論減少毀林和森林退化計畫符合國際航空碳抵消和減排機制的可能——以自願性市場的經認證碳標準方案為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. The Possibility of Consistence of REDD+ with CORSIA:. ‧. Nat. y. Especially on Verified Carbon Standard in Voluntary Carbon. n. er. io. al. sit. Market. Ch. engchi. 108. i n U. v. 6 DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. i. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(3) 1992 2016. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. ii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(4) Abstract Since countries adopted United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1992, carbon dioxide emissions from international aviation industry had not been subject to any emission reductions regulation. Agreed in 2016 by 191 countries in the International Civil Aviation Organization, the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) becomes the world’s first global market-based climate measure for a sector. In spite of this, it is estimated that the carbon dioxide emissions from the whole international aviation industry will still rise, leading to increased demand for emission reduction unit. As a result, there is a plenty of materials discussing whether emission reduction units form Reducing. 政治大 by aviation operators under立 CORSIA, given the abundant emission reduction units. Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) project can be used. ‧ 國. 學. generated from REDD+ project and the financial need of the project. However, in light of environmental integrity, CORSIA establishes strict standards of emission. reduction units, hence if CORSIA will accept emission reduction units generated from. ‧. REDD+ project remains unknown. This thesis therefore used the Verified Carbon. y. Nat. Standard (VCS) as an example to examine the possibility of consistence of REDD+. er. io. sit. projects with CORSIA.. al. n. v i n C h Organization (ICAO), Keywords: International Civil Aviation e n g c h i U Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), United Nation Framework. Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+), Verified Carbon Standard (VCS). iii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(5) ................................................................................................................ 1 .................................................................... 1 ........................................................................................ 5 .................................................................................................... 6 UNFCCC. REDD+. ................................................ 8 政治大. 立. UNFCCC. REDD+. REDD+. ...................................... 10. 學. ‧ 國. UNFCCC. ........................................................................ 8. .................................................................. 13. ‧. ...................................................... 13 ............................................ 15 ...................................................... 21. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. REDD+. VCS. REDD+. VCS. Ch. engchi AFOLU. VCS. i n U. v. ............................................... 25 ..................................... 25. ..................................................... 28. AFOLU. ................................................................... 36. JNR. ......................................................................... 39 ...................................................................... 43. ICAO CORSIA. SARPs. ................................................................. 43 .................................................................................. 45 iv. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(6) ICAO. SARPs ................................................................ 47 .............................................................................................. 47. MRV. ............................................................................................ 49 .............................................................................................. 50 ...................................................... 52 .............................................................................. 53 .................................................................. 55. VCS. 立. Fern. 政治大CORSIA. REDD+. ..... 58. ............................................................................. 59. ‧ 國. 學. Fern. ................................................................................. 59. ‧. Verra. ........................................................................................ 61. y. Nat. er. io. sit. .................................................................................. 64. .............................................................................................. 64. al. n. v i n Ch ...................................................................................................... 76 engchi U ...................................................................... 77 .............................................................................................. 77 ...................................................................................................... 87 AFOLU. JNR. CORSIA. Fern. ......................... 88. .................................................... 88 ...................................................................... 90. .............................................................................................................. 95 v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(7) .............................................................................................................. 99. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(8) greenhouse gas 1992 United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC. Kyoto Protocol. Paris. Agreement 1. 2. 40. 2. 30. 立. ‧ 國. 6380. y. sit. n. er. io. al. 1990 3999. 380. Nat. 4. 2830. ‧. 3170. 3. 學. 2005. 5. 政治大. 129. C 2015 h. engchi. i n U. v. 4128. 6. 1. Paris Agreement art. 2.1(a), Dec. 12, 2015, (providing that: “This Agreement, in enhancing the implementation of the Convention, including its objective, aims to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change, in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty, including by: (a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above preindustrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change;…”). 2 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION, GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCES ASSESSMENT 2015: HOW ARE THE WORLD’S FOREST CHANGING 3 (2nd ed. 2016). 3 WORLD WILDLIFE FUND, Forests, http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/forests/ (last visited July 1, 2019). 4 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION, GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCES ASSESSMENT 2005: PROGRESS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT 14 (2006); UNFCCC, Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, https://unfccc.int/topics/land-use/workstreams/land-use--land-use-change-and-forestrylulucf/land-use--land-use-change-and-forestry (last visited July 1, 2019). 5 WORLD WILDLIFE FUND, Forest and Climate: What We Do, http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/forests/forest_climate/what_forest_climate_does/ (last visited July 1, 2019). 6 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION, supra note 2, at 3. 1. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(9) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC anthropogenic GHG emissions 17.4. 2004. 7. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties. 2005. 11. 8. 13. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, REDD 9. REDD REDD. REDD+. 2013. 學. 10. 19. Warsaw Framework. REDD+. UNFCCC. Nat. io. er. 12. Emissions Trading System. n 13. REDD+. sit. y. UNFCCC. al. 11. ‧. ‧ 國. 立. 16. 政治REDD大. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 7. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, IPCC FOURTH ASSESSMENT REPORT: CLIMATE CHANGE 2007 SYNTHESIS REPORT 5 (2008). 8 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Submission by the Governments of Papua New Guinea and Costa Rica: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2005/MISC.1 (Nov. 11, 2005). 9 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 2/CP.13 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Development Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action, ¶ 1, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1 (Mar. 14, 2008) [hereinafter Decision 2/CP.13]. 10 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16 The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, ¶ 70, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1 (Mar. 15, 2011) [hereinafter Decision 1/CP.16]. 11 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Report of the Conference of the Parties on Its Nineteenth Session, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1 (Jan. 31, 2014). 12 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, TOWARDS A COMMON UNDERSTANDING OF REDD+ UNDER THE UNFCCC: A UN-REDD PROGRAMME DOCUMENT TO FOSTER A COMMON APPROACH OF REDD+ IMPLEMENTATION 101 (Jan. 26, 2017), https://www.uncclearn.org/sites/default/files/inventory/redd_under_the_unfccc_hq.6_713128_1.pdf. 13 INTERNATIONAL CARBON ACTION 2. