對比隱性教學及顯性教學探究字彙學習: 廣泛閱讀對國小學生字彙學習之影響 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士在職專班碩士論文. 指導教授：劉怡君博士 Advisor: Dr. June Yichun Liu. 政治大. 立對比隱性教學及顯性教學探究字彙學習:. ‧ 國. 學. 廣泛閱讀對國小學生字彙學習之影響. ‧. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Implicit or Explicit? Exploring Effects of Extensive Reading on Taiwanese Primary Students‘ Vocabulary Learning. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 研究生: 周孟薇撰 Name: Meng-Wei Chou 中華民國一百零八年七月 July 2019 DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(2) i. Implicit or Explicit? Exploring Effects of Extensive Reading on Taiwanese Primary Students‘ Vocabulary Learning. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. A Master Thesis Presented to Department of English,. National Chengchi University. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. n. v. i n CInhPartial Fulfillment i U e n g c hfor of the Requirements the Degree of Master of Art. by Meng-Wei Chou July 2019. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(3) ii. Acknowledgements. My gratitude goes to my thesis advisor Dr. June Yichun, Liu, for all the time and sincere advice she has invested in coaching me. I also appreciate her encouragement through my writing of the thesis. Then, I would like to express thanks to all the professors whom I had courses with at NCCU and to the instructors of ETMA. 政治大. program. During these years at NCCU, the courses I took in ETMA inspired me to rethink about my teaching and try to make a difference.. 立. Also, I would like to thank my colleague, Sophie. She also graduated from. ‧ 國. 學. ETMA, and she gave me a lot of support and suggestions when I was struggled with my writing. Last but not least, much gratitude goes to my parents, parents-in-law, my. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. years.. ‧. husband and my daughter‘s nanny, for their taking care of my daughter during these. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(4) iii. Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... ii Chinese Abstract....................................................................................................... vi English Abstract ...................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 Background ....................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................... 3 Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 3. 政治大. Vocabulary Knowledge ...................................................................................... 3 Vocabulary Learning of Implicit Learning and Explicit Learning ....................... 5 Vocabulary learning through extensive reading ................................................ 11 Research Questions .......................................................................................... 17 Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................. 18. 立. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. Methodology ........................................................................................................... 18 Participants ...................................................................................................... 18 Materials and Instruction.................................................................................. 19 Instrument........................................................................................................ 21. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. Pre-test ............................................................................................................ 21 Post-test ........................................................................................................... 22 Survey ............................................................................................................. 22 Procedures ....................................................................................................... 23 Data Analysis................................................................................................... 24. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................. 26 Results and Data Analysis ....................................................................................... 26 Research Question 1 ........................................................................................ 26 Research Question 2 ........................................................................................ 27 Research Question 3 ........................................................................................ 31 Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................. 33 Discussion and Conclusion ...................................................................................... 33 Extensive Reading is effective in EFL students‘ vocabulary learning ............... 33 Extensive reading is more effective in low proficiency young learners ............. 34 Pedagogical Implications ................................................................................. 35 Limitations ...................................................................................................... 37. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(5) iv. Suggestions for Future Study ........................................................................... 37 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 38 References ............................................................................................................... 39 Appendix A-Pre test ................................................................................................ 45 Appendix B-Post test 1 ............................................................................................ 47 Appendix C-Post test 2 ............................................................................................ 49 Appendix D ............................................................................................................. 51 Appendix E ............................................................................................................. 53 Appendix F .............................................................................................................. 55. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(6) v. Table of Tables Table 1 The Groups of the Study .................................................................... 19 Table 2 Paired Sample t-test for Experimental Group .................................... 27 Table 3 Paired Sample t-test for Control Group ............................................. 27 Table 4 Comparison of the Correctness Percentage in Post-tests Questions between Groups ............................................................................... 30 Table 5 The Mean Difference of Pre / Post-tests in Groups ........................... 32. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Table of Figure. ‧. Figure 1 Comparison of the Correctness Percentage of Post-tests between Groups ............................................................................................. 30. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(7) vi. 中文摘要國立政治大學英文語文學系碩士在職專班碩士論文摘要論文名稱：對比隱性教學及顯性教學探究字彙學習: 廣泛閱讀對國小學生字彙學習之影響. 指導教授：劉怡君博士. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 研究生：周孟薇. ‧. 論文摘要內容：字彙學習是學習語言中重要的關鍵，而學習者字彙量也影響了在閱讀文本中理解量的多寡。許多字彙教學方式中，以內隱學習方式 (implicit learning) 和外顯學習方式 (explicit learning) 為兩大主要的教學方向。本研究目的是探究透過廣泛閱讀中閱讀分級讀本的方式和外顯學習方式對 EFL 國小學童字彙學習的影響。主要的研究方向有: (1) 廣泛閱讀是否能改善 EFL 國小學童的字彙學習 (2) 廣泛閱讀在字彙學習中可以提供哪方面的詞彙知識 (3) 學生的語言程度內隱學習方式及外顯學習方式是否有關連性及影響。. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 研究對象為臺中市某國小兩班五年級學生，實驗前先進行前測，其中控制組班級以外顯學習方式為主，實驗組班級則以外顯學習和內隱學習一起進行為期四個月的課程。最後，透過成對樣本 t 檢定及後測結果探討學習方式的成效。資料來源包含學生字彙成績測驗、問卷。研究結果有下列幾點: 第一，透過廣泛閱讀，能有效加強字彙學習。第二，語言程度較弱的學生接受廣泛閱讀後，在字彙認知性知識(receptive knowledge) 和操作性知識 (productive knowledge) 較其他組學生有明顯進步。第三，內隱學習方式對於語言程度較弱，但願意花時間閱讀的學生，語言學習上有明顯的進步。此研究結果也建議教學者能融入廣泛閱讀在課室教學中。透過繪本閱讀加強字彙的學習，也同時加深學生對單字的應用，提升學習的成效。此外，本研究結果亦提供英語教師教學上的參考及未來研究方向的建議。關鍵字: 內隱學習、外顯學習、廣泛閱讀、字彙學習、詞彙知識. