relationship between green purchase intention and actual purchase. Ultimately, the decision to engage in green purchase is a voluntary behavior shows that it is relevant to use the theory of reasoned action as the theoretical foundation for this study.. 11.

(20) 2.3. Research Framework One of the earliest frameworks concerning the antecedent of green purchases was. created by Chan and Lau (2000). In their study, the independent variables consisted of ecological knowledge, ecological concern, and man-nature orientation while green purchase intention and actual green purchase were the dependent variables. Their framework was the first to examine green purchase intention as the dependent variable (Aman et al., 2012). They used a mathematical model to examine the correlation of ecological knowledge, ecological concern, and man-nature orientation on green purchase intention and actual green purchase. The results from the study revealed a strong positive relationship. Hence following its fruitful research, Chan and Lau’s (2000) framework has been adopted in this study. In Chan and Lau’s (2000) study, independent variables were used as important determiners of consumers’ green purchase intention and actual green purchase. However, the results were far from conclusive because there were not any practical variables that tested intention to actual purchase. Hence, price sensitivity and allowance and/or income has been added to this study as moderating variables to examine how green purchase intention translates to actual behavior. More recently, D’Souza et al. (2007) reinstated that consumers are price sensitive when it comes to going green. Hence, by incorporating price sensitivity and financial merits as a moderating variable, its effect is observed to see if it may influence the relationship of green purchase intention and actual green purchase. Additionally, due to distinction in cultural and socio-economic states of every county, the effects of eco-friendly purchase intention in every country will be assumed to be different. Consequently, this study will use this new proposed framework to test green purchase intentions on Malaysia’s university students.. 12.

(21) 2.4. Green Purchase Intention Purchase intention indicates an arrangement or plans to be engaged in the process of. buying a good or service in the future (Business Dictionary.com, 2010). Fitzsimons and Morwitz (1996) affirmed that measuring intentions impact which brands customers buy. Purchase intention may be characterized as one of the mechanisms to fathom consumer behavior before the purchase of a particular good. Laroche, Kim and Zhou (1996) alleged that consumer consideration in buying and intention to purchase may be used to determine customer’s purchase intention. These consideration factors include customer’s involvement, the customer’s information seeking, and the way the customer assess a product. These considerations are all necessary components that need to be considered when examining a customer's purchase intention (Rizwan, Qayyum, Qadeer, & Javed, 2014). Collectively, purchase intention is defined as a dedication to behaving in a certain way (Ramayah, Lee, & Mohamad, 2010). Similarly, purchase intention is referred to as a measure of an individual’s conformity to a particular behavior (Ng & Paladino 2009). Green purchase intention is a concept in which a consumer is more inclined to buy ecofriendly products than other conventional goods in their buying considerations. (Nik Abdul, 2009). These consumers are likely to consider purchasing products that are less detrimental to nature (Beckford, Jacobs, Williams & Nahdee, 2010). Chan (2001) characterized green purchase as an environmentally-friendly conduct that consumers carry out to assert their concern to nature and its surroundings. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) posit that purchase intention is a crucial variable to anticipate customers’ behavior. Following, Follows and Jobber (1999) used customers’ intention as an intermediary for actual behavior. Beckford et al. (2010) supports that green purchase intention as a vital determinant of green purchase behavior, as it will positively affect the probability of a consumer’s decision to make an actual green purchase.. 13.

(22) It is also relevant to consider the research conducted by Qader and Zainuddin (2011). In their study, they analyzed 170 instructors from the University Sains in Malaysia to measure their purchase intention of lead-free electronic products which are considered falling into the category of green electronics. In this study, the researchers defined green purchase intention as a consumer’s likelihood to perform an environmentally friendly action within a particular time frame. For this study, green purchase intention is conceptualized based on Chan (2001), Qader and Zainuddin (2011) and Nik Abdul (2009) definitions. The dependent variable for this study will be consistent with which they defined green purchase intention as the probability and inclination of an individual to give preference to green goods over common goods in their purchase considerations. Furthermore, the conceptualization of an individual’s plan to perform eco-friendly purchase over the course of time as they express concern for the environment will also be considered.. 2.5. Ecological Knowledge It is conceded that environmental education help generates awareness, concern, and. acknowledgment of the outcomes of a person’s actions, which leads to the embracement of environmentally responsible behavior (Salequzzman & Stocker, 2001). Ecological knowledge is characterized as “a general learning of facts, ideas, and relationships concerning the natural environment and its extensive ecosystems” (Fryxell & Lo, 2003). It embodies the condition of learning and what consumers think about nature, awareness of the ecological issues, ecological concern, and the aftermath of humankind's activities on nature (Goh & Balaji, 2016). Ecological knowledge includes positive and negative perspectives of information about nature as well as information in regards to protection of the natural habitats for land, sea, air, plants and animals. Additionally, the information and solutions of environmental problems. 14.