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(10) UNFCCC. REDD+. REDD+ Clean 14. Development Mechanism REDD+. REDD+. 15. UNFCCC. REDD+. voluntary carbon market REDD+. 立. REDD+. 16. 政治大 17. Verified Carbon Standard, VCS. ‧ 國. 學. REDD+. 970 REDD+. y. Nat. sit. n. a l10 Ch. er. io 2013. ‧. 18. REDD+ UNFCCC. Verra Ecosystem Marketplace. 2016 4120. REDD+. Aviation Organization, ICAO. engchi. 38. v i International Civil n U. Market-. PARTNERSHIP, ETS Map, https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/ets-map (last updated Apr. 9, 2019); INTERNATIONAL CARBON ACTION PARTNERSHIP, Linking, https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/about-emissions-trading/linking (last visited Aug. 29, 2018). 14 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 5/CP.6 The Bonn Agreements on the Implementation of the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, Annex, ¶ VI 3(8), U.N. Doc FCCC/CP/2001/5 (Sept. 25, 2001). 15 CLIMATE MARKETS AND INVESTMENT ASSOCIATION, REDD+ AS A WIN-WIN SOLUTION FOR INTERNATIONAL AVIATION 1 (Apr. 2016), https://althelia.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CMIAPolicy-Paper-Aviation-REDD.pdf. 16. retire. carbon neutral offsets ECOSYSTEM MARKETPLACE, Carbon Market: Overview, http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/marketwatch/carbon/ (last visited July 1, 2019). 17 Verra Verified Carbon Standard 2018 2 15 Verra VERRA, VCS Is Now Verra, (Feb. 15, 2018), https://verra.org/vcs-isnow-verra/. 18 ECOSYSTEM MARKETPLACE, UNLOCKING POTENTIAL: STATE OF THE VOLUNTARY CARBON MARKETS 2017, at 36 (May 2017). 3. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(11) Based Measures growth. 20. 19. 2020. 2016. 10. carbon neutral. 39 Carbon. Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation, CORSIA. 21 22. CORSIA 2020. 23. CORSIA REDD+. REDD+ CORSIA. REDD+. 24. UNFCCC REDD+. 立. UNFCCC. 學. ‧ 國. UNFCCC. 政治大 REDD+ REDD+. CORSIA. 19. ‧. . n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. International Civil Aviation Organization [ICAO], Assembly Resolutions in Force (As of 4 October 2013), at I-72, ¶ 18, ICAO Doc. 10022, (Oct. 4, 2013). 20 2020 Id. at I-70. 21 International Civil Aviation Organization [ICAO], Assembly Resolutions in Force (As of 6 October 2016), at I-81, ¶ 5, ICAO Doc. 10075, (Oct. 6, 2016). 22 Id. at I-83, ¶ 11. 23 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, 2016 ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 17 (2016). 24 Gabriel Labbate, A Win-Win Solution for the Aviation Industry and REDD+, UN-REDD PROGRAMME (Dec. 28, 2017), https://www.un-redd.org/single-post/2017/12/28/A-win-win-solutionfor-the-aviation-industry-and-REDD; CLIMATE ADVISERS, Why Forests and Flight Go Together, (Mar. 2018), https://www.climateadvisers.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Forests-and-Flight.pdf; CLIMATE MARKETS AND INVESTMENT ASSOCIATION, The Case for Including REDD+ in CORSIA: Unlocking the Mitigation Potential of Terrestrial Carbon Sinks, (Nov. 10, 2016), https://www.cmia.net/wpcontent/uploads/2017/03/ICAO-and-REDD-Projects_20161110C.pdf; Anthony Mansell, CORSIA Offers Opportunities for REDD+ Programs in Indonesia and Ethiopia, CLIMATE ADVISERS (Nov. 22, 2017), https://www.climateadvisers.com/corsia-offers-opportunities-for-redd-programs-in-indonesiaand-ethiopia/; CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL, ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND, FOREST TRENDS, GLOBAL CANOPY PROGRAMME, INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE, SUSTAINABLE TRAVEL INTERNATIONAL, THE NATURE CONSERVANCY, VERRA & WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY, Linking Flight and Forests: The Essential Role of Forests in Supporting Global Aviation’s Response to Climate Change, (Apr. 4, 2016), https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/linking-flights-forests-briefingpaper-technical-annex-april2016.pdf; GREEN AIR, Forest Carbon Offsets under CORSIA Can Offer a Win-Win for Airlines, Society and the Planet, (Mar. 14, 2017), https://www.greenaironline.com/news.php?viewStory=2350; Chris Meyer, Can Airlines Help Reduce Deforestation?, ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND (Apr. 27, 2016), http://blogs.edf.org/climatetalks/2016/04/27/can-airlines-help-reduce-deforestation/; Chris Meyer, States Should Welcome REDD+ into International Aviation Carbon Offset Program, ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND (Mar. 27, 2018), http://blogs.edf.org/climatetalks/2018/03/27/states-should-welcomeredd-into-international-aviation-carbon-offset-program/; Rafael Grillo Avila et al., REDD+ in ICAO: Ready for Takeoff, 10(2) CARBON & CLIMATE L. REV. 134 (2016); CLIMATE MARKETS AND INVESTMENT ASSOCIATION, supra note 15.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 4. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(12) 25. CORSIA CORSIA. Standards and Recommended Practice, SARPs CORSIA Eligible Emissions Units. CORSIA 26. ×. CORSIA REDD+. SARPs. ×. CORSIA. 治政CORSIA 大 UNFCCC. REDD+. 立. CORSIA. CORSIA. ‧ 國. 學. UNFCCC. SARPs. ICAO. VCS. ‧. Verra. 27. Nat. n. al. er. sit. y. VCS. io VCS. REDD+. CORSIA. Ch. CORSIA. engchi. VCS. iv n UVerra. SARPs. CORSIA. 25. Jutta Kill, Unearned Credit: Why Aviation Industry Forest Offsets Are Doomed to Fail, FERN (Nov. 2017), https://fern.org/sites/default/files/news-pdf/Unearned%20Credit_0.pdf; VERRA, Well Earned Credits: How Aviation Industry Forest Offsets Can Effectively Reduce Global Emissions, (Jan. 16, 2018), https://verra.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/01/Well_Earned_Credits_Fern_Paper_Rebuttal.pdf; WILDLIFE WORKS, Rebuttal of Jutta Kill’s Anti Mai Ndombe REDD+ Case Study: In the Paper Entitled “Unearned Credit – Why Aviation Offsets Are Doomed to Fail”, (2017), http://redd-monitor.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/02/Rebuttal-of-Jutta-Kills-anti-Mai-Ndombe-REDD.pdf; TERRA GLOBAL CAPITAL, Response: How FERN Actively Uses Forest Communities as a Political Tool Depriving Them of Much Needed Resources, (Jan. 2018), http://terraglobalcapital.com/news/response-how-fernactively-uses-forest-communities-political-tool-depriving-them-much-needed. 26 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, ICAO Document: CORSIA Emissions Unit Eligibility Criteria, (Mar. 2019), https://www.icao.int/environmentalprotection/CORSIA/Documents/ICAO%20document%2009.pdf. 27 ECOSYSTEM MARKETPLACE, supra note 18, at 16. 5. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(13) REDD+. CORSIA. SARPs. CORSIA. Program Design Elements Carbon Offset Credit Integrity Assessment Criteria CORSIA. VCS. 政治大. 立. ‧ 國. 學. UNFCCC. REDD+. ‧. UNFCCC. UNFCCC. sit. y. al. n. REDD+. er. io. REDD+. UNFCCC. REDD+. Nat. REDD+. SARPs. REDD+. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. VCS VCS VCS. Agriculture,. Forestry and Other Land Use, AFOLU AFOLU. UNFCCC. VCS. REDD+. AFOLU AFOLU. VCS VCS. REDD+ Jurisdictional and Nested REDD+, JNR. 6. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(14) CORSIA. ICAO. SARPs ICAO. CORSIA SARPs. SARPs. Verra. CORSIA. CORSIA VCS CORSIA. REDD+. 立. 學 ‧. ‧ 國 io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. VCS. 政治大. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 7. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(15) UNFCCC UNFCCC. REDD+. REDD+ REDD+ REDD+. UNFCCC. REDD+ UNFCCC UNFCCC. REDD+ REDD+. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 2015. 28. 30.6. and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO. 29. sit. 30. n. al. 17.4. er. io. 2004. y. Nat. 6380. IPCC. Food. ‧. 40. 政治大. Ch. engchi. i n U. REDD+. v. 31. 32. REDD+ 28. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION, supra note 2, at 3. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION, supra note 4, 14. 30 INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, supra note 7, at 5. 31 RICARDO BAYON, AMANDA HAWN & KATHERINE HAMILTON, VOLUNTARY CARBON MARKETS: AN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS GUIDE TO WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW THEY WORK 118 (2nd ed. 2009). 32 Id. 29. 8. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