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(8) vii. Abstract Vocabulary learning plays an important role in language learning. Students‘ vocabulary size influences their reading comprehension. In vocabulary learning, implicit learning and explicit learning are the two major approaches. The purpose of the present study aims to explore the effect of EFL students‘ vocabulary learning. 政治大 three research questions: 立(1) Does extensive reading improve EFL students‘. through implicit instructions and explicit instructions. The study attempts to answer. ‧ 國. 學. vocabulary learning? (2) What can extensive reading afford students‘ vocabulary learning? (3) How does learners‘ language proficiency relate to their implicit and explicit vocabulary learning?. ‧. In this study, the participants of the study were two classes of fifth-grade. y. Nat. elementary school students in Taichung City. First, all the students took the pretest.. io. sit. Then, the controlled group received the explicit instructions in class while the. al. er. experimental group received both the explicit and implicit instructions in four-month. n. v i n C h data were collected learning effectiveness. The multiple e n g c h i U including vocabulary pretests period. Last, the post-tests and Paired Sample t-test were administered to analyze the. and posttests, surveys. The results reveal that 1) extensive reading is effective to vocabulary learning. 2) extensive reading enhances low language proficiency. students‘ receptive knowledge and productive knowledge. 3) implicit learning has a positive influence on the low proficiency students. The findings of the study suggest that integrating extensive reading into classroom activities enhances not only receptive knowledge of vocabulary learning but also productive knowledge of vocabulary application. Furthermore, pedagogical implications and suggestions for future studies were provided as well. Keywords: implicit learning, explicit learning, extensive reading, vocabulary learning, vocabulary knowledge.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(9) 1. Chapter 1 Introduction Background Vocabulary is essential to language learning (Nation, 2001). Wallace (2008) pointed out that difficulty in reading at the appropriate grade level may result from insufficient vocabulary. Laufer (1989) and Liu and Nation (1985) suggested that at least 95% or a higher coverage rate of the running words in a text that are known by a reader helps increase the probability of successful guessing at unknown words in a. 治政 context. Unfortunately, most EFL learners have insufficient 大 vocabulary to guess 立 meaning in an article and lack strategy to afford their reading (Chen, 1998; Grabe & ‧ 國. 學. Stoller, 1997).. ‧. Implicit learning and explicit learning are the two major approaches to vocabulary teaching and learning but have been intensively debated over decades.. sit. y. Nat. io. er. Implicit learning usually takes place without learners‘ intention. One may intend to learn something but implicitly learns another (Richards & Schmidt, 2002). Krashen. al. n. v i n C hthat language development (2000) proposed the Monitor Model relies more on engchi U. acquisition rather than learning, and that acquisition is a subconscious process that can hardly be aware of. For example, extensive reading, which is a common practice of implicit learning, exposes learners to ―large quantities of material within their linguistic competence‖ (Grabe & Stoller, 2002). In contrast with implicit learning, explicit learning is conscious and planned, which is often seen as formal learning in school settings. For example, in a theme-based classroom, teachers provide planned learning resources as a scaffold for learners to learn the linguistic skills. Selected theme-based materials are the resources. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(10) 2 intentionally designed for learners to progressively expand their target language proficiency. It is still unclear how implicit and explicit approaches can improve EFL novice learners‘ vocabulary, and what may be the factors of learners‘ implicit/explicit vocabulary learning. In addition, there has been little research on the comparison of vocabulary acquisition through implicit learning (extensive reading) and explicit learning (traditional instruction) for different levels of learners in EFL classrooms. Thus, the purpose of the study is to explore the effectiveness of implicit and explicit. 政治大. vocabulary learning for EFL learners through traditional teaching and extensive reading.. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(11) 3. Chapter 2 Literature Review The section of literature review is threefold: (1) Vocabulary Knowledge, (2) Vocabulary Learning of Implicit Learning and Explicit Learning, (3) Vocabulary Learning through Extensive Reading.. Vocabulary Knowledge. 治政 Vocabulary plays a central role in learning a second 大 or foreign language (Gass, 立 1999; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown, 1999; Richards & Rodgers, ‧ 國. 學. 2001; Zimmerman, 1997). However, learning vocabulary involves complex. ‧. conceptual knowledge of ―lexical meanings of words and the concepts connected to those meanings‖ (Aarnouste, van Leeuwe, Voeten, & Oud, 2001, p. 63). Accordingly,. sit. y. Nat. io. er. researchers have proposed various frameworks of vocabulary knowledge, such as Richard‘s (1976) six aspects of word knowledge including syntactic behavior,. al. n. v i n C h meanings, underlying associations, semantic value, different form and derivations, engchi U. and Nation‘s (2001) three types of vocabulary learning-- form, meaning, and function. The general agreement about vocabulary knowledge is that it comprises two major dimensions, which are vocabulary breadth, or size, and vocabulary depth, or quality. Vocabulary breadth refers to the number of words which a learner has knowledge of their meanings (Zhifa Shen, 2008). As for the depth of vocabulary knowledge, Henrisken (1999) suggested four dimensions, including morphological, syntactic, collocational, and referential vocabulary knowledge. In the research of Dilek and Gül (2017), the authors investigated the dimensions of. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(12) 4 receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge on reading, writing and general language ability of EFL learners. Receptive vocabulary knowledge refers to ability to perceive the form of a word and to retrieve meaning while listening or reading it. On the other hand, productive vocabulary knowledge enables one to express a meaning through speaking or writing (Nation, 2001). In Karakoça and Köseb‘s study, they conducted a quantitative research. 175 Turkish university students studying in an intensive language program for 16 weeks participated in this study. A language proficiency exam was given to test students‘ vocabulary knowledge, which. 治政大Students were given a topic listening, reading, vocabulary and grammar. (2) Writing: 立 encompassed three sessions (1) Multiple-choice questions: This part consisted of. to write an essay between 250-300 words. (3) Speaking: Students were evaluated in. ‧ 國. 學. terms of content, language usage, fluency, vocabulary knowledge and pronunciation.. ‧. The result revealed a positive correlation ( r =0,650) between receptive as well as. sit. y. Nat. productive vocabulary knowledge and general language ability. This result suggests. io. al. er. that when receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge improves, general language ability improves accordingly, and vice versa. In addition, these result. n. v i n C hthat vocabulary knowledge supports the theoretical assumption is important for the engchi U improvement of language proficiency (Zimmerman, 1997; Laufer 1992, 1997; Grabe and Stoller 1997). The two types of vocabulary knowledge, receptive and productive, was further tested by many researchers. By using Vocabulary Level Test (VLT) and Lexical Frequency Profile (LFP), Fatima, Ashikin and Azizan (2017) also examined the relationship between English proficiency and vocabulary knowledge. One hundred and thirty six university students participated in this research and were separated into 6 groups from beginner to advanced level according to their SPM (Sijil Pelajaran. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(13) 5 Malaysia) grades. To measure the students‘ receptive vocabulary, 2000-, 3000- and 5000-word level of VLT was used to collect the data. Two tests, the 2000-, and 3000-word level of LFP, were used to collect their productive vocabulary. The participants were given an hour to complete both the tests during the Proficiency English classes. After the tests were completed, Pearson correlation was used to answer the research question on whether there was a significant relationship between receptive/ productive vocabulary knowledge and general English proficiency. The results indicated that there was a strong positive relationship between the scores on. 治政大 RVL5000, PVL2000 medium positive relationship between the scores on RVL2000, 立 RVL3000 (receptive vocabulary level) and proficiency with r=0.52, while there was. (productive vocabulary level), and PVL3000 and proficiency with r=0.393, r=0.472,. ‧ 國. 學. r=0.472, r=0.430 respectively. Hence, the findings proved that more proficient. ‧. learners have larger vocabulary repertoire to help them learn a language.. sit. y. Nat. Studies above demonstrate correlation between vocabulary knowledge and. io. al. er. language performance. The contribution of vocabulary knowledge to foreign language performance is significant and the more vocabulary knowledge learners have, the. n. v i n C hlanguage. In orderUto enhance learners‘ more successful they learn a foreign engchi. vocabulary knowledge, implicit learning and explicit learning approaches, which are the most popular practices in language learning, are further explained in the next section.. Vocabulary Learning of Implicit Learning and Explicit Learning Vocabulary learning basically follows two approaches: vocabulary can be learned implicitly and incidentally or explicitly and intentionally. According to Ellis (1994), implicit learning acquires knowledge in the unrevealed and unconscious situation,. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(14) 6 whereas explicit learning is a conscious process and learners are aware of the learning. In the similar vein, Hulstijin, (2001) defined incidental learning as the learning which is a by-product of activities, while intentional learning as any activity focused on the target learning subject matter. In other words, implicit learning is the acquisition of the underlying structure of knowledge through a process which takes place naturally without conscious operation (Reber, 1976), and involves indirect or incidental learning (Rashidi & Adiv, 2010). Focusing on vocabulary learning, implicit learning refers to acquiring the meaning. 治政大 acquisition takes place Krashen‘s Input Hypothesis (1989) assumes that vocabulary 立. of words unconsciously when learners are exposed to learning stimuli. For example,. when the input is comprehensible for learners. Krashen believed that ―language is. ‧ 國. 學. subconsciously acquired‖ (1989, p.440). Nagy,Herman and Anderson (1987) also. ‧. advocated implicit learning through comprehensible context. Moreover, Wilson and. sit. y. Nat. Fielding (1987) echoed that reading, which affords authentic and comprehensible. io. al. planned instruction explicitly.. er. contexts, may lead to greater vocabulary growth implicitly than learning through. n. v i n Vocabulary can be implicitlyC learned through multiple exposures to words in hen gchi U. different contexts, such as reading, listening or interaction (Huckin and Coady, 1999). In the research of Khamesipour (2015), the author compared the effectiveness of explicit and implicit instructions on EFL learners' vocabulary development. The participants consisted of 30 EFL students, who took part in a language-learning course that lasted for 18 hours or 9 sessions. This study was designed for three stages: First, students took a proficiency test to determine the level of their language proficiency. In the second stage, to see the effects of implicit and explicit instructions between the pretest and posttest, the participants took explicit pre-test. The explicit pretest. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(15) 7 minimum score was 3 and maximum score was 9 (The mean score= 6.5). After the explicit pretest, the vocabulary was taught explicitly and students received definitions of new vocabularies before reading the texts. Then, the explicit post-test was given to them. In the third stage, implicit vocabulary instruction through narrow reading was conducted. After taking an implicit pretest, participants read 3 texts which were taken from the internet. Then, the implicit posttest was given to the students. The implicit pretest minimum score was 4 and maximum score was 9 (The mean score=6.466). The result revealed that the mean score of explicit instruction on the post-test (18.86). 治政 had a positive effect on the vocabulary learning by EFL大 learners. As for the implicit 立. is higher than the one on the pre-test (6.50), which means that the explicit instruction. vocabulary learning, the test scores also demonstrated that the learners‘ implicit. ‧ 國. 學. post-test (narrow reading) on vocabulary was higher than the pretest(Mean of the. ‧. pre-test=6.46; post-test=21.63). The result showed that both the implicit and explicit. io. al. er. better influence on vocabulary learning.. sit. y. Nat. instructions were effective to vocabulary knowledge but the implicit instruction had. A large number of studies have investigated the effectiveness of implicit and. n. v i n C h(2012), conductedUa comparative study on explicit vocabulary learning. Mirzai engchi. implicit vocabulary learning (IVL) and explicit vocabulary learning (EVL) to explore the difference between the two approaches in relation to vocabulary knowledge learning. In this study, 62 Iranian intermediate EFL learners were divided into two groups, IVL (N=30) and EVL groups (N=32). The IVL participants did 20 minutes in-class extensive reading, while the EVL participants took part in activities which demanded deep-level explicit process to learn vocabulary. A pre-test prior to the treatment and the post-test after the treatment were administered, both tests with three subtests on meaning, preposition and collocation. Data analyses indicated significant. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(16) 8 improvement of both groups on the posttests. Focusing on the subtests, the explicit learning group outperformed the implicit learning group in meaning and preposition, while the implicit learning group performed better on the subtest of collocation. The result of the study showed that both vocabulary teaching approaches have positive effect on language learners, but different approach may provide better support for acquiring different types of vocabulary knowledge. Contrary to the implicit learning, Gass (1999) suggested that explicit learning is a conscious process and involves learners‘ awareness. Hunt and Beglar (2005) stated. 治政 explicit vocabulary learning, Harmer (1991) stated that大 new vocabulary can better be 立 that the explicit vocabulary instruction is to direct learners‘ attention. In the study of. learned through explicit examples, pictures, contrast, explanation or translation. When. ‧ 國. 學. learning materials are designed according to explicit theme or topic, they can offer. ‧. more opportunities to introduce vocabulary by integrating a variety of activities. sit. y. Nat. related to the topics and provide learners with motivating and explicitly meaningful. io. al. er. content (Cameron, 2001). For example, in a theme-based classroom, vocabulary is introduced by linking situated practices to intentional memory (Yugandhar, 2016),. n. v i n such as memorizing words fromC selective through word cards, or interactive h e nlists, gchi U software (Schmitt, 2008). Therefore, instead of teaching language in isolation,. teachers should help learners consciously associate their personal experience with the thematic vocabulary to be learned (Cameron, 2001; Grabe & Stoller, 1997). Teachers embracing explicit teaching approach usually design their curricula by taking students‘ different language levels into account in that explicit and direct instruction can help ensure students‘ understanding of the target vocabulary and its lexico-grammatical functions. Abolghasem (2015) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness of implicit. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(17) 9 and explicit approaches to vocabulary learning. The participants of Abolghasem‘s study consisted of 36 undergraduate EFL learners. They were divided into two classes. One class in which the researcher taught vocabulary implicitly, the participants had to infer the meaning of words from the context and no explanation provided by the researcher. In the explicit class, the exact meaning of words was provided. To examine students‘ vocabulary learning, two types of instruments were used, including a pretest and a posttest. Also, a reading text was used to practice the target vocabulary in the study. In other words, the treatment included teaching a text from the textbook. 治政 each session. After the second session of the treatment,大 the same multiple choice 立. and each part had four of the target words. Four items were taught from the text in. items were used as posttest but the order of the items were changed. After the posttest,. ‧ 國. 學. the results from both groups were compared by t-test for data analysis. It was. ‧. concluded that there was significant difference between the vocabulary learning by. sit. y. Nat. the explicit and implicit groups. Because the mean scores of the explicit group 4.62. io. al. er. exceeded than the mean scores of the implicit group 4.06, in this study, the result showed the explicit group outperformed the implicit group.. n. v i n C h and KamalianU(2013), the study was to Similarly, in the research by Marzban engchi. investigate the effects of implicit and explicit instructions on vocabulary learning and also to find out between two explicit instructions (giving marginal glossary and checking words in dictionaries), which method was more useful in vocabulary learning. To this purpose, thirty-five Iranian EFL learners participated in the three treatment sessions which were implicit instruction, explicit instructions through giving marginal glossary and checking words in dictionaries. Before each treatment session, the learners took a pretest of the target words to check their word knowledge. After each treatment, the students took a posttest to see if there were any learning. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(18) 10 effects through implicit and explicit instructions. In the first treatment session with the implicit instruction, the learners read the passage with multiple choices reading comprehension questions. Following that the vocabulary posttest was distributed to check the leaners‘ word knowledge and to find out how much the students would learn through implicit exposure to words in the passage. The same procedure in the second treatment, the passage included marginal glossary of target words was given to the students and to find out how much the students would learn through explicit exposure to words with definitions. In the third treatment, the students were asked to. 治政大 had the highest results of all three treatments were effective and the students 立. check the meanings of unknown words from the passage in the dictionaries. The. performance on the third treatment, followed by the second treatment and the first. ‧ 國. 學. treatment. In sum, the research shows that the explicit vocabulary instructions were. ‧. more effective than the implicit learning among the learners.. sit. y. Nat. As seen from the above literature reviews, no simple agreement has been reached. io. er. regarding the effectiveness of implicit and explicit teaching approaches. Implicit and explicit approach may benefit learners‘ different types of vocabulary knowledge but. al. n. v i n C h EFL learners and little research has investigated primary e n g c h i U took EFL learners‘ language proficiency into account. Most Taiwanese English teachers find the problem that students suffer insufficient vocabulary in English, which results in unsatisfactory performance of reading or writing. Therefore, it is very important to reexamine vocabulary teaching techniques or instructions employed in Taiwan.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(19) 11. Vocabulary learning through extensive reading Researchers have investigated the influence of vocabulary learning through extensive reading for over decades. Extensive reading, an implicit approach that ―exposes learners to large quantities of material within their linguistic competence‖ (Grabe & Stoller, 2002, p. 259) can extend knowledge of language (Day & Bamford, 1998). Day and Bamford (2002) also claimed that successful extensive reading programs had 10 characteristics. The 10 principles were: 1. The reading material is easy.. 政治大 3. Learners choose what they want to read. 立. 2. A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics is available.. ‧ 國. 學. 4. Learners read as much as possible.. 5. The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure, information and general. ‧. understanding.. sit. y. Nat. 6. Reading is its own reward.. io. al. er. 7. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower.. n. 8. Reading is individual and silent.. Ch. engchi. 9. Teachers orient and guide their students.. i n U. v. 10. The teacher is a role model of a reader. Extensive reading is also a common practice which enhances word recognition (Grabe, 1991). When new target words presented in contexts provide enough cues for learners to notice and comprehend (Nation, 1990), and when learners repeatedly have exposure to the new words, incidental acquisition of vocabulary may take place. Furthermore, learners choose their reading materials and read it for general meaning, information, and pleasure (Bamford & Day, 2002); through extensive reading, they can build up knowledge of vocabulary (Richards & Schmidt, 2002), and facilitate. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(20) 12 vocabulary development (Cho and Krashen, 1994; Horst, 2005; Lao & Krashen, 2000). Horst (2005) investigated the impact of extensive reading on vocabulary growth. In this study, there were 21 immigrant ESL learners at the community center in Montreal. Learners‘ language proficiency levels ranged from elementary to high intermediate. They met twice a week in the three-hour classes, and read books at various levels during 6 weeks. During each week of the experimental period, the students had the opportunity to check out around 150 leveled books which varied in level of. 治政 time each week was devoted to activities that supported大 extensive reading. These 立. simplification from 400 to 3800 headwords in ESL classes. About an hour of class. activities included discussing books in pairs, complete worksheets, add entries to. ‧ 國. 學. vocabulary notebooks or read silently. There were 6 levels of books used in this study. ‧. (i.e. 400-600, 800-1000, 1300-1400, 1800-2100, 2300-2500, 3000-3800 headwords).. sit. y. Nat. To examine the vocabulary growth, the researcher made word list from the readers so. io. al. er. that a word pre-test from books could be also created. The lexical profiling classified the words of the readers into four categories: (1) off-list words; (2) the Academic. n. v i n Word List (AWL); (3) the 1000C most word families of English; and (4) the h efrequent ngchi U 1000-2000 most frequent zone. In the pre-test and post-test, the researcher selected 50 words from the 1001-2000 word frequency range and 50 words from off-list words in the readers. At the end of the six weeks, the participants took individualized post-test. In the 1001-2000 most frequent words post-test, the mean score increased about 7 words (from (M) 41.35 to (M) 47.94). Additionally, in the off-list post-test, the mean score increased about 10 words (from (M) 33.80 to (M) 43.59). The results of the study demonstrated that learners learned over half of the unfamiliar off-list words and also acquired knowledge of unknown 1001-2000 most frequent words as well. That is,. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(21) 13 extensive reading seems to have positive effect on L2 vocabulary learning. Pigada and Schmitt (2006) conducted a case study of vocabulary acquisition from extensive reading in order to investigate incidental vocabulary acquisition with one participant, a native Greek speaker learning French, by using four graded readers in French. The study explored whether an extensive reading could enhance vocabulary knowledge of target words‘ spelling, meaning, and grammatical characteristics. The study involved a one-month period and the test of the study covered 133 target words (70 nouns and 63 verbs). Both word groups were tested on meaning, spelling, and. 治政大on spelling, meaning and extensive reading treatment and after. Then, he was tested 立 grammatical knowledge of words. The participant was interviewed both before the. grammatical knowledge. For the spelling test, the words were read aloud to him by. ‧ 國. 學. the researcher and the participant had to write them down. The meaning and grammar. ‧. tests were conducted simultaneously. He was given a list of all the verbs and was. sit. y. Nat. asked to report on any kind of knowledge he had about the meaning of the words. As. io. al. er. for the grammatical knowledge of the words, he was asked to report any of the prepositions that could follow the specific words. The results showed that the spelling. n. v i n and the meaning were improved.CFor the target words,U the learner got 98 spelling he ngchi. points out of 266 (36.8%) on nouns, but improved to 159 out of 266 (59.8%) on verbs. For the meaning, the scores moved from 8.3% on nouns to 23.7% on verbs. For the 133 target words in the study, the degree of learning was demonstrated for 87 out of the 133 target words (65.4%). Then, in the interview that followed the post-test, the participant reported that he spent about 60 to 90 minutes for each book. These findings suggested that the participant‘s lexical knowledge improved because of extensive reading. Overall, the results indicated that extensive reading can be effective in promoting vocabulary knowledge of spelling, meaning and grammar in the text and. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(22) 14 extensive reading can be beneficial for language learner. In Homoud and Schmitt‘s (2009) research, they found that learners who read graded readers improved better than the students who were received the formal traditional instructions. This research compares an extensive reading class against a traditional class involving intensive reading and vocabulary exercise. Seventy EFL students participated in the study, and were categorized into two groups – the intensive group and the extensive group. Both groups received the same language instructions. The intensive group was required to read 200-400 word texts and worked. 治政大 genres. The data collection group, they read 150 leveled books which included diverse 立 on reading skills (e.g. scanning, skimming and making difference). For the extensive. included a pre-test, a post-test, reading speed test and attitude questionnaire. Before. ‧ 國. 學. their reading course, the participants were given a pre-test (T1) which consisted of the. ‧. Vocabulary Levels Test, the reading comprehension tests, and the reading speed test.. sit. y. Nat. Then, the participants of both groups attended a 50-minute course, four times a week,. io. al. er. and lasted 10 weeks in total. At the end of the course, the participants were given the post-test (T2). About the treatment of the study, in the intensive group, the teacher. n. v i n explicitly taught new words andC thehstudents were asked e n g c h i U to read new passages, answer comprehension questions, and find topic sentences. As for the extensive group, some intensive reading skills (e.g. scanning, skimming or previewing) were also taught to the students before extensive reading activities. The researcher used TOFEL and PET tests to measure reading comprehension. In the paired-samples t-tests, the result was significant for the extensive group on the TOFEL test (p= .37). This finding demonstrated that the extensive reading approach had statistically reliable improvements in the comprehension scores between T1 and T2 administrations for the TOEFL and PET tests. Therefore, the extensive reading approach was effective in. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(23) 15 improving reading comprehension in language learning. In addition, changes in vocabulary size were measured by three sections (2000, 3000, and Academic) of the Vocabulary Levels Test. In the 2000 level, there was no difference between two groups of their improvement. In other words, the extensive group gained as much new vocabulary as the intensive group. In this study, the intensive group could not keep reading without understanding the words in texts. The participants of the extensive group chose reading texts that were suitable for their levels, and they were reading for general understanding. This means that the density. 治政大at this level and had no the data showed that the two groups gained fewer words 立. of new words was very low to ensure reading fluency. Moreover, in the 3000 level,. significant difference in the amount of vocabulary gain. As for the academic level,. ‧ 國. 學. two groups improved their academic vocabulary size to a significant degree. It is not. ‧. surprising that significant learning occurred in the intensive group, as the tasks in the. sit. y. Nat. intensive class were designed to improve academic vocabulary. The surprising result. io. al. er. is that the extensive group also increased their academic vocabulary size at the same time, but the vocabulary gains were small since academic words were not used very. n. v i n C h at lower levels.UMoreover, the survey of the frequently in leveled readers, especially engchi research showed that the participants in the extensive group had more positive attitudes towards their reading development in terms of reading skills, reading comprehension and reading fluency. Overall, learners who received extensive reading improved on different aspects of vocabulary at least as much as students who received intensive reading. In other words, the result showed the benefits of extensive reading on language learning. Studies above emphasized on the effectiveness of the extensive reading on vocabulary development. Extensive reading provides learners with exposure to large. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(24) 16 quantities of material of target language. Learners come across the same words in context, which leads to substantial vocabulary learning and development in vocabulary knowledge. A number of researchers and educators have attempted to investigate the effectiveness of implicit and explicit strategies to improve students‘ language learning. However, few studies compare the effect of vocabulary learning on students with different levels of proficiency through implicit extensive reading and explicit traditional instruction. Thus, the present study attempts to fill the research gap by. 治政 vocabulary learning. The following research questions 大 lead the exploration of the 立. exploring what is the most effective approach to enhance Taiwanese primary students‘. effect of implicit instructions through extensive reading and traditional explicit. ‧ 國. 學. instruction on vocabulary learning.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(25) 17. Research Questions The research questions in this study are as follows (1) Does extensive reading improve EFL students‘ vocabulary learning? (2) What can extensive reading afford students‘ vocabulary learning? (3) How does learners‘ language proficiency relate to their implicit and explicit vocabulary learning?. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(26) 18. Chapter 3 Methodology The study intends to explore the effect of vocabulary learning through implicit and explicit instruction between groups with different levels of language proficiency in a primary school. The following section provides details about participants‘ background, teaching materials and instructions, and instrument and procedure.. Participants. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. The research was conducted in a middle-sized public primary school in Taichung City. There are 34 classes and about 810 students having diverse social–economic. ‧. backgrounds and different language proficiency levels. The teacher-researcher has. sit. y. Nat. taught in this school for eight years. Students‘ language proficiency differs greatly in. io. al. er. each class. Some students with higher social–economic background usually learn. v i n C h except for English don‘t have any extra exposure to English e n g c h i U classes at school. Two n. English in cram schools or other language learning centers. However, some students. classes of the students, 50 fifth graders, participated in this study. All participants had received formal English instruction for 3 years since the second grade. The participants received English instruction of 40 minutes in a week when they were in the second-grade, and they had taken two classes (80 minutes) in a week since the third-grade. One class of the participants (N=25) received the traditional instructions (control group), and the participants in the other class (experimental group) (N=25) not only received the traditional instructions but also were required to do extensive reading. The participants in both the control and experimental groups were further. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(27) 19 divided into high proficiency (HP) and low proficiency (LP) groups according to the result of their pre-test. To explore the relationship between extensive reading and students‘ language proficiency, the students of the experimental group were further categorized based on their extensive reading engagement. According to the question of the survey, the students whose reading hours below 5 hours a week were the low reading students, but the students whose reading hours between 5 to 10 hours per week or more than 10 hours were the high reading students. Therefore, four subgroups of the experimental group are— HPRH (high proficiency and high extensive reading),. 治政大extensive reading). The total high extensive reading), LPRL (low proficiency and low 立 HPRL (High proficiency and low extensive reading), LPRH (low proficiency and. 學. Table 1 The Groups of the Study Control Group LP. HPRH. LPRH. LPRL. Nat. io. sit. y. HPRL. Materials and Instruction. al. er. HP. Experimental Group. ‧. ‧ 國. groups are illustrated in Table 1.. n. v i n The materials used in the study and the graded books. The Cincluded h e n gtextbook i h c U. selected textbook was adopted from the version of Dino on the Go 6 issued by. Hen-Lin Publisher, and the content of the textbook involves different themes or topics, such as week, food, subject, and belongings. Each unit had two main sentences and 8 to 9 target words. Another material used in the study was graded books. There were 8 graded books chosen from on-line Reading A-Z. The book titles are A Week with Grandpa, What’s for Breakfast, Lunch at School, Thank You Everyone!, Grow, Vegetable, Grow!, Sandwich and Soup, At School, Whose Eggs Are These? These Leveled books were adopted in the experimental class as extensive reading materials. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(28) 20 in that they were about the same level of the textbook and can serve as an extra source of vocabulary learning (Nation & Wang, 1999). The eight graded books were chosen according to the students‘ learning level and most the vocabularies in these books also overlapped the target words in the textbook. Additionally, a traditional theme-based instruction was adopted in both the control and experimental classes. The teacher-researcher gave explicit instructions for students in each lesson. Four different themes covered in the English course are: (1) Week; (2) Ordering Food; (3) School Subjects; and (4) Personal belongings. Both of. 治政大 (Activity)Wrap up storyVocabulary and Sentences  Pair / Group Practice 立. the classes, the instructional procedure of each lesson followed the sequence: The. activities. The teacher introduced the story of the lesson and led the students to read. ‧ 國. 學. the story together. Then, the teacher explained the difficult words and also did the role. ‧. play to practice the story. After the story, the students would understand the meaning. sit. y. Nat. of the vocabulary and sentences in the context. In the vocabulary and sentence. io. er. practicing step, vocabularies were taught and explained via pictures as examples to let the students do the drill. This step focused on strengthening students‘ familiarity of. al. n. v i n C hConsidering learners‘ the main vocabulary and sentences. e n g c h i U language proficiency,. interests and learning objects, in the pair or group practice step, the teacher-researcher designed various activities such as readers‘ theater, vocabulary games, communication activities, chants or reading parts for students to enhance language skills. In the end of each lessen, the short writing paragraphs were used for wrapping-up activity to review all the vocabularies and sentences of each lessen. After every two lessons, the control group took the post-test to see how the explicit traditional instructions influenced students‘ vocabulary knowledge. In the experimental group, in addition to the theme-based explicit learning, the. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(29) 21 graded books were extra reading assignment for students to read at home or at their leisure time. To motivate students to do extensive reading, the teacher showed the covers of the books to the students and asked them some questions such as what they saw from the covers and imagined what these books were about. Then, the teacher-researcher encouraged students to read by themselves even if they had difficulties in recognizing some words or sentences. Also, the teacher gave some suggestions to the students that if there were some difficult words, they could look up the dictionary or read between the lines to make them understand the meaning of the. 治政 post-test to see how the explicit traditional instructions 大 and extensive reading 立. books. After every two lessons were completed, the experimental group took the. influence students‘ vocabulary knowledge.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Instrument. y. sit. n. al. er. io. Pre-test. Nat. The data collected include one pre-test, two post-tests and two surveys.. i n U. v. The pre-test was carried out before the instructions, which purpose was to classify. Ch. engchi. students based on their language proficiency. The students whose scores were higher than the mean score of the pre-test were categorized as the high proficiency level students (HP), and the others were categorized as low proficiency level students (LP). The contents of the pre-test cover the textbook Dino on the Go 1~5 which had been taught before. The teacher-researcher designed the pre-test questions according to the students‘ prior learning experience. Moreover, the types of questions were designed in response to the theories of receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 2001). To be specific, receptive vocabulary tests focused on reading comprehension, and the test elements were word guessing according to the context, reading. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(30) 22 comprehension, and lexical choice in contexts. Productive vocabulary knowledge was tested through lexical production and writing including collocations, prepositions, morphology inflectional changes, and writing. (See Appendix A). Post-test In this study, the teacher-researcher conducted a test to all the participants after every two units are taught. Since there were four units of the textbook, two post-tests were given in the study. The post-tests were also designed by focusing on the. 政治大 consisted of types of tests on syntactic, and collocation vocabulary knowledge, 立. receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Like the pre-tests, the post tests also. ‧ 國. 