(23) and consumer behaviors about ecological knowledge are other factors (Frycell & Lo, 2003). Tanner and Wölfing-Kast (2003) emphasize the importance of action-related knowledge because it is crucial for consumers to understand what actions they could take to protect the environment. As a result, ecological knowledge is useful to predict ethical consumption. Additionally, ecological knowledge is defined as a collection of knowledge related to the environment that people possess (Conraud-Koellner & Rivas-Tovar, 2009) According to D’Souza, Taghian, and Lamb (2006), when one is informed about ecological problems, their awareness levels are boosted and hence it possibly leads to the promotion of great demeanors towards environmentally-friendly products. Extant research studies predict that ecological knowledge holds crucial determinants in consumers’ green purchase decision. Mostafa (2007) characterizes ecological knowledge as “how informed the people are in regards to the environment, the awareness an individual has about the environment, fundamental characteristics leading to environmental impacts, recognition for the entire frameworks, and collective responsibilities essential for sustainable development.” In Mostafa’s (2007) study, he emphasized the critical role of ecological knowledge as the indicator to eco-friendly consumer conduct. Accordingly, it is predicted that an increase of ecological knowledge will result in a rise of purchase intention for sustainable consumption conducts. This thought was supported by Bamberg and Moser (2007), who stressed the element of knowledge in deciding consumers’ attitude and intentions towards eco-friendly conducts. In Smith and Paladino (2010) findings, ecological knowledge had a positive correlation to a consumers’ positive attitudes and intentions towards a natural product. In a multi-country study, Goh and Balaji (2016) established that pre-test subjective knowledge was an essential element in predicting environmentally friendly conduct.. 15.

(24) More recently, Cheng and Wu (2015) demonstrated that ecological knowledge has effects on green advertisements’ message framing that results in eco-friendly conducts. This review shows that consumers’ ecological knowledge empowers them to separate the properties of green products from traditional goods and this prompts the development of positive, ideal states of mind towards the environmentally-friendly products (Goh & Balaji, 2016). Chan and Lau (2000) conceptualize the measurement of a person’s knowledge concerning environmental issues as ecological knowledge. and this knowledge affects his or her decision-making process. Nik Abdul, Jusoff and Kassim (2009) claimed that the importance and influence of knowledge on decision-making process had been reviewed in various studies such as Laroche et al. (2001); Verdugo (1996); Oskamp, Harrington, Edwards, Sherwood, Okuda, and Swanson (1991). There is evidence suggesting that the hypothesis that an individual’s ecological knowledge or eco-literacy is a major indicator of green conducts. In Chan and Lau’s, (2000) study, they predicted eco-friendly purchases in China by using ecological knowledge as one of their criterion variables. The findings reported that the relationship of Chinese people with higher ecological knowledge indicated greater intent to participate in a green purchase. Similarly, this relationship between ecological knowledge and eco-friendly purchasing behavior proved significant in a study by Nabsiah and Elham (2011) on Penang, Malaysia’s green volunteers. Interestingly,. in. Tadajewski. and. Tsukamoto’s. (2006). qualitative. study,. a. knowledgeable group of respondents failed to display green behavior on their daily shopping conducts, despite their respondents having knowledge on life-cycle analysis, Consistently, do Paço and Raposo’s (2009) research demonstrated that ecological knowledge does not contribute to green purchasing. A prior study by Laroche et al. (2001) too found that. 16.

(25) ecological knowledge was not a significant indicator of green behavior. Their outcome from the T-test indicated that the ecological knowledge results are identical for both eco and noneco-friendly consumers. This finding is supported by Alba and Hutchinson’s (1987) study that knowledge was not significantly related to how consumers gather, assemble, and evaluate products. However, recent findings were found to be contradicting to earlier findings. In Suki (2013) and Mostafa (2006) study, it was demonstrated that ecological knowledge empirically impacted an individual’s views and behaviors towards eco-friendly goods. It was indicated that there was a positive correlation between ecological knowledge and eco-friendly consumer conduct. Based on the extant analysis, it is assumed that relying upon the levels of ecological knowledge, consumers’ green purchase intentions would differ. This study investigates ecological knowledge in understanding the customers’ intentions to purchase green products because the absence of ecological knowledge is considered as an impedance to consumers’ environmental practices. As a result of contradicting findings from previous reviews (Tadajewski & Tsukamoto, 2006; Laroche et al., 2001; do Paço & Raposo, 2009) that claim ecological knowledge has no influence on green purchase intention, it will be fascinating to examine the relationship between consumer ecological knowledge and green purchase intention in the context of Malaysian university students. Due to the inconclusive empirical findings, this current study using Malaysia as context subsequently inquire: RQ1: Is the relationship between ecological knowledge with green purchase intention and actual green purchase positively related?. 17.