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(17) 43. UNFCCC Verra. UNFCCC. REDD+. VCS. UNFCCC. REDD+. UNFCCC. 44. REDD+. REDD+ 45. UNFCCC. ‧ 國. 7 3.3. 3.4. LULUCF. 學. Marrakesh. io. 1. n. a2l. afforestation. 10 46. 5. Ch. engchi. sit. y. ‧. Nat. 0.05. 30. er. Accords. LULUCF. 治政 LULUCF REDD+ 大. 立. 2001. REDD+. i n U. v. 43. William F. Laurance, A New Initiative to Use Carbon Trading for Tropical Forest Conservation, 39(1) BIOTROPICA 20, 22 (2006); Philip Fearnside, Saving Tropical Forests as a Global Warming Countermeasure: An Issue That Divides the Environmental Movement, 39(2) ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS 167, 177-181 (2001). 44 UNFCCC 53 45 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16, ¶ 70. 46 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 11/CP.7 Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Annex A, ¶ 1(a), U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.1 (Jan. 21, 2002) [hereinafter Decision 11/CP.7]; UNFCCC 30 1 GLOBAL OBSERVATION OF FOREST AND LAND COVER DYNAMICS, A SOURCEBOOK OF METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR MONITORING AND REPORTING ANTHROPOGENIC GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND REMOVALS ASSOCIATED WITH DEFORESTATION, GAINS AND LOSSES OF CARBON STOCKS IN FORESTS REMAINING FORESTS, AND FORESTATION, ¶ 1.2.2 (2016). 2. 10 0.05. 5. 10. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(18) 50 47. reforestation. 48. deforestation 49. revegetation 0.05. 立. 政治大 50. LULUCF LULUCF. n. al. Ch. engchi. 16. 52. UNFCCC. er. io. UNFCCC. sit. y. Nat 2010. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 51. i n U. v. Cancun Agreements 53. REDD+ reducing emissions from deforestation reducing emissions from forest degradation. conservation of forest carbon stocks. sustainable. 47. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 11/CP.7, Annex A, ¶ 1(b). Id. Annex A, ¶ 1(c). 49 Id. Annex A, ¶ 1(d). 50 Id. Annex A, ¶ 1(e). 51 Id. Annex A, ¶ 1(f). 52 UNFCCC, Glossary of Climate Change Acronyms and Terms, https://unfccc.int/process-andmeetings/the-convention/glossary-of-climate-change-acronyms-and-terms#l (last visited July 1, 2019). 53 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16, ¶ 70. 48. 11. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

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(20) UNFCCC 10 56. 10 57. 0.05. 立. 58. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. LULUCF. 政治大. n UNFCCC. REDD. Ch. engchi REDD+. UNFCCC. er. io. al. sit. y. Nat 59. i n U. v. 2005. 11 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries: 56. Id. UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 54. 58 ECOSECURITIES, CHALLENGES FOR A BUSINESS CASE FOR HIGH-BIODIVERSITY REDD PROJECTS AND SCHEMES 57 (Feb. 2009). 59 Ingrid Barnsley, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD): A Guide for Indigenous Peoples 79, UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY INSTITUE OF ADVANCED STUDIES (2008). 57. 13. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

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(22) 72. measuring, reporting and verifying 73. UNFCCC 74. REDD+ 2015. 21. REDD+ 75. non-carbon benefits 5. 76. REDD+. REDD+ 77. REDD+. 政治 REDD+ 大. REDD+. 立. sit. y. UNFCCC 78. n. al. er. io. REDD+. UNFCCC. Nat. REDD+. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. REDD+. interim. Ch. i n U. subnational. engchi. v. 72. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 14/CP.19 Modalities for Measuring, Reporting and Verifying, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1 (Jan. 31, 2014) [hereinafter Decision 14/CP.19]. 73 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 15/CP.19 Addressing the Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1 (Jan. 31, 2014). 74 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 6. 75 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 16/CP.21 Alternative Policy Approaches, Such as Joint Mitigation and Adaptation Approaches for the Integral and Sustainable Management of Forests, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.3 (Jan. 29, 2016); UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 17/CP.21 Further Guidance on Ensuring Transparency, Consistency, Comprehensiveness and Effectiveness When Informing on How All the Safeguards Referred to in Decision 1/CP.16, Appendix I, Are Being Addressed and Respected, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.3 (Jan. 29, 2016) [hereinafter Decision 17/CP.21]; UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 18/CP.21 Methodological Issues Related to Non-Carbon Benefits Resulting from the Implementation of the Activities Referred to in Decision 1/CP.16, Paragraph 70, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.3 (Jan. 29, 2016). 76 Paris Agreement art. 5. 77 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 6. 78 Id. at 68. 15. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(23) 79. REDD+ 80. UN-REDD REDD+ REDD+. UN-REDD. 81. subnational programmes 82. REDD+ projects. 立. jurisdictional scale. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. REDD+. 83. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. REDD+. UN-REDD. sit. nested approach 84. ‧. REDD+. REDD+ REDD+. Ch. engchi. UNFCCC. i n U. v. REDD+. UNFCCC. UNFCCC. REDD+. 79 80 81 82 83 84. Id. at 69-70. Id. at 70. Id. Id. Id. Id. 16. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(24) 85. demonstration activities. results-based. actions. REDD+ readiness phase. implementation phase. REDD+ REDD+ 86. 立. 2007. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 88. ‧. REDD+. 89. y. REDD+ REDD+. n. REDD+. 86 87 88. 90. er. io. al. REDD+. sit. Nat. UNFCCC. learning-by-doing. 85. 87. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. REDD+. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16, ¶ 73. UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 18. Id. 11 6. United Nations Forum on Forests United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. 89 90. United. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 2/CP.13, Annex. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16, ¶ 74. UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 17. 17. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(25) 91. REDD+ 92. forest reference emission level and/or forest reference level safeguard information system. REDD+. National Strategy. Action Plan. REDD+. 政治大 93. 立. 94. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 y. sit. io. n. al. er. 96. Nat. REDD+. 95. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 91 92 93 94 95 96. Id. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16, ¶ 71. Id. ¶ 71(a). UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 29. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16, ¶ 72. common but. differentiated responsibilities. Id. Appendix I. 18. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(26) 97. REDD+ 98. REDD+ 99. pool REDD+. national greenhouse gas inventory. REDD+. 100. REDD+. 立. 政治大. measurement, reporting and verification. a. sit. y. 4.1. n. al. er. io. 103. UNFCCC. Nat. 102. monitoring. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 101. 97. forest reference levels. Ch. i n U. v. i reference emission levels e n g c hforest. UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 39. 98 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 12/CP.17 Guidance on Systems for Providing Information on How Safeguards Are Addressed and Respected and Modalities Relating to Forest Reference Emission Levels and Forest Reference Levels as Referred to in Decision 1/CP.16, ¶ 7, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.2 (Mar. 15, 2012) [hereinafter Decision 12/CP.17]. 99 Id. Annex, ¶ (c). 100 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR FOREST REFERENCE EMISSION LEVEL AND/OR FOREST REFERENCE LEVEL CONSTRUCTION FOR REDD+ UNDER THE UNFCCC 9 (2015), https://unfccc.int/files/land_use_and_climate_change/application/pdf/redd_20150804_unredd_technica l_considerations_frel_under_unfccc_en.pdf. 101 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, NATIONAL FOREST MONITORING SYSTEMS: MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT, REPORTING AND VERIFICATION (M & MRV) IN THE CONTEXT OF REDD+ ACTIVITIES 1 (2015), http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc395e.pdf. 102 Id. at 5. 103 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change art. 4.1(a), May 9, 1992, 1772 U.N.T.S. 107 [hereinafter UNFCCC]. 19. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(27) 104. REDD+ REDD+ REDD+ REDD+ REDD+ 105. 106. 立. REDD+. ‧ 國. ‧. safeguard measure REDD+. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 108. 107. 學. 16. 政治大. REDD+. al. n. v i n C h on Rights ofUIndigenous Peoples United National Declaration engchi REDD+ REDD+. 104. International Partnership on Mitigation and MRV Partnership on Transparency in the Paris Agreement UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 48. 105 Id. 106 Id. 107 Id. 108 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 1/CP.16, Appendix I, ¶ 2. 20. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(28) 17 REDD+ 109 110 111. 112. 19. 政治大 Web Platform. national communications UNFCCC. 立. REDD+. 學. ‧ 國. 113. 2015. 114. ‧. REDD+ 115. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. 116. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 117. 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 12/CP.17, ¶ 3. UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 52. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 12/CP.17, ¶ 3. Id. ¶ 2. Id. ¶ 3. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 17/CP.21, ¶ 4. Id. ¶ 5. Id. ¶ 6. results-based payments results-based finance UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 93. 21. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(29) UNFCCC 118 119. REDD+ 120. UNFCCC. 121. 11. Green Climate 122. Fund REDD+ 123. 124. 125. UNFCCC. 立. UNFCCC. 政治大 126. 127. ‧ 國. REDD+. ‧. UNFCCC. 學. 128. emission reductions. sit. 129. n. al. er. io reduction units/credits. y. Nat. UNFCCC. Ch. 130. engchi. i n U. emission. v. 118. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 9/CP.19, ¶ 3. UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 13/CP.19. 120 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 14/CP.19. 121 UNFCCC art. 11. 122 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 9/CP.19, ¶ 7. 123 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 95. 