學. reading comprehension and writing in order to examine students‘ receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary after each two lessons. The purpose of the. ‧. post-tests was to explore whether the extensive reading or explicit instructions can. sit. y. Nat. better afford students‘ vocabulary learning. Thus, after taking the post-tests, students‘. io. al. er. performances on vocabulary knowledge between the control group and the. v i n C hextensive readingUhad impacted on students‘ whether the explicit instructions and engchi n. experimental group were compared with the performances of the pre-test to examine. vocabulary learning. (See Appendix B and C). Survey The survey was conducted to both the control group and the experimental group. The survey used in the control group was to investigate the participants‘ learning experience, attitudes and their past extensive reading experience, such as how many extra readings students had read before, how much time they spent on reading, or what their extensive reading habits were like. In contrast, the survey designed for the. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(31) 23 experimental group included not only the control group questions about their learning experience, and attitudes, but also questions about their past and current extensive reading , such as how many books they had read during their extensive reading practice, what would they do if they had unfamiliar vocabulary during reading (e.g. skip over, look up dictionary, note down, or memorize them), what would they do during their reading process (e.g. take notes, summarize the main ideas or underline main ideas), or how much time they spent on reading the extra curriculum material on average. (See Appendix D and E). Procedures. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Data collection took place between February and June in 2018, and it encompassed one pre-test, two post-tests, and two surveys. First, all the participants of both classes. ‧. took the pre-test to categorize them into high-level proficiency students and low-level. sit. y. Nat. proficiency students according to the mean score of the test. The participants in the. io. al. er. controlled group received the explicit instructions in class, and the participants in the. v i n C gave explicit instructions same time. The teacher-researcher h e n g c h i U such as explaining the n. experimental group received both the explicit instruction and extensive reading at the. meaning of new vocabulary and the main sentences in each lesson. In class, a variety of activities such as conversation, survey or vocabulary activities were adopted to help students learn the target vocabularies related to the themes. At the same time, the selected graded books were assigned to the students in the experimental class for extensive reading. Most of the target words in the graded books were the same as those in the textbooks. These graded books were given to the students when each lesson begins. The teacher-researcher introduced the graded books to students but did not mention too much about the content of the books. The students. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(32) 24 were encouraged to pursue extensive reading even if they would encounter difficult words during reading. After the instruction of each two units, the post-tests were administered to test the students‘ vocabulary learning in terms of receptive and productive knowledge. The results of the pre-test and post-tests were compared and analyzed. Also, the surveys collected from the two classes were designed to identify the engagement of extensive reading of the participants in the experimental group, and the survey information was also triangulated to investigate the participants‘ learning experience about the explicit learning or extensive reading.. Data Analysis. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. This research was designed to answer the three research questions. Research question 1: Does extensive reading improve EFL elementary students'. ‧. vocabulary learning?. sit. y. Nat. Given that both the participants in the control class and experimental class had. io. al. er. pre-test and the post-tests, the first research question can be answered by comparing. v i n C h impact on students‘ group. If extensive reading had positive e n g c h i U vocabulary learning, the n. the Paired Sample t-test analysis between the control group and the experimental. experimental group‘s p-value should be better than that of the control group. Research question 2: What can extensive learning afford students’ vocabulary learning? This question can be answered according to the post-test analysis of the experimental group students. The vocabulary knowledge was analyzed into perceptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Also, there were four subgroups (HPRH, HPRL, LPRH, LPRL) in the experiment group. The teacher-researcher compared the results of post-tests to see what types of vocabulary knowledge were more acquired. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(33) 25 by students with different language proficiency. If difference of vocabulary knowledge between Reading High group (HPRH and LPRH) and Reading Low group (HPRL and LPRL) can be detected, research question 2 can be answered. Research question 3: How does learners’ language proficiency relate to their implicit and explicit vocabulary learning? The question was answered in comparison with the performance of pre-test, post-test for high proficiency groups (HP, HPRH) and low proficiency groups (LP, LPRH). Regarding HP, the value of the difference between pre-test and post-test was. 治政 pre-test and post-test was coded as Value B. If Value A大 is higher than Value B, the 立 coded as Value A. When it comes to HPRH, the value of the difference between. result would suggest explicit learning has more positive effect on high proficiency. ‧ 國. 學. students‘ vocabulary learning, On the other hand, if Value B is higher than Value A,. sit. y. Nat. proficiency students‘ vocabulary learning.. ‧. the result would suggest that implicit learning may be more helpful for high. io. al. er. As for the low proficiency groups‘ vocabulary learning, the value of the difference between pre-test and post-test was coded as Value C in LP of the control. n. v i n group and Value D was coded inCLPRH the experimental group. If Value C is h e nof g chi U. higher than Value D, the explicit learning may have more positive influence on low proficiency students‘ learning. In other words, if Value D is higher than Value C, implicit learning would be more helpful for low proficiency students‘ learning. All of the findings will be presented in the next chapter.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(34) 26. Chapter 4 Results and Data Analysis After giving the pre-tests and posttests, the data were gathered and presented to answer the research questions in this chapter. The mean scores of pre-tests and post-tests were calculated to analyze the effectiveness of explicit and implicit instructions on vocabulary learning.. Research Question 1. 政治大. Does extensive reading improve EFL students’ vocabulary learning?. 立. To measure students‘ improvement of extensive reading, the Paired Sample t-test. ‧ 國. 學. was administered to analyze the data. In Table 2 and Table 3, the data demonstrates. ‧. the comparison of mean scores between the pre-test and post-tests of the experimental group and the control group. Also, the experimental and the control group of the study. y. Nat. io. sit. had a pre-test mean score of 65 (SD=27.36) and 70.04(SD=26.67) respectively.. n. al. er. According to the SD, the two groups did not perform differently in the pre-test.. Ch. i n U. v. In Table 2, the mean scores between the pre-tests and post-tests in the experimental. engchi. group are 65(SD=27.36) and 70.78 (SD=24.33) respectively. There was a statistically increase from the pre-test to post-tests. And the p-value in one tail is 0.002 (< . 