(26) 2.6. Ecological Concern Schouten (1991) contends that the emotional factor is a standout amongst the. fascinating segments of a man’s conduct, especially in the investigation of consumer behavior. According to Maloney, Ward, and Braucht (1975), ecological concern implies to the level of emotionality an individual has attached to environmental issues. The affection is attributed to the feelings and emotions that an object causes to a man. As conceptualized by Karsaklian (2008), the affective component, correlates to the assessment of how an image is shaped. Karsaklian describes it as either a positive or negative feeling and the subsequent feelings when an individual is stimulated by images. A strategy by the marketer is to empower our emotions towards a certain context used frequently in advertisements. Arnold and Reynolds (2009) bolster the idea that a superior comprehension of the impact of affection on consumer behavior can be attained if studies are conducted to assess a consumer’s state of mind, sentiments, and feelings. Tamashiro and Silveira (2013); Maloney and Ward, (1973); Dispoto (1977) claim that even with limited awareness of the environment, people might still display a strong emotional connection with the environment. Consistently, Laskova (2007) asserts that individuals with a higher degree of environmental concern and affection are prone to exhibit positive, eco-friendly behaviors in comparison to people with a lower level of interest and love for nature. Hence for this study, it is anticipated that: H1: The relationship between ecological concern with green purchase intention and actual green purchase is positively related.. 18.

(27) 2.7. Man-Nature Orientation Bina and Vaz (2011) conceptualize man-nature orientation as the relationship that. exists amongst man and the natural environment. Mayer and Frantz (2004) posit that Western cultures have a tendency to assume themselves as separated from nature, while Asian culture has a tendency to live in peace and harmony with nature. In support, Feigenbaum and Manning (2012) alleged that American and European societies have practiced exceptionally sensible-based culture and they take after dominance over the earth, whereas other Asian cultures such as the Japanese, and Chinese have practiced living in accordance with nature. Hinds and Sparks (2008) back this claim that environmental behavior is higher among individuals belonging to the collectivist cultures than those from individualistic cultures. Additionally, according to Cartmel, Loescher, and Villar-Werstler (1992), Muslim religion and cultures tend to believe they need to live in liberation with nature (Rehman, & Bin Dost, 2013). Since Malaysia is an Asian multi-racial country consisting of mainly the Malays, Chinese, and Indians, it is essential to take into consideration the Malaysians view on the environment. It is significant to examine how man-nature orientation is perceived amongst Malaysians, as it is generally a valued concept amongst most Asian cultures. Therefore, this study wants to see if Malaysia interprets man-nature orientation as significantly valuable as other Asian countries. Culture is an effective influencer and hence it is rational to exert that this influencer should not be taken for granted (Kongsompong et al., 2009). In Chan and Lau’s (2000) study, they discovered that cultural beliefs and practices dictate a consumer’s green behavior. In their study of the effects of man-nature orientation, it was predicted that there would be a positive influence on Chinese’s people’s green purchase intention as well as actual green purchase. Therefore, for this study, it is too predicted that: H2: The relationship between man-nature orientation with green purchase intention and actual green purchase is positively related.. 19.

(28) 2.8. Price Sensitivity According to Hansen and Sørenses (1993), price sensitivity is defined as the. significance of cost to a consumer when making purchase choices. Additionally, Goldsmith and Newel (1997) characterize price sensitivity to a feeling an individual has towards paying a specific price for the considered product or services. Similarly, Monroe (1973) described price sensitivity as the degree of consciousness and feeling displayed when a consumer sees the price differences for the products or services. Anderson (1996) complements these assertions by arguing that price sensitivity is based on the level a consumer tolerates price changes for a particular product or services regarding the economic and psychological increase. Oliver and DeSarbo (1988), translates price sensitivity as the extent of the consumer’s outcome/input to that of the supplier’s outcome/input. Customers would accept rational price differences if they could distinguish that the proportion of their outcome to input is comparable to the ratio of outcome to input experienced. According to Li, Lu, Zhang, Liu, Wang, and Jiang (2016); de Medeiros, Ribeiro and Cortimiglia (2016); Moser (2016), price has exhibited an immense effect on consumers’ assessment of product alternative and their final buying outcome. Price plays two key roles in consumer’s assessment of product choices. First it is the measurement of sacrifice, which refers to the amount of money consumers need to spend; second, it is the informational cue, the quality, and status construed by ownership of the product (Hsu et al., 2017). As pointed out by Bolton and Lemon (1999), customers appraise what is “fair,” “right,” or “deserved” for the cost of the offering. The client needs to be able to see that the money exchanged for products is balanced or equal. A consumer will leverage if they are willing to pay more (the surplus) for green products that are likely to benefit the environment, which in turn indirectly benefits them too in comparison to other competitor’s cheaper products that. 20.