124 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 9/CP.19, ¶ 5. 125 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 2/CP.17 Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, ¶ 65, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1 (Mar. 15, 2012). 126 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 9/CP.19, ¶ 6. 127 Id. ¶ 7. 128 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 5/CP.19 Arrangements between the Conference of the Parties and the Green Climate Fund, Annex, ¶ 2, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1 (Jan. 31, 2014). 129 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 100-101. 130 Id. at 101. 119. 22. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(30) UNFCCC. Certified. Emission Reductions, CERs CERs131. CERs REDD+. 132. AR-CDM. UNFCCC REDD+. 133. 立. 134. 135. ‧. 136 137. io. al. n. REDD+. sit. 21. y. Nat. REDD+. REDD+. er. REDD+. REDD+. 學. 19. ‧ 國. UNFCCC. 治 hub 政information 大. Determined Contributions. Ch. n U engchi 138. Transferred Mitigation Outcomes, ITMOs 6. REDD+. iv. 6. 2. 3. Nationally Internationally. ITMOs ITMOs. 131. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change art. 12, Dec. 11, 1997, 2303 U.N.T.S. 162 [hereinafter Kyoto Protocol]. 132 8160 66 CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM, Project Search, https://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/projsearch.html (last visited July 1, 2019). 133 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 101. 134 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 9/CP.19, ¶ 16. 135 Id. 136 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Decision 14/CP.19, ¶ 15. 137 UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 101. 138 Paris Agreement art. 6.2-6.3. 23. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(31) REDD+ 139. REDD+ UNFCCC. REDD+. UNFCCC. UNFCCC REDD+. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 139. UN-REDD PROGRAMME, supra note 12, at 102. 24. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(32) VCS. REDD+. VCS. VCS. Program Guide. VCS. VCS. VCS Standard. VCS. VCS. VCS 140. AFOLU substances. JNR VCS. REDD+. 立 VCS. VCS. ‧ 國. VCS. UNFCCC. REDD+. y. sit. AFOLU. er. io. al. n VCS. JNR. ‧. AFOLU. Ch. engchi. i n U. Verra. v. VCS. REDD+. VCS 142. 學. REDD+. Nat. Verra. VCS. VCS. JNR. VCS. UNFCCC. 政VCS 治大. UNFCCC. AFOLU. 141. VCS. VCS UNFCCC. ozone-depleting. UNFCCC. UNFCCC Verra. UNFCCC. UNFCCC. Verra 0.05 10. 1. 30. UNFCCC. FAO. IPCC. 140 141 142. VERRA, VCS STANDARD: VCS VERSION 3.7, at 4 (2017). Id. VERRA, PROGRAM DEFINITION: VCS VERSION 3.7 (2017). 25. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(33) 2. 5. UNFCCC 50. UNFCCC. 政治大. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. UNFCCC. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch 0.05. engchi. i n U. v. IPCC. 2003. UNFCCC. LULUCF. 26. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(34) UNFCCC. LULUCF. VCS. Verra. AFOLU. VCS. AFOLU. REDD+ 143. Afforestation, Reforestation and Revegetation Agricultural Land Management Management. 144. 145. Improved Forest. 146. Reduced Emissions 147. from Deforestation and Forest Degradation. 政治大 Wetlands Restoration and 立Conservation. 148. Avoided Conversion of Grasslands and Shrublands. VCS. REDD+. Verra. ‧. io. AFOLU. n. al. . Ch. y. REDD+. sit. AFOLU. Nat. VCS REDD+. AFOLU. er. UNFCCC. 學. ‧ 國. 149. engchi. i n U. v. 143. VERRA, VCS AFOLU Requirements: Crediting GHG Emission Reductions from Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use, https://verra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/FactSheet-AFOLU-2013UPDATED.pdf (last visited July 2, 2019). 144. VERRA, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND OTHER LAND USE (AFOLU) REQUIREMENTS: VCS VERSION 3.6, ¶ 4.2.1 (2017). 145. Id. at 16, ¶ 4.2.2. 146. Id. at 18, ¶ 4.2.3. 147. Id. at 20, ¶ 4.2.5. 148. Id. at 22, ¶ 4.2.10. 149. Id. at 23, ¶ 4.2.16. 27. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(35) 政治大. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. i n U. v. VERRA, JURISDICTIONAL AND NESTED REDD+ (JNR) REQUIREMENTS:. Ch. engchi. VCS VERSION 3.4, at 52-53, Appendix 1 (June 21, 2017).. VCS UNFCCC. REDD+ Verra. REDD+. VCS. 1500. VCS 150. 2. UNFCCC. VCS 151. VCS. 150 151. VERRA, The VCS Program, https://verra.org/project/vcs-program/ (last visited July 2, 2019). Heather C. Lovell, Governing the Carbon Offset Market, 1(3) WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS: 28. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(36) Verified Carbon Unit, VCU. VCS. 152. 立. Project Pipeline. VCS. ‧. validation. validation/verification. n. al. VCS. Ch. verification. VCS. er. io. sit. y. Nat. body,. ‧ 國. 153. VCS. 學. VCS. 政治大. 154. engchi. i n U. v. 155. CLIMATE CHANGE 353, 355, 357 (2010). 152 VERRA, VCS Project Cycle, https://verra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Project-CycleFactsheet.pdf (last visited June 28, 2019). 153 Id. 154 Id. 155 Id. 29. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(37) VCU VCS. VCU 156. VCS VCS. VCS. VCS VCS. VCS VCS. VCS. VCS. 立. ‧ 國. VCU. 學. VCS. 政治大. 157. VCS. ‧ er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. n. business as usual scenario. Ch. engchi U. v ni. additional VCU. VCS VCS ISO. International Standard Organization,. 14064-2:2006. 156 157. Id. VERRA, VCS PROGRAMME GUIDE: VCS VERSION 3.7, at 11-12 (2017). 30. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(38) 158. sources. sinks. reservoirs. 159. 立. AFOLU. 政治大. 161. crediting period. ‧ 國. 學. AFOLU. ‧. 162. 160. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. VCU163. 164. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 165. VCS 166. VCS. 167. 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167. VERRA, supra note 140, ¶¶ 2.4.1, 3.1.1. Id. ¶ 3.15.1. Id. ¶ 3.15.2. Id. ¶ 3.15.3. Id. ¶ 3.8.1. Id. ¶ 3.8.1. Id. ¶ 3.13.1. Id. ¶ 3.13.3. Id. ¶ 3.1.3. Id. 31. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(39) 168. standardized method 169. project method. 170. performance methods performance benchmark metrics. 政治大 171. 立. activity methods. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 172. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. 173. Ch 174. engchi. i n U. v. 175. safeguards. 168 169. 170 171 172 173 174 175. Id. ¶ 4.1.4.. Id. ¶¶ 4.1.9, 4.1.11. Id. ¶ 4.1.11. Id. ¶ 4.1.11(1). Id. ¶ 4.1.11(2). Id. ¶ 3.16.1. Id. ¶ 3.16.3. Id. ¶ 3.16.6. 32. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(40) 176. VCS. VCU. VCS. VCU 177. VCU. 178. 179. 180. 政治大. 立. 182. ‧ 國. 學. VCS. ‧. 183. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. VCS. 181. Ch. materiality requirements. 184. engchi. i n U. v. 185. 186. VCS. 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186. Id. ¶ 3.17.1. Id. ¶ 3.17.1. Id. ¶ 3.17.2. Id. ¶ 3.17.3. Id. ¶ 3.17.4. Id. ¶ 3.17.4. Id. ¶D 3.17.5. Id. ¶ 3.17.8. Id. ¶ 5.1.1. Id. ¶ 5.1.3. Id. ¶ 5.3.1(1). 33. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(41) 187. VCS. 5 188. 1. 189. VCS 190 191. VCS. VCS. 政治大. 192. VCU. VCU. y. VCS. Nat. 195. VCU. io. sit. VCU. VCS. al. VCU. n. 196. pooled buffer. ‧. VCS. 194. er. account. ‧ 國. AFOLU. 學. VCU. 立. 193. VCU. Ch. VCU. engchi. iv VCU n U VCU. VCU. VCS 187 188 189. 190 191 192 193 194 195 196. Id. ¶¶ 5.3.1(2)-(3). Id. ¶ 5.3.1(4). Id. ¶¶ 5.3.6-5.3.7. Id. ¶ 5.3.4. Id. ¶ 5.3.4. VERRA, supra note 157, ¶ 4.1. Id. ¶ 4.1. Id. Id. ¶ 4.2 VERRA, REGISTRATION AND ISSUANCE PROCESS: VCS VERSION 3.8, at 9-10 (2017). 34. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(42) VCS. VCS. 197. VCS. VCS. 198. VCU. VCS. VCU 199. VCU. VCS. 200. 201. VCS VCS. 202. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大 VCU. ‧. al. n 205. er. io. sit. y. Nat 204. VCU203. VCS. Ch. e nVCS gchi. i n U. v. VCS. methodology concept note. 207. 206. VCS. 197. VERRA, supra note 157, ¶ 4.3 Id. 199 Id. ¶ 4.4 200 Id. 201 VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 3.11.2. 202 Id. ¶¶ 3.11.6-3.11.7. 203 Id. ¶ 3.8.3. 204 VERRA, Develop a Methodology, https://verra.org/project/vcs-program/methodologies/develop-anew-methodology/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 205 VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 4.1.1. 206 VERRA, supra note 157, ¶ 6. 207 VERRA, METHODOLOGY APPROVAL PROCESS: VCS VERSION 3.0, at ¶ 3.2 (2015). 198. 35. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(43) 208 209. VCS. VCS. 210 211. VCS 212. VCS 213. VCS. VCS. 214. VCS. VCS. Entity. American National Standards Institute. VCS. VCS. 216. n. al. y er. io. sit. Nat. VCS. AFOLU. VCS. ‧. VCS. AFOLU VCS. 215. 學. ‧ 國. 立. Designated Operational 政治大 International Accreditation Forum. Ch. engchi. 217. AFOLU. i n U. VCS. v. AFOLU. 208. Id. ¶ 3.3. Id. ¶¶ 3.4, 4.2. 210 Id. ¶ 4.3. 211 Id. ¶ 4.4. 212 Id. ¶ 4.5. 213 Id. ¶¶ 4.6.1-4.6.2 214 Id. ¶ 4.6.3. 215 VERRA, Become a VVB, https://verra.org/project/vcs-program/validation-verification/become-avvb/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 216 Id. 217 VERRA, supra note 144. 209. 36. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(44) 218. 219. AFOLU. AFOLU. VCS. 220. 221. Climate, Community & Biodiversity, CCB Forest Stewardship Council 222. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 224. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat 225. 223. VCS. Ch. i n U. v. e n g cAFOLU hi. 226. VCS 227. 