(29) are non-environmentally friendly. Morganosky (1986) also noted that a price-orientated consumer is more price sensitive. Hence, the price of a product or service becomes a strong decision-making consideration (Ang, Leong, & Kotler, 2000). Likewise, for green products, consumers consider price as one of the important factors in a purchasing decision. Consistently, the prior studies have shown that a product’s price is highly reviewed by customers when they buy eco-friendly goods (Mandese, 1991) More recently, Connell (2010) reinstated that consumers heighten the effects of price when they are from a lower economic power, and this hinders the purchase of eco-friendly goods. Understanding price sensitivity is crucial because it enables academics to identify sources of influence for actual purchase; furthermore, it would also be beneficial to retail managers to develop pricing strategies based on the level of consumers’ price sensitivity. For the purpose of this study, price sensitivity is conceptualized as indicated by Hansen and Sørenses (1993), and it refers to the significance of price for a consumer when making purchase choices. With price sensitivity as moderating variable, it is hypothesized that: H3: Price sensitivity will moderate the relationship between green purchase intention and actual green purchase.. 2.9. Allowance and/or Income The financial resources the respondents might attain from either allowances given to. them or income they earned from a job is a reliable indicator of a purchasing power. It is superior to examine a consumer’s financial merit to determine their purchasing behavior. This is because obtained allowance and/or income affects the way of life and the state of mind of a consumer. According to Woś, Rachocka, and Kasperek-Hoppe (2011), the possibility of satisfying the needs of customers are limited by the level of income in addition to prices. The types of. 21.

(30) products purchased are subjected to the affluence of the customers. An increase in income will result in an increase in demand of greater purchase. A consumer with lower income will settle for basic goods. The level of revenue determines purchasing power. Similarly, Wang, Chan, and Chen (2001) described, “Income is a key factor that determines a consumers’ ability to buy.” In their research of consumer behavior for purchasing durable goods such as properties and automobiles, they used household income as a determinant for consumer’s intention. Wang et al. (2001) posited that the purchases were affected by the consumer’s household income, their inclination toward debt, and the consumer’s either optimistic or pessimistic view of the ecetonomic development. In 2004, Portolese Dias examined the purchasing behavior for electronic devices, clothing, household products, and automobiles. In his research of 561 respondents, the results showed that the income of consumers’ affected their clothing and vehicle purchases. However, the income of consumers did not affect their purchase for household goods and electronics. In another similar research study conducted in the United States with a total of 3,000 samples on the purchase intention of consumers for clothing via online, Kim and Kim (2004) concluded that income did affect their purchases. As prior research has evidently supported, examining allowance and/or income of consumers is a superior determinant of purchasing behavior. Hence for this study, allowance and/or income will be mediating the relationship between purchase intention and actual purchase because it can measure the purchasing ability of consumers and it would be a good index to forecast actual buying behavior of the consumers. For this study, with allowance and/or income as moderating variable, it is hypothesized that: H4: Allowance and/or income will moderate the relationship between green purchase intention and actual green purchase.. 22.

(31) 2.10 Proposed Framework The framework involves the inter-relationship between the three independent variables, two moderating variables, and the two dependent variables, which is illustrated in Figure 1. Ecological Knowledge. Ecological Concern. RQ 11 H1. Actual Purchase. Purchase Intention. H3 Man-Nature Orientation. H4. H2 Price Sensitivity. Figure 1. Proposed framework.. 23. Allowance/ Income.