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227. VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 3.1.2. Id. ¶ 4.1.1. VERRA, supra note 144, ¶ 3.1.3. Id. ¶ 3.1.5. Id. ¶ 3.1.5. Id. ¶ 3.1.10. Id. ¶ 3.1.10. Id. ¶ 3.1.6 Id. ¶ 3.1.7 Id. ¶¶ 3.1.6-3.1.7. 37. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(45) leakage management zone 228 229. VCU. 230 231. market leakage. leakage. 政治大. ecological leakage. 立. ‧ 國. 學 232. AFOLU. io. AFOLU. al. VCS. 233. VCU. n. VCU. y. VCU. er. VCU. ‧. Nat. pooled buffer account. AFOLU. sit. AFOLU. 234. activity-shifting. Ch. engchi U. v n i VCU 235. VCU AFOLU 236. 237. AFOLU 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237. Id. ¶ 3.6.1. Id. ¶ 3.6.5. Id. ¶ 4.6.1. Id. ¶ 4.6.1. VERRA, supra note 143. VERRA, supra note 144, ¶ 2.1.1. Id. ¶ 2.1.1. Id. Id. ¶ 3.7.3. Id. ¶ 3.7.4; VERRA, supra note 196, ¶ 6.1.1. 38. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(46) 238. VCS loss event. 239. AFOLU. VCU 240. VCS. VCS. put on hold. 241. AFOLU 242 243. AFOLU reversal 244. 立. 245. × VCU. AFOLU × VCU. AFOLU VCU. n. al. er. io. sit. y. ‧. 248. Nat JNR. catastrophic. 學. VCU. 249. 247. AFOLU. ‧ 國. reversal. 246. 政治大 ×. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. AFOLU JNR. 238 239. 240 241 242 243 244 245 246. 247 248 249. VERRA, supra note 144, ¶ 5.1.1. VCU 5 VERRA, supra note 142, at 8. VERRA, supra note 144, ¶ 3.7.7. Id. ¶ 3.7.7(4). Id. ¶ 3.7.5. Id. ¶ 3.7.8. Id. ¶ 3.7.8(1). Id. ¶ 3.7.8(2). × VERRA, supra note 142, at 4. VERRA, supra note 144, ¶ 3.7.9(1)(a). Id. ¶ 3.7.9(1)(b). Id. ¶¶ 3.7.9(2)(a)-(b). 39. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(47) REDD+ 250. JNR. jurisdictional program project. VCS. JNR. scenario. 251. 立. 253. 254. 學. ‧ 國. 252. 政治standalone 大 project 255. AFOLU. 256. ‧. VCU257. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. VCS. VCU258 259. Ch. engchi. v project i nested n U. 260 261. 250. VERRA, supra note 143. VERRA, JURISDICTIONAL AND NESTED REDD+ (JNR) REQUIREMENTS: VCS VERSION 3.4, at 5-10, ¶ 2.1 (2017). 252 Id. at 6, ¶ 2.1.1(1). 253 Id. at 6, ¶ 2.1.1. 254 Id. at 6, ¶ 2.1.1(1)(a). 255 Id. at 6, ¶ 2.1.1(1)(b). 256 Id. at 6-7, ¶ 2.1.1(1)(c). 257 Id. at 7, ¶ 2.1.1(1)(d). 258 Id. at 7, ¶ 2.1.1(2). 259 Id. at 7-8, ¶ 2.1.1(2)(a). 260 Id. at 8, ¶ 2.1.1(2)(c). 261 Id. at 8, ¶ 2.1.1(2)(e). 251. 40. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(48) VCU262 VCU263. VCU. 264. VCU. benefit-sharing mechanism. VCU. 265 266. VCU. VCU. 267. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. nationally appropriate mitigation actions 268. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 269. AFOLU. Ch. engchi 270. iv JNR n U 271. REDD+ 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271. Id. at 8, ¶ 2.1.1(2)(d). Id. ¶ 2.1.1(2)(g). Id. ¶ 2.1.1(3). Id. ¶ 2.1.1(3)(a). Id. ¶¶ 2.1.1(3)(b)-(c). Id. ¶ 2.1.1(3)(b). Id. ¶ 3.11.12(4). Id. ¶ 3.12.1. Id. ¶ 3.12.6. Id. ¶ 3.12.5. 41. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(49) AFOLU. REDD+. 272. JNR. REDD+ 273. REDD+ AFOLU. VCU. 274. AFOLU. REDD+ 275. VCU. UNFCCC REDD+. 政治大 276. 277. AFOLU. 學. ‧ 國. 立 278. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 272 273 274 275 276 277 278. Id. ¶ 2.2.1. Id. Id. Id. at 17, ¶ 3.7.1 Id. Id. at 18, 3.7.3 Id. at 18, 3.7.4 42. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(50) 279. ICAO 2020. 6.82. 12.23. 2013 7.55. 2035 280. 13.76. CORSIA. ICAO. 2016. 2020 CORSIA ICAO. SARPs ICAO. SARPs. ‧ 國. 學. ICAO. 治政 CORSIA 大. 立. ICAO. specialized agency. 1944. ‧. Convention on International Civil Aviation, 281. ICAO. c. n. al. d e. er. io. sit. y. Nat. a. CORSIA. Ch. engchi g. i n U. b. v. f. h. i 282. 279. 2016 38 2036 56 77 2016 2.7 2036 4.4 5.7 2010 3270 2040 9430 AIR TRANSPORT ACTION GROUP, AVIATION: BENEFITS BEYOND BORDERS 75-76 (2018); INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, 2013 ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 21 (2013). 280 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, supra note 279, at 25. 281 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, About ICAO, https://www.icao.int/abouticao/Pages/default.aspx (last visited July 2, 2019). 282 Convention on International Civil Aviation art. 44, Dec. 7, 1944, 15 U.N.T.S 295 [hereinafter Chicago Convention]. 43. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(51) ICAO SARPs 283. 54. l. 90. ICAO. 284 285. SARPs 286. 287. 12. undertake 288. SARPs 37. 289. SARPs. undertake. ICAO adhere. 立. undertake. 政治 shall 大collaborate. 290. 學. ICAO291. ‧. Nat. io. n. . SARPs. Ch. engchi. SARPs. sit. 293. hard law. al. y. SARPs. 292. er. ‧ 國. 38. i n U. v. 283. Id. art. 37. Id. art. 54, (providing that: “The Council shall: …; (l) Adopt, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter VI of this Convention, international standards and recommended practices; for convenience, designate them as Annexes to this Convention; and notify all contracting States of the action taken; ….”). 285 Id. art. 90. 286 BRIAN F. HAVEL & GABRIEL S. SANCHEZ, THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL AVIATION LAW 60 (2014). 287 Chicago Convention art. 12, (providing that: “… Each contracting State undertakes to keep its own regulations in these respects uniform, to the greatest possible extent, with those established from time to time under this Convention….”). 288 BRIAN F. HAVEL & GABRIEL S. SANCHEZ, supra note 286, at 60-61. 289 Chicago Convention art. 37 (providing that: “Each contracting State undertakes to collaborate in securing the highest practicable degree of uniformity in regulations, standards, procedures, and organization …”). 290 BRIAN F. HAVEL & GABRIEL S. SANCHEZ, supra note 286, at 61. 291 Chicago Convention art. 38. 292 Id. 293 See BRIAN F. HAVEL & GABRIEL S. SANCHEZ, supra note 286, at 63. 284. 44. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(52) 294. SARPs295. 296. SARPs297. CORSIA. 2 ICAO. 2. International Maritime Organization. 政治大 UNFCCC 298. 立. ‧ 國 299. 300. io. al. n. 294. y. Directive 2008/101/EC. sit. 19. er. 1. ‧. EU ETS. 1. EU Emissions Trading System, EU ETS. Nat. 2012. 11. 學. 2008. CORSIA. Ch. i n U. v. Id. 295 Id. 296 FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION, International Aviation Safety Assessment (IASA) Program, https://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/iasa/ (last visited Feb. 10, 2019); Regulation 2111/2005, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2005 on the Establishment of A Community List of Air Carriers Subject to An Operating Ban within the Community and on Informing Air Transport Passengers of the Identity of the Operating Air Carrier, and Repealing Article 9 of Directive 2004/36/EC, 2005 O.J. (L344) 15; Regulation 473/2006, of 22 March 2006 Laying Down Implementing Rules for the Community List of Air Carriers Which Are Subject to an Operating Ban within the Community Referred to in Chapter II of Regulation (EC) No 2111/2005 of the European Parliament and of the Council, 2006 O.J. (L84) 8. 297 BRIAN F. HAVEL & GABRIEL S. SANCHEZ, supra note 286, at 63-64. 298 Kyoto Protocol art. 2.2, (providing that: “The Parties included in Annex I shall pursue limitation or reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol from aviation and marine bunker fuels, working through the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization, respectively.”). 299 Directive 2008/101/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 Amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to Include Aviation Activities in the Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading within the Community, annex, ¶ 1(c), 2009 O.J. (L8) 3, (providing that: “Flights which depart from or arrive in an aerodrome situated in the territory of a Member State to which the Treaty applies.”). 300 RUSSIAN AVIATION, Joint Declaration of the Moscow Meeting on Inclusion of International Civil Aviation in the EU-ETS, (Feb. 22, 2012), https://www.ruaviation.com/docs/3/2012/2/22/50/?h.. engchi. 45. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(53) Air Transport Association of America The High Court of Justice of England and Wales European Court of Justice preliminary ruling. 301. 302. ICAO. ICAO. 2010. 36. Programme of Action on 303. International Aviation and Climate Change 304. 2013. 10. ICAO. 305 306. 2014 2016. 2017. Nat. CORSIA. n. al. 2020 310. SARPs. iv. 2017. 11. n U e nRelease Court of Justice of the European Union Press g c hNo.i 139/11, The Directive Including Aviation. 301. 13. y. CORSIA. er. io. 39. 39. 2023. 309. 39. CORSIA. 12. 10. sit. 31. 2016. ‧. 12. 立. 2010. 政31 治 ICAO 大. 學. CORSIA308. ICAO. 12. 2020. 16. ‧ 國. 307. 4. 38. Ch. Activities in the EU’s Emissions Trading Scheme Is Valid (Dec. 21, 2011); Case C-366/10, Air Trans. Assoc. of America v. Sec. of State for Energy and Climate Change, 2011, E.C.R. I-13755 [hereinafter Case C-366/10]; 42 4 1150 2013 302 Case C-366/10, supra note 301, ¶¶ 72, 78, 129-130, 155-157. 303 International Civil Aviation Organization [ICAO], Assembly Resolutions in Force (As of 28 September 2007), at I-69, Appendix K, ¶ 2(a), ICAO Doc. 9902, (Sept. 28, 2010). 304 Id. at I-73, ¶ 1(b)(1). 305 ICAO, supra note 19, at I-72. 306 Id. at I-70. 307 Regulation (EU) 421/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 Amending Directive 2003/87/EC Establishing a Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading within the Community, in View of the Implementation by 2020 of an International Agreement Applying a Single Global Market-Based Measure to International Aviation Emissions, 2014 O.J. (L129) 1. 