(32) Chapter Three – Research Methodology. 3.1. Sampling Design The research method used for this particular study is survey, using one of the main. types of non-probability sampling methods, the purposive sampling. This approach was chosen due to its popularity in previous research. For example, in Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) study of Indian’s consumer attitude and behavior towards green practices, they too adopted this sampling method. Furthermore, most researchers would choose non-probability samples as it requires too much budget and time to attain a valid probability sample due to its stringent requirements (Schmidt & Hollensen, 2010). This paper examines quantitative evidence from Kuala Lumpur, the capital city of Malaysia. This study consists of respondents studying mainly in Kuala Lumpur as the target sample. Kuala Lumpur was chosen because of its strong population growth; also the most environmentally friendly programs are concentrated in this capital city. For example, the majority of shopping malls in the city implement a zero plastic bag campaign every Saturday (Har, Yaw, Ai, & Hasan, 2011). This self-administered questionnaire was completed by Malaysian university students between 18 to 25 years old, those born between 1992 to 1999. University students were chosen as the sample for this study because they are part of a growing group of consumers and they are the young living generations whose actions will impact the world and the life their future selves will live in. Hence, it is assumed that younger individuals are more likely to be engaged in pro-environmental behaviors because they would prefer to protect the future homes they would dwell in. Furthermore, some findings have supported that, generally the young and educated consumers are informed and interested in eco- friendly practices and consumption (Dahm,. 24.

(33) Samonte, & Shows, 2009). Besides, Kim, Njite, and Hancer (2013) also agree that targeting this population is twofold. One is that this age group constitutes the consumers of the future, and they can make a difference over the next few decades. The other is that individuals with higher levels of education are expected to have some knowledge concerning the concept of sustainability. Students are distinctive in their attitudes and behaviors. However, most of them tend to have a positive outlook on eco-friendly practices; from engaging in pro-environmental practices to supporting shops that are participating in green business methods. Students often display the willingness to pay more for green products, services, and brands (Yan, Hyllegard, & Blaesi, 2010).. 3.2. Questionnaire Design The questionnaire was created using the English language via Google Form, employing. close-ended questions. The mode of distribution was online. The link for the survey along with a digital poster was created and distributed between 9th March to 2nd April via university’s mail master and social media websites, particularly Facebook (see Appendix 1). The sample size for this study was n = 602. Email and social media were used as it was less intrusive and it permited a wider coverage on respondents. Likewise compared to offline distribution, online dissemination provided easy access for regulating the survey and quick access to those surveyed’ data (Umbach, 2004). The questionnaire began with a brief introduction, where respondents were assured that all details would be treated as confidential, and they were directed that they would need to complete a series of questions that would take approximately 5 to 10 minutes to answer. Participation of respondents was purely voluntary, however, to encourage participation, five units of power banks were offered as the lottery-based prize. Deustskens, de Ruyter, Wetzels. 25.

(34) and Oosterveld (2004) posits that lotteries are arguably the most practical kind of reward for online surveys. At the beginning of the survey, all respondents were required to provide their e-mail address to be eligible for the lottery prize. This was a post-paid incentive, as participants were only eligible for the reward upon completion of the questionnaire. This form of incentive enticed participation, and it was found to be effective at increasing response rates (Mortensen, 2016). In fact, some previous studies have shown that providing incentives may improve data quality than the non-incentive surveys, because respondents would take a slightly longer time doing so for the incentive survey (Cole, Sarraf, & Wang, 2015). The questionnaire was divided into seven sections. The first part consisted of the respondents’ demographic profile such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, education background, and etc. Demographic information is pertinent to profile consumer characteristics which could drive certain kinds of desires and necessities. Acquiring demographic factors will thus help marketers to successfully segment potential customers and efficiently target their message to the right pool of audience. The second section evaluated their ecological concern. The third section measured the respondents’ man-nature orientation. The fourth section includes questions regarding whether price was an important indicator for them. This is followed by fifth section which measures how likely they will participate in green purchasing. Then the sixth section evaluates whether they are involved in actual green purchase. Lastly, the seventh section is comprised of an ecological factual knowledge test. Given the objective of the present research, this study is designed to test six key constructs of the environment: (knowledge, affect, man-nature orientation, price sensitivity, green purchase intention and actual green purchase), each of which could be considered individually in future examinations.. 26.

(35) For this study, the principle predictor variables or independent variables were ecological knowledge, ecological concern, and man-nature orientation. Price sensitivity and allowance and/or income were the moderating variable. This research intends to investigate green purchase intention and actual green purchase as the criterion variables or dependent variables. Participants were asked how likely they would purchase green products, if they participated in an actual green purchases, and how frequent were these actual purchases.. 3.3. Pilot Study To ensure the items measuring the actual green purchase are representative of the actual. product categories university students will purchase, a pilot study was conducted. Questions were pre-tested based on a small sample of 60 respondents. Responses and feedbacks were gathered from Malaysian university students between 18 to 25 years old, the same sample as this study. They were asked to rank items which they would mostly purchase using their allowance and/or income. The selection offered in the pilot test are in Table 1. Table 1 Pilot Test Categorical Category Fashion Fresh Food Grocery Health & Beauty Household Optical products Pets Sports & Fitness items Tech Stationary. Examples clothing, accessories, footwear and etc. bakery, eggs, fruits, meat & poultry, vegetables, rice, noodles, cooking supplements and etc. canned food, biscuits & cakes, cereals, chocolates & sweet, condiments, sauces & dressing, snacks and etc. toiletries, personal care, grooming products and etc. air freshener, cleaning products, light bulbs and etc. eyewear, contact lens, and etc. pet’s food, pet’s care, pet’s accessories and etc. sportswear, sports equipment and etc. gadgets, photo equipment, computers, telecommunication and etc. books, stationary and etc.. Based on the pilot study findings, fashion, grocery, and health & beauty were ranked first, second and third respectively. These identified measures were then revised and added in the final questionnaire.. 27.

(36) 3.4. Instrument and Measures The multi-items scale for the key constructs were adapted from studies of extant. literature with pre-tested, reliable, and valid scales as observed in Table 2. Table 2 Key Construct & Scale Sources Variables. Construct Ecological Knowledge. Number of Items 10. Kaiser et al. (1999). Independent. Ecological Concern. 5. Chan and Lau (2000). Independent. Man-Nature Orientation. 5. Chan and Lau (2000). Moderating. Price Sensitivity. 11. Low, Lee, and Cheng (2013); Wakefield and Inman (2003). Independent. Scale Adapted from. Dependent. Purchase Intention. 12. Kim, Njite, and Hancer (2013); Kong, Harun, Sulong, and Lily (2014); Kanchanapibul, Lacka, Wang, and Chan (2014). Dependent. Actual Purchase. 3. Pilot Test. Each construct and the list of measurements were modified to suit this study. The specific items together with their means, standard deviations and reliabilities were individually listed in Table 3. Reliability was estimated on all multi-scale items by using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha from Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21st. Ecological knowledge was tested based on ten items that offer the options of true, false or don’t know as answers which can be observed in Table 3 with (KR-20 = 0.73). The variables were recoded to indicate correct or incorrect responses. For example, respondents should answer “poisonous metals remain in the human body” as either true, false or don’t know. If correct, one point was awarded, and zero points were given for incorrect response or those who selected don’t know as the answer option. Subsequently, to measure ecological concern, the survey included five questions in Table 3 with a reliability of 0.70. Measurements were anchored on the Likert-type scale, a 528.

(37) point level of agreement ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The fifth item for ecological concern was negatively formulated and hence reversed in coding. Initially, five items were tested for man-nature orientation variable, however, reliability was low 0.43. After the deletion of two negatively formulated statements, “being the master of the world, human being are entitled to deploy any of the natural resources as they like” and “we should master instead of adapting to the environment”, coefficient alpha was improved to an acceptable level 0.77. The remaining three items can be observed in Table 3, using Likert-agreement measurement scale with one being strongly disagreed and five being strongly agreed. Measurements for price sensitivity were evaluated using the Liker-type scale, a 5-point level of agreement ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. Eleven items in Table 3 were then tested to see if price was an important indicator for the respondents and price sensitivity reported a high reliability of 0.92. Purchase intention items in Table 3 measures a series of twelve statements on how likely respondents will participate in green purchasing, Cronbach Alpha revealed high reliability for purchase intention at 0.93. Respondents were asked how likely they would agree to the statements using Likert-agreement type scale, extending from (1) strongly disagreed to (5) strongly agreed. The last item was recoded in reverse due to its negatively formulated statement. Actual purchase in Table 3 which observed actual green purchase was measured using three items developed from the pilot study, and these items generated a reliability of 0.81. The statement, for example, was “I buy fashion products (clothing, accessories, footwear and etc.) that are environmentally friendly” and respondents picked one answer from Likertfrequency scale from one being never to five being always.. 29.