308 ICAO, supra note 21, at I-81, ¶ 5. 309 Regulation (EU) 2017/2392 of The European Parliament and of The Council of 13 December 2017 Amending Directive 2003/87/EC to Continue Current Limitations of Scope for Aviation Activities and to Prepare to Implement a Global Market-Based Measure from 2021, 2017 O.J. (L350) 7. 310 ICAO, supra note 21, at I-85, ¶ 20. 46. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(54) CORSIA. SARPs. 16 311. 312. 1. SARPs. 1. 2019. 2018 1. ICAO. 2013. 38. 2020. ICAO 2021. 314. 立. 2021. 治政 CORSIA 大 316. 2023. 2024. 2035. 2026. 學. 318. ICAO. 319. ‧. ‧ 國. 315. 2035. 2020. 2027. y. Nat. n. er. io. al. sit. SAPRs. 311. 27 313. 2020. 2021. CORSIA. 6. SARPs. CORSIA. 317. 1. 1. CORSIA. ICAO. 4. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. INTERNATIONAL COALITION FOR SUSTAINABLE AVIATION, UNDERSTANDING THE CORSIA PACKAGE: A CRITICAL GUIDE TO KEY PROVISIONS IN THE DRAFT STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES AND RELATED GUIDANCE MATERIAL FOR THE UN INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION’S CARBON OFFSETTING AND REDUCTION SCHEME FOR INTERNATIONAL AVIATION (CORSIA) 10 (2018), https://icsa-aviation.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/02/ICSA_Report_Understanding_the_CORSIA_Package_en.pdf; International Civil Aviation Organization [ICAO], Proposal for the First Edition of Annex 16, Volume IV, Concerning Standards and Recommended Practices Relating to the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), ICAO Doc. AN 1/17.14 – 17/129 (Dec. 5, 2017). 312 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, ICAO Council Reaches Landmark Decision on Aviation Emissions Offsetting, (June 27, 2018), https://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/ICAO-Councilreaches-landmark-decision-on-aviation-emissions-offsetting.aspx. 313 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, ANNEX 16 TO THE CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION – VOLUME 4: CARBON OFFSETTING AND REDUCTION SCHEME FOR INTERNATIONAL AVIATION (CORSIA), at 1 (2018). 314 Id. ¶ 3.1.1. 315 ICAO, supra note 19, at I-70. 316 ICAO, supra note 21, at I-81, ¶ 5. 317 Id. at I-82, ¶¶ 9(a), (b), (e). 318 Id. at I-82, ¶¶ 9(a), (b). 319 Id. at I-82, ¶ 9(e). 47. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(55) 320 321 322. CORSIA 323. CORSIA CORSIA 324. CORSIA. CORSIA 2023. 2024. ICAO. Revenue Tonne-Kilometers, RTKs RTKs. RTKs. 90. sit. y. 0.5. n. er. io. al. Ch. engchi. CORSIA ICAO. CORSIA. ‧. RTKs. 2035. 325. Nat. 2018. 2027. 2021. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 治政 2026 大. i n U. v. CORSIA CORSIA CORSIA. 320 321 322 323 324 325. INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, supra note 313, ¶ 1.1.2. Id. ¶ 1.1.1. Id. ¶ 1.2.1. ICAO, supra note 21, at I-82, ¶ 10(a). Id. at I-82 to I-83, ¶¶ 10(b), (c). Id. at I-82, ¶ 9(e). 48. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(56) 326. 327. CORSIA 2020. 328. 0.1. Monitoring, Reporting and 329. Verification, MRV. 10,000 330. Maximum Take Off Mass 331. 5,700. 立. MRV. ‧ 國 333. ‧. MRV. 334. n. al. 335. Ch. engchi. Emissions. er. io. sit. y. Nat. CORSIA Monitoring Plan. 332. 學. CORSIA. 政治大. i n U. v. 336. 337. 326 327. 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337. Id. at I-84, ¶ 13. CORSIA. CORSIA Id. at I-84, ¶ 12, n.1.. ICAO, supra note 313, ¶ 3.1.2. Id. ¶ 2.1.4. Id. ¶¶ 2.1.1, 3.1.1. Id. Id. Id. ¶ 2.1.4. Id. ¶ 2.2.2.1. Id. ¶ 2.2.2.2. Id. ¶ 2.2.2.3. Id. ¶ 2.2.2.4. 49. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(57) 338. CORSIA. Emissions Report 339 340. 政治大. 立. ‧ 國. 2020 341. ICAO. 342. n. al. 2035. sit. 344. er. io 345. y. ‧. Nat. 343. CORSIA. 2021. 學. 2019. SARPs. Ch. engchi 346. i n U. v. CORSIA. 347. MRV. 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347. Id. ¶ 2.2.2.5. Id. ¶ 2.3.1.1. Id. ¶ 2.3.1.3; Id. at A-61, Appendix 5, ¶ 2, Table A5-1. Id. ¶ 2.3.2.1. Id. ¶ 2.3.2.2. Id. ¶ 2.4.1.1. Id. ¶ 2.4.1.3. Id. ¶ 2.4.1.4. Id. ¶ 2.4.2.1. Id. ¶ 3.1.1. 50. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(58) 348. CORSIA 349. 350. 立. 政治大 351. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 2020. n. al. Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 2020. i n U. v. 2020. CORSIA dynamic offset requirement 2021. 352. 2029. 348. Id. ¶ 3.1.4. ICAO, supra note 21, at I-83, ¶ 11(a). 350 CORSIA 2020 CORSIA 349. −CORSIA 2019 Id. at I-83, ¶ 11(b). − 2019 2020 Id. at I-83, ¶ 11(c).. 351. 352. Id. at I-83, ¶ 11. 51. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(59) 353. 100. 2030. 2035. 354. 2021-2023. 100. 0%. 2024-2026. 100. 0%. 2027-2029. 100. 0% 80. 2030-2032. 政治30 大. 2033-2035. 立. ‧ 國. credits. ‧. 39. Nat. ICAO. y. or offsets. n. al. 2017. Ch. engchi. 12. CORSIA. er. io. 355. Technical Advisory Body. ICAO. sit. Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection. 356. 70%. 學. CORSIA. 20%. i n U. v. SARPs. CORSIA CORSIA. CORSIA Emissions Units Eligibility Criteria 357. CORSIA 6. 27. ICAO. SARPs. 2018. 358. SARPs. ICAO. 2019. 3. 6. 353 354 355 356 357 358. Id. at I-83, ¶ 11(e)(i)-(iii). Id. at I-83, ¶ 11(e)(iv)-(v). Id. at I-85, ¶ 20(c). Id. at I-85, ¶ 20(d). ICAO, supra note 311, at A-30, ¶ 4.2.1. ICAO, supra note 312. 52. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(60) 359. 360. CORSIA. ICAO 361. CORSIA. 362. CORSIA. project-. level. program 363. 39. ICAO. UNFCCC 政治 UNFCCC 6大立. 6. ICAO ITMOs. CORSIA. CORSIA. ITMOs. 365. CERs. CORSIA. ‧. CERs. 364. 學. ‧ 國. CORSIA. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 366. 359. INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, CORSIA Implementation on Course, (Mar. 6, 2019), https://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/CORSIA-implementation-on-course.aspx. 360 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, supra note 26. 361 ICAO, supra note 359. 362 ICAO, supra note 26. 363 Id. 364 ICAO, supra note 21, at I-85, ¶ 20(c). 365 Id. at I-85, ¶ 21; ICAO, supra note 313, ¶ 4.2.1. 366 ICAO, supra note 26. 53. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(61) 367. 368. 369. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 371. 370. er. io. sit. y. Nat 372. n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 373. 374. 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. 54. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(62) 375. 376. 377. 立. 378. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat. usual scenario. 379. n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. business-as380. v. 381. 382. 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. 55. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(63) 383 384. 385. 386. 政治大 387. 立. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 389. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat 390. 388. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 391. 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id. 56. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(64) 392. CORSIA. 393. 立. 政治大. 394. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 392 393 394. Id. Id. Id. 57. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(65) VCS. REDD+. CORSIA. 395. CORSIA. CORSIA Verra AFOLU. VCS. REDD+. JNR. CORSIA. 政治大 AFOLU. 立. ‧ 國. 學 VCU. ‧. CORSIA. JNR. VCS. CORSIA. Nat. io. n. al. VCS. er. AFOLU. REDD+ VCS AFOLU JNR. sit. y. VCS. n U engchi CORSIA. Ch. iv. AFOLU SARPs. VCS JNR CORSIA. 395. Gabriel Labbate, supra note 24; CLIMATE ADVISERS supra note 24; CLIMATE MARKETS AND INVESTMENT ASSOCIATION, supra note 24; Anthony Mansell, supra note 24; CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL, ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND, FOREST TRENDS, GLOBAL CANOPY PROGRAMME, INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE, SUSTAINABLE TRAVEL INTERNATIONAL, THE NATURE CONSERVANCY, VERRA & WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY, supra note 24; GREEN AIR, supra note 24; Chris Meyer, supra note 24; Chris Meyer, supra note 24; Rafael Grillo Avila et al., supra note 24; CLIMATE MARKETS AND INVESTMENT ASSOCIATION, supra note 15. UNFCCC REDD+ CORSIA UNFCCC REDD+ 58. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(66) Fern ICAO. CORSIA. SARPs. Fern. 2016. SARPs. 396. CORSIA Verra 397. Fern. Fern Fern. Verra CORSIA. 政治大. 立. ‧ 國. CORSIA. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 2016. ‧. Verra. Fern Fern. 學. Fern. Ch. engchi U. v ni. 398. 399. Fern MRV REDD+ 400. 396 397 398 399 400. Jutta Kill, supra note 25, at 19 VERRA, supra note 25; WILDLIFE WORKS supra note 25; TERRA GLOBAL CAPITAL supra note 25. Jutta Kill, supra note 25, at 4. Id. Id. at 6. 59. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(67) ×. 401. 402. MRV. Fern 403. Fern. 政治大. 404. 406. 立. Fern. ‧ 國. REDD+. Nat. n. al. 409. Fern. Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. y. ‧. 408. 學. 407. Fern. 405. i n U. v. 410. 401. Id. Id. 403 Id. at 7 404 Id. at 9 405 Fern Noel Kempff project Jutta Kill, REDD: A Collection of Conflicts, Contradictions and Lies, at 21, WORLD RAINFOREST MOVEMENT (Feb. 2015), https://wrm.org.uy/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/REDD-A-Collection-ofConflict_Contradictions_Lies_expanded.pdf. 406 Jutta Kill, supra note 25, at 9. 407 Id. at 7. 408 Id. at 8. 