(38) Table 3 List of Survey Measures (n = 602) Measures Ecological Knowledgeᵃ Melting of the polar ice caps may result in a flooding of shores and islands. (True) Fossils fuels (e.g. gas, oil) produce Co2 in the atmosphere when burned. (True) All living being, micro-organisms, plants, animals, and humans are interdependent with one another. (True) Poisonous metals are introduced into the food chain, for instance, via ground water. (True) Ozone near the ground may cause respiration problems. (True) A change in climate caused by increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere is called the greenhouse effect. (True) Poisonous metals remain in the human body. (True) The world climate will probably massively change if CO2 continues to be emitted into the atmosphere as huge amounts as it is now. (True) A reduced number of species may interrupt the food chain, affecting some subsequent species in the chain. (True) The greenhouse effect does not result in the melting of glaciers in central Europe. (False) KR-20 = 0.73. M 7.02 .87 .79. SD 2.36 .34 .41. .75. .43. .57 .49. .50 .50. .82 .50. .38 .50. .77. .42. .84. .37. .63. .48. Ecological Concernᵇ It frightens me to think that much of the food I eat is contaminated with pesticides. It genuinely infuriates me to think that the government doesn’t do more to help control pollution of the environment. I become incensed when I think about the harm being done to plant and animal life by pollution. When I think of the ways industries are causing pollution, I get frustrated and angry. The whole pollution issue has never upset me too much since I feel it’s somewhat overrated. “r” Cronbach's alpha = 0.70. 17.31 3.43. 3.42 1.00. 3.75. .99. 3.80. .98. 3.80. 1.00. 2.52. 1.12. Man-Nature Orientationᵇ Human beings need to understand the way of nature and act accordingly. We should maintain harmony with nature. Human beings are only part of nature. Cronbach's alpha = 0.77. 12.11 4.15 4.24 3.71. 2.60 .95 .94 1.23. Price Sensitivityᵇ Price plays an important role in my final buying decision. Price plays an important role in my assessment of product alternatives. Before my purchase I will evaluate if the price I’m paying is fair, right or deserved for the products. Small increases in price will lead to fewer purchases from me. Price is the primary reason for choosing certain product. I enjoy comparing prices. I prefer to buy low-cost or discounted items. I am highly price sensitive. I’m willing to make an extra effort to find a low price product. I will change what I had planned to buy in order to take advantage of a lower price for another product. I am sensitive to differences in prices for products. Cronbach's alpha = 0.92. 40.84 4.08 3.96. 8.32 .93 .91. 4.17 3.48 3.56 3.78 3.79 3.48 3.49. .92 1.02 1.11 1.03 .99 1.06 1.05. 3.47 3.57. 1.02 1.02. 30.

(39) Purchase Intentionᵇ I plan to switch to a green version of a product. I will consider switching to other brands for ecological reasons. I will consider buying green products because they contribute to less pollution. I would buy green products that are not harmful to the environment. I will prefer to purchase a green brand over a non-green brand. I am willing to purchase a green brand for ecological reasons. I will make an effort to purchase a green brand. I will avoid buying products which are potentially harmful to the environment. I will change my principal products for ecological reasons. When I have to choose between two similar products, I will choose the one that is less harmful to the environment. I will make special effort to buy products that are made from recycled materials. I will not consider the environmental issue when making a purchase. “r” Cronbach's alpha = 0.93. 43.84 3.61 3.71 3.87 3.88 3.70 3.78 3.58 3.70 3.52. 8.41 .89 .83 .86 .90 .91 .89 .95 .97 .91. 3.78 3.47 3.24. .99 .95 1.12. Actual Purchaseᶜ 9.22 I buy fashion products (clothing, accessories, footwear and etc.) that are environmental friendly. 2.86 I buy grocery products (canned food, biscuits & cakes, cereals, chocolates & sweet, condiments, sauces & dressing, snacks and etc.) that are environmental friendly. 3.17 I buy health & beauty products (toiletries, personal care, grooming products and etc.) that are environmental friendly. 3.19 Cronbach's alpha = 0.81 Notes: (1) ᵃ Participation Answer Scale: 1 = true, 2 = false, 3 = don’t know. Correct answer = 1 point (2) ᵇ Participation Agreement Scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 agree. (3) ᶜ Participation Frequency Scale: 1= never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = always. (4) “r” denotes items that are reverse coded. 2.50 .90 .978 1.05. = strongly. There are six control variables for this study, which are (1) gender; (2) age; (3) religion; (4) study status; (5) monthly allowance and/or income; and (6) living condition. Demographic variables were relevant, for example, gender differentiated consumption behavior. According to Ward and Thuhang (2007), males and females behave differently in the process of use as they buy different products and have different attitudes about a purchase. For this study, a male was recoded as one. Age is equally a significant predictor of consumer behaviors (Barak & Gould, 1985). However, since age is a continuous variable, no recoding was required. Culture prescribes the way one person should live and has a huge effect on the things one purchases (Principles of Marketing, 2010). Cultural heterogeneity in Malaysia is due to the mixture of ethnicity and religious belief. This study aims to examine those with religious. 31.

(40) beliefs versus those without any religious beliefs. Hence, those that had a religion were recoded to one and the atheist/ non-believer group were then the reference group. Is necessary to examine a student’s academic status because students that are working have an income advantage over students that are studying full time. Income is the pivotal determinant of purchasing behavior (Dorota, 2013). The level of revenue affects a consumer’s purchasing choices. Likewise, the power to buy is conditioned to whether a student is with or without monthly allowance. Although allowance and/or income is a continuous variable, this study intends to investigate the difference between respondents with and without allowance and/or income because almost of 40 percent respondents (see Appendix 2) were without any allowance and/or income. Hence, students that receive a monthly allowance and/or income were recoded to one. It was also critical to examine if students that stay with their parents have lesser actual purchase in contrast to students that are living on their own, as students that stay in the comfort of their home tend to be financially dependent on their parents and hence have lesser need to purchase. Consequently, respondents that are not staying with parents were recoded to one. Based on the discussion, five dummy variables were created in Table 4, and they were used in regression analysis against purchase intention and actual purchase as the criterion variables. Table 4 Dummy Variables Variables Gender Religion Status of Study Allowance/ Income Living Condition. Recoded to 1 Male Believer (Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and Other) Working With Allowance/ Income Not Staying with Parents. 32. Reference Groups Female Atheist/ Non-believer Not Working Without Allowance/ Income Staying with Parents and Other.

(41) Chapter Four – Research Findings. 4.1. Demographic Features of Respondents The demographic characteristics of the respondents that was made out of Malaysian. student are tabled (see Appendix 2). All of the respondent n = 602 were between 18 to 25 years old and were Malaysians studying in university. Overall, frequency analysis revealed females to be 63.6 percent (383) of the respondents, compared to 36.4 percent (219) of male. Of the 602 respondents, 64.8 percent (390) of the total respondents were of Chinese ethnicity. Besides, the sample was composed of mainly University Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) students with 48.2 percent (290), while 45 other institutions made up the remaining 51.8 percent (312). The majority of the respondents 55.5 percent (334) reported diploma as their highest level of education attained and 89.4 percent (538) of the respondents were still fulltime student with no part time work. Regarding their living condition, 57.3 percent (345) of them were not staying with their parents, and 48.7 percent (293) of them received a monthly allowance and/or income of below RM 1,000 or 230 USD or 6,950 NTD.. 4.2. Bivariate Correlation Analysis Preliminary analysis among variables in Table 5 is fundamental in explaining the. mutual relationships between the predictor variables with moderating variables and criterion variables. The results obtained from this analysis were used to indicate the effect of multicollinearity among variables. Based on the Pearson's Correlation Coefficients, all factors showed a positive relationship in a statistically significant manner. Purchase intention and ecological concern showed strong positive relationship with a correlation of r =.60. All correlations were significant except actual purchase with ecological knowledge showed no statistically significant association with (p = .26); (p = ns).. 33.

(42) Table 5 Construct Correlation Matrix (n = 602) EK EC MNO PS PI AP 1. Ecological Knowledge 2. Ecological Concern .141*** 3. Man-Nature Orientation .192*** .596*** 4. Price Sensitivity .096* .459*** .504*** 5. Purchase Intention .108** .604*** .536*** .446*** 6. Actual Purchase .046 .378*** .353*** .270*** .508*** Notes: (1) *p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001 (2) EK= Ecological Knowledge, EC = Ecological Concern, MNO = Man-Nature Orientation, PS = Price Sensitivity, PI = Purchase Intention, AP = Actual Purchase. 4.3. Hypotheses Testing To test the hypotheses, a series of regression analyses were conducted. The regression. model in Table 6 examined various blocks of predictors and moderating variables toward green purchase intention and actual green purchase as the criterion variables. Table 6 Predicting Purchase Intention & Actual Purchase (n = 602) Criterion Variable Purchase Intention Actual Purchase Predictor Variables Block 1: Demographics Gender (male) Age Religion (believer) Studying Status (studying and working) Allowance and/or Income (with allowance/ income) Living Condition (not staying with parents) Incremental R² (%). -.038 -.004 .074* .038 -.042 -.020 2.0%✝. Block 2 Ecological Knowledge Ecological Affect Man-Nature Orientation Incremental R² (%). .006 .396*** .228*** 40.3%***. Block 3 Price Sensitivity Purchase Intention Incremental R² (%). .150*** 1.6%***. Block 4 Price Sensitivity X Purchase Intention Studying Status X Purchase Intention Allowance and/or Income X Purchase Intention Living Condition X Purchase Intention Incremental R² (%). -. 34. -.051 -.041 .039 .004 -.008 .042 2.3%*. -.031 .084✝ .118* 16%***. .026 .402*** 9.6%***. .082✝ .014 .066✝ .055 1.2%✝.