409 Id.; Ivonne Yanez, Josefina and the Water Springs against Pine Plantations in Ecuador’s Páramos, WORLD RAINFOREST MOVEMENT (Mar. 11, 2015), https://wrm.org.uy/articles-from-the-wrmbulletin/section1/josefina-and-the-water-springs-against-pine-plantations-in-ecuadors-paramos/. 410 Jutta Kill, supra note 25, at 7. 402. 60. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(68) 411. 412. REDD+. UNFCCC. CORSIA 413. ICAO Fern. CORSIA. net harm. 政治net 大. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 414. ×. Nat. CORSIA. sit. y. ICAO. io. n. al. er. ICAO. Verra. ICAO. ‧. CORSIA. CORSIA. Fern. Ch. engchi. i n U. VCS. v. VCS VCS. Verra Verra. VCS. × ×. 411. 412 413 414. Id. at 9. Id. Id. Id. at 9. 61. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(69) 415. VCS 416. VCS 417. Verra. Fern. VCS VCU 418. MRV. VCS VCS 419. VCS. VCS. 政治大. VCS. 立. 420. 421. VCU. VCS. sit. y. Nat. io 424. Ch. VCS. VCS. iv. n. al. 423. er. 422. products. ×. ‧. ‧ 國. VCS. 學. Verra. n U e n g c h i non-timber forest. Verra. Fern. REDD+ VCS. VCS 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424. VERRA, supra note 25, at 3. Id. Id. Id. Id. at 6. Id. Id. at 4. Id. Id. Id. at 4-5. 62. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(70) 425. Verra. Fern. buffer. buffer zones. VCS AFOLU. 426. AFOLU VCS. AFOLU. 427. 2200. 428. × 429. REDD+. Verra. sit. y. UNFCCC. al. UNFCCC. n. UNFCCC 431. Fern. Verra. UNFCCC. VCS. Ch. er. io. VCS. CORSIA. 430. ‧. 6.4. Verra. ×. Nat. 6.2. 治政 Fern 大學. ‧ 國. 立. VCS. n U engchi. iv. VCS. VCS 432. VCS. VCU VCS. 433. VCU. VCS. 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433. Id. at 5. Id. at 3. Id. at 3-4. Id. at 4. Id. Id. Id. at 7. Id. Id. 63. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(71) 434. Verra REDD+. AFOLU CCB. × VCU. 92. 435. VCS. REDD+. CCB. CARE International. Conservation International. Nature Conservancy Society. Wildlife Conservation. Rainforest Alliance UNFCCC Free, Prior and Informed. Consent 436. 立. 2017. ‧ 國. ‧. CORSIA VCS. AFOLU. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. JNR. REDD+. 學. REDD+. 政治大 437. Verra. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. VCS. 434 435 436 437. Id. Id. at 5. Id. Id. at 5-6. 64. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(72) 438. VCS 439. VCS. VCS. 440 441 442. AFOLU Climate Action Reserve AFOLU. 立. VCS. VCS. 政治大 VCS 443. ‧ 國. 學. VCS. VCS. ‧. REDD+ MRV. y. Nat. VM0015. 444. er. io. al. sit. leakage belt. n. opportunity cost analysis 445. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 438. INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should have qualification and quantification methodologies and protocols in place and available for use as well as a process for developing further methodologies and protocols. The existing methodologies and protocols as well as the process for developing further methodologies and protocols should be publicly disclosed.”). 439 VERRA, supra note 140, at ¶ 3.1.3. 440 VERRA, Methodologies, https://verra.org/methodologies/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 441 VERRA, Catalog of Approved Methodologies, Modules & Tools, https://verra.org/project/vcsprogram/methodologies/methodology-catalog/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 442 VERRA, supra note 440. 443 VERRA, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Methodologies, https://verra.org/methodology/cdm-methodologies/ (last visited July 2, 2019); VERRA, Climate Action Reserve (CAR) Protocols, https://verra.org/methodology/car-protocols/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 444 VERRA, APPROVED VCS METHODOLOGY VM0015: VCS VERSION 1.1, at 6 (2012). 445. 80. Id. at 21. 65. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(73) 446. mobility analysis participative rural appraisal 447. VCS. VCS 448. 政治大. 立. 449. Verra. 學. ‧ 國. Verra. VCS. ‧ sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. 450. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. project-based program of activities 451. VCS. project activity. 446. Id. at 22. Id. at 22-23. 448 VERRA, supra note 204. 449 VERRA, supra note 441; VERRA, supra note 207, at ¶¶ 3-4. 450 ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should define and publicly disclose the level at which activities are allowed under the program (e.g., project-based, program of activities, etc.) as well as the eligibility criteria for each type of offset activity (e.g., which sectors, project types, or geographic locations are covered).”). 451 Id. 447. 66. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(74) 452. REDD+ AFOLU 453. program activity. REDD+. REDD+ JNR VCS 454. VCS. AFOLU. AFOLU. VCS 455. VCS 456. VCS. ‧. AFOLU. io. sit. y. Verra. n. al. Verra. Ch. VCS. engchi. er. 458. 457. Nat. AFOLU. JNR. 學. VCS. ‧ 國. AFOLU. 立. 政治大. i n U. v. 459. 452. VERRA, supra note 142, at 12. Id. at 11. 454 VERRA, VCS Sectoral Scopes, https://verra.org/project/vcs-program/projects-and-jnr-programs/vcssectoral-scopes/ (Apr. 20, 2019). 455 VERRA, supra note 144, at 16-30, ¶ 4.2.1. 456 Id. 457 VERRA, supra note 251, ¶ 3.8.1. 458 VERRA, Rules & Requirements, https://verra.org/project/vcs-program/rules-and-requirements/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 459 ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should have in place procedures for how offset credits are: (a) issued; (b) retired or cancelled; (c) subject to any discounting; and, (d) the length of the crediting period and whether that period is renewable. These procedures should be publicly disclosed.”). 453. 67. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(75) VCU VCU VCS 460. VCS VCU. VCS. VCU. 政治大. 461. VCU VCS. 立. 學. VCS. 462. ‧ 463. 464. io. Verra. n. al. sit. Nat. y. AFOLU. VCS. er. ‧ 國. VCS. Ch. Verra. VCS. engchi. i n U. v. 465. 460. VERRA, supra note 196, at 9-10. Id. at 28-29. 462 VERRA, supra note 140, at ¶ 3.8. 463 VERRA, supra note 144, at ¶ 3.3.2. 464 VERRA, supra note 458. 465 ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should have in place procedures that ensure that: (a) units are tracked; (b) units are individually identified through serial numbers: (c) the registry is secure (i.e., robust security provisions are in place); and (d) units have clearly identified owners or holders (e.g., identification requirements of a registry). The program should also stipulate (e) to which, if any, other registries it is linked; and, (f) whether and which international data exchange standards the registry conforms with. All of the above should be publicly disclosed information.”). 461. 68. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(76) VCS APX. Markit 466. VCS VCU VCS. VCS VCU. VCU. VCU. VCS. 立. 政治 VCS大 468. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 469. VCS. Proof of Right. y. Nat. sit. n. er. io. al. VCS VCU. 470. 471. 472. VCS. VCS 467. v ni. 473. Ch. engchi U. VCU. 474. 466. VERRA, Registry System, https://verra.org/project/vcs-program/registry-system/ (Apr. 20, 2019). VERRA, supra note 196, at 4. 468 IHS MARKIT, Environmental Registry, https://ihsmarkit.com/products/environmental-registry.html (last visited July 2, 2019); APX, APX VCS Registry, https://apx.com/registries/apx-vcs-registry/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 469 IHS MARKIT, Markit Environmental Registry: Terms and Conditions, (May 1, 2013), https://cdn.ihs.com/www/pdf/MER-Terms-and-Conditions-Account-Guidelines.pdf; APX, APX VCS Registry Operating Procedures, (Sept. 2012), https://apx.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/APX-VCSRegistry-Operating-Procedures-September-2012.pdf. 470 VERRA, supra note 196, ¶ 4.2.4. 471 VERRA, supra note 142, at 13. 472 VERRA, supra note 196, ¶ 4.2.4. 473 Id. ¶ 4.2.10. 474 VERRA, supra note 157, ¶ 4.2. 467. 69. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(77) cap and trade baseline and credit VCS. VCS. VCS Verra. 475. 立VCS VCS. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Verra. 政治大. 476. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat VCU. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. VCS. 477. VCS 478. VCS. VCU. VCS. 475. VERRA, supra note 458. ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “The program should define and ensure the underlying attributes and property aspects of a unit, and publicly disclose the process by which it does so.”). 477 VERRA, supra note 142, at 17. 478 VERRA, supra note 196, at ¶ 4.2.10. 476. 70. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(78) 479. Verra. Verra. VCS. 480. 立. 481. ‧ 國. 學. VCS. 政治大. VCS. sit. ISO. al. n. 484. Verra. Ch. ISO. y. ISO. er. io. 483. ‧. VCS. Nat. 14065:2007. 482. VCS. engchi U. v ni. Verra. VCS. 485. Verra. VCS. 479. VERRA, supra note 458. ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should have in place validation and verification standards and procedures, as well as requirements and procedures for the accreditation of validators and verifiers. All of the above-mentioned standards, procedures, and requirements should be publicly disclosed.”). 481 VERRA, supra note 196, at 9-10. 482 VERRA, supra note 140, at ¶ 5.1.1. 483 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, ISO 14065:2007: Greenhouse Gases Requirements for Greenhouse Gas Validation and Verification Bodies for Use in Accreditation or Other Forms of Recognition, https://www.iso.org/standard/40685.html (last visited July 2, 2019). 484 VERRA, supra note 215. 485 VERRA, supra note 458. 480. 71. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(79) 486. VCS. VCS. VCS VCU. VCS 487. VCS Verra. Articles of. Incorporation Bylaws. VCS 488. Verra Verra. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 治政 VCS 大 VCS. ‧ y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. 489. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. VCS. 490. VCS 486. ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should publicly disclose who is responsible for administration of the program and how decisions are made.”). 487 VERRA, supra note 157, at 10-11. 488 Id.; VERRA, Governance, https://verra.org/about-verra/governance/ (last visited July 2, 2019). 489 ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should publicly disclose (a) what information is captured and made available to different stakeholders; and (b) its local stakeholder consultation requirements (if applicable) and (c) its public comments provisions and requirements, and how they are considered (if applicable). Conduct public comment periods and transparently disclose all approved quantification methodologies.”). 490 VERRA, Project Database, https://www.vcsprojectdatabase.org/#/home (last visited July 2, 2019). 72. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(80) 491 492. VCS VCS. VCS 493 494. VCS. 495 496. VCS. VCS 治政大 Verra. VCS. 498. 立. VCS 499. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Verra. VCS. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat 500. 497. Ch. i n U. v. e n g cCarbon h i Market Watch. 501. 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499. VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 3.17.2. Id. ¶ 3.17.3. Id. ¶¶ 3.17.5, 3.17.8. VERRA, supra note 196, ¶ 3.1.9. VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 3.17.5. Id. ¶ 3.17.8. VERRA, supra note 490. VERRA, supra note 458.. project description template Verra Id. ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should have in place safeguards to address environmental and social risks. These safeguards should be publicly disclosed.”). 501 CARBON MARKET WATCH, FIRST CLASS OR ECONOMY: AN ASSESSMENT OF CREDIT PROVIDERS FOR THE AVIATION OFFSETTING SCHEME 8 (Mar. 2019), https://carbonmarketwatch.org/wp/wp500. 73. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(81) VCS 502. 503 504. VCS VCS. VCS JNR. JNR. UNFCCC. REDD+. REDD+. JNR. 政治大. 立 Verra. 學. ‧ 國. 505. VCS. JNR. ‧. VCS UNFCCC. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. JNR. 506. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 507. content/uploads/2019/03/First-class-or-economy-an-assessment-of-credit-providers-for-the-aviationoffsetting-scheme-2.pdf. 502 Id. 503 VERRA, supra note 140, at ¶ 3.17.1. 504 Id. ¶¶ 3.17.2-3.17.8. 505 VERRA, supra note 251, ¶ 3.7.2. 506 ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should publicly disclose the sustainable development criteria used, for example, how this contributes to achieving a country’s stated sustainable development priorities, and any provisions for monitoring, reporting and verification.”). 507 CARBON MARKET WATCH, supra note 501, at 8. 74. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(82) VCS 508. 509. AFOLU. Verra CCB. ×. 92. 510. REDD+. CCB. 511. Verra. VCS. VCS. VCS CCB. VCS. 立. VCS. AFOLU. 政治大. REDD+. ‧ 國. 學. 512. ‧ y. Nat 513. n. double claiming. Ch. double counting. engchi. er. io. al. double use. sit. double issuance. i n U. v. 508. VCS VCS monitoring report template VCS validation report template verification report template VERRA, supra note 140, at ¶¶ 3.16.6, 5.3.6-5.3.7. 509 Verra VERRA, supra note 458. 510 VERRA, supra note 25, at 5. 511 VERRA, VCS Factsheet: Climate, Community & Biodiversity Program, https://verra.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/05/CCB-Factsheet-3.1.pdf (last visited July 2, 2019). 512 ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Programs should provide information on how they address double counting, issuance and claiming in the context of evolving national and international regimes for carbon markets and emissions trading.”). 513 Id. 75. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(83) VCS VCU514. counting use. 515. VCS VCS. 516. Verra. 立. VCS. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. REDD+. VCS. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. AFOLU. i n U. v. JNR. 514 515 516. VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 3.8.3. Id. ¶ 3.11.2. Id. ¶¶ 3.11.6-3.11.7. 76. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(84) 517. business-as-usual scenario. 立. 政治大. Nat. v ni. n. al. sit. VCS. 520. 518. er. io. VCS. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. VCS. Ch. U e n g c h i VCS. VCS 519. VCS. VCS. 517. ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Additionality means that that the carbon offset credits represent greenhouse gas emissions reductions or carbon sequestration or removals that exceed any greenhouse gas reduction or removals required by law, regulation, or legally binding mandate, and that exceed any greenhouse gas reductions or removals that would otherwise occur in a conservative, business-as-usual scenario. Eligible offset credit programs should clearly demonstrate that the program has procedures in place to assess/test for additionality and that those procedures provide a reasonable assurance that the emissions reductions would not have occurred in the absence of the offset program. If programs pre-define certain activities as automatically additional (e.g., through a “positive list” of eligible project types), then they have to provide clear evidence on how the activity was determined to be additional. The criteria for such positive lists should be publicly disclosed and conservative. If programs do not use positive lists, then project’s additionality and baseline setting should be assessed by an accredited and independent third-party verification entity and reviewed by the program.”). 518 VERRA, supra note 157, at 12. 519 VERRA, supra note 196, ¶ 4.3.7. 520 Id. ¶ 4.3.9. 77. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(85) VCS. VCS VCS VCS 521 522. 523. VCS. 524. VCS. 526. AFOLU. 525. VCS. 學. 527. ‧. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大. 528. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. VCS. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. VCS VCS. 529. VCS. MRV. VCS VCS 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529. VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 4.1.11. Id. ¶ 3.14.1. Id. ¶ 4.1.20. Id. ¶ 4.6.9. VERRA, supra note 207, ¶ 6.1.1. Id. ¶ 6.1.3. Id. ¶ 10.2.1. Id. ¶ 11.1.1(1). VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 5.1.1. 78. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(86) 530. realistic. defensible. conservative. 531. CORSIA. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大 VCS. VCS. VCS. 532. ‧ y. Nat. n. al. VCS. sit. 533. er. io 534. VCS. Ch. VCS. i n U. v. VCS. engchi 535. VCS. VCS VCS. 530. ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Offset credits should be issued against a realistic, defensible, and conservative baseline estimation of emissions. The baseline is the level of emissions that would have occurred assuming a conservative “business as usual” emissions trajectory i.e., emissions without the emissions reduction activity or offset project. Baselines and underlying assumptions must be publicly disclosed.”). 531 Id. 532 VERRA, supra note 157, at 12; VERRA, supra note 140, at 6. 533 VERRA, supra note 140, ¶ 3.13.3. 534 Rob Bailis, Derik Broekhoff, & Carrie M. Lee, Supply and Sustainability of Carbon Offsets and Alternative Fuels for International Aviation 9, STOCKHOLM ENVIRONMENT INSTITUTE (Mar. 2019), http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/sei_wp_2016_03_icao_aviation_offsets_biofuels.pdf?_ga=1.19418 6219.736520801.1416495376. 535 VERRA, supra note 140, at 6. 79. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.

(87) AFOLU 536. AFOLU AFOLU 537. AFOLU 538. AFOLU. ×. AFOLU. VCS 539. 立. 政治大 VCS VCS. ‧. ‧ 國. VCS. 學. VCS. VCS. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. 540. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 536. VERRA, supra note 144, ¶ 3.1.10. 537 Id. 538 Id. ¶ 3.7.9(a). 539 VERRA, supra note 490. 540 ICAO, supra note 26, (providing that: “Emissions reductions should be calculated in a manner that is conservative and transparent. Offset credits should be based on accurate measurements and quantification methods/protocols. Monitoring, measuring, and reporting of both the emissions reduction activity and the actual emissions reduction from the project should, at a minimum, be conducted at specified intervals throughout the duration of the crediting period. Emissions reductions should be measured and verified by an accredited and independent third-party verification entity. Expost verification of the project’s emissions must be required in advance of issuance of offset credits; Programs that conduct ex-ante issuance (e.g., issuance of offset units before the emissions reductions and/or carbon sequestration have occurred and been third-party verified) should not be eligible. Transparent measurement and reporting is essential, and units from offsetting programs/projects eligible in a global MBM should only come from those that require independent, ex-post verification.”). 80. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900205.