05). This showed that the participants who received both explicit and implicit learning improved in vocabulary learning after they receive the extensive reading. In other words, extensive reading had positive effect on the experimental group. Meanwhile, Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of the mean scores between the pre-test and two post-tests for the control group. It can be noticed that the mean scores of the pre-test and the post-tests are 70.04 (SD=26.67) and 72.8 (SD=25.64). The mean scores increase in the post-tests but the p-value in one tail shows 0.174 (>. 05).. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(35) 27 The result indicates that the control group had no better performance in the post-tests. According to the findings, they may demonstrate that the experimental group has more significant improvement in vocabulary learning after extensive reading than the control group.. Table 2 Paired Sample t-test for Experimental Group Pre-test. Post-tests. N. 25. 25. Mean. 65. 70.78. SD. 立. P(T<=t) one-tail. 27.36 治政大 0.002568305. 24.33. ‧ 國. 學. Table 3 Paired Sample t-test for Control Group. y. sit. 70.04. al. 26.67. n P(T<=t) one-tail. 25. Ch. 0.174752571. engchi. 72.8 25.64. er. io. SD. ‧. Mean. Post-tests. 25. Nat. N. Pre-test. i n U. v. Research Question 2 What can extensive reading afford students’ vocabulary learning? As shown in Table 4, this question was answered on the results of analyzing the experimental group students‘ vocabulary knowledge based on their post-tests. In this study, the experimental group was divided into four groups which were HPRH (high proficiency and high extensive reading), HPRL (High proficiency and low extensive reading), LPRH (low proficiency and high extensive reading), LPRL (low proficiency. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(36) 28 and low extensive reading). In the post-tests, the questions were designed by focusing on vocabulary knowledge which was including perceptive vocabulary knowledge and productive vocabulary knowledge. The receptive knowledge included the question types of Cloze, Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension. In these three parts, the students needed to read short sentences, paragraph and short stories. The students had to read the context and chose the vocabulary to answer the questions. Moreover, the students needed to have enough vocabulary knowledge to understand the content of the short story in the. 治政大 can express the As for the productive knowledge, it means that the students 立. Reading Comprehension.. meaning through writing. Therefore, in this study, the Writing Part contained in the. ‧ 國. 學. post-tests was used to demonstrate the students‘ productive vocabulary knowledge. In. ‧. other words, the Writing Part can show if the students can answer the questions by. sit. y. Nat. using vocabulary they‘ve learned. In Table 4, to understand what extensive reading. io. al. er. afforded students‘ vocabulary learning, the score percentage of the four types of sub-tests received by each subgroup was calculated and compared.. n. v i n Ctheh post-test, both theUhigh proficiency students with First of all, in the Cloze test of engchi. high and low extensive reading (HPRH and HPRL) got 90.8% and 89.80% respectively. The differences between these two groups of students are only 1%, which means that the influence of extensive reading was not significant to the high proficiency students in Cloze test. When comparing the Cloze test percentage of the low proficiency students with high extensive reading and low extensive reading (LPRH/ LPRL), the LPRH got 68.6% in Cloze and the correctness rate was higher than the LPRL (50.2%). The result indicated that extensive reading had positive effect on the low proficiency students‘ Cloze test.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(37) 29 Secondly, the correct rate of HPRH and HPRL‘s post-test on Vocabulary was 100% and 93.3% respectively. Since the difference is slight, extensive reading does not have significant influence on high proficiency students‘ vocabulary test. However, there was a difference in vocabulary tests between LPRH and LPRL students. LPRH students got 84.8% correctness rate of Vocabulary, but LPRL only got 55.6% in vocabulary post-test. The data showed that extensive reading is beneficial for low proficiency students‘ vocabulary learning. Thirdly, in Reading comprehension of the post-test, the high proficiency students. 治政大 in reading 51% respectively. The result illustrated a noticeable improvement 立. (HPRH / HPRL) got 98% and 81.2%. For low proficiency students, they got 50 % and. comprehension test by the high-proficiency high-extensive-reading students.. ‧ 國. 學. Fourthly, as to the Writing test on productive knowledge of vocabulary, the HPRH. ‧. students got 92.7% and the HPRL students got 84.7%. Overall, as shown more clearly. sit. y. Nat. in Figure 1, for high proficiency groups (HPRH / HPRL), their performance achieved. io. al. er. more than 85% correctness on the post-tests. Besides, the LPRH students performed significantly better than the LPRL students whose mean score of writing is 54.4% and. n. v i n Ch 23.7% respectively. The data demonstrated reading has positive effect e n gthatc extensive hi U on both high proficiency and low proficiency students‘ writing, especially; the low proficiency students who had high extensive reading benefited the most. In conclusion, extensive reading overall helps both the high proficiency and low proficiency students make improvement in perceptive and productive knowledge of. vocabulary. However, it is evident to see different effects of extensive reading on the two groups of students through a more specific analysis. Extensive reading is slightly helpful to high proficiency students on reading comprehension test, which means that extensive reading affords high proficiency students‘ perceptive knowledge of. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(38) 30 vocabulary for reading comprehension. In contrast, extensive reading greatly improved low proficiency students‘ Cloze, Vocabulary and Writing. That is, extensive reading is more helpful for low proficiency students than high proficiency students in terms of receptive vocabulary knowledge of Cloze, Vocabulary and productive knowledge of Writing.. Table 4 Comparison of the Correctness Percentage in Post-tests Questions between Groups Receptive Knowledge. Productive Knowledge. Vocabulary. Writing. 政治Reading大 100 % 98 %. HPRH. 90.8 %. LPRH. 68.6 %. 84.8 %. 50 %. HPRL. 89.9 %. 93.3 %. 81.2 %. LPRL. 50.2 %. 55.6 %. 51 %. ‧ 國. 立. 92.7 % 54.4 % 84.7 %. ‧. Cloze. 學. Group. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. 23.7 %. i n U. v. Figure 1 Comparison of the Correctness Percentage of Post-tests between Groups. Ch. engchi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(39) 31. Research Question 3 How does learners’ language proficiency relate to their implicit and explicit vocabulary learning? To answer the Research Question 3, the test results of pre-test, post-test for high proficiency groups (HP, HPRH) and low proficiency groups (LP, LPRH) were compared (See Table 5). Also, the numbers of the difference between each pre-test and post-test were coded as Value A, Value B, Value C, and Value D. For high proficiency students‘ (HP) subjected to explicit learning conditions, the. 政治大. pre-test mean score was 91.57 and the post-tests mean score was 90.36 which was not. 立. higher than the pre-test. The difference between mean scores of pre-test and post-tests. ‧ 國. 學. was recorded a decrease of -1.21 (Value A). In HPRH, the pre-test mean score was 94.2 and the post-tests mean score was 93.3. The difference of mean scores between. ‧. pre-test and post-tests was recorded -0.9 (Value B). The result presented that Value B. y. Nat. sit. is better than Value A even though the post-tests scores of the HP and HPRH were not. n. al. er. io. improved a lot. In other words, the implicit learning was slightly helpful for HPRH students to enhance their vocabulary learning.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. For the control group low proficiency students (LP), the pre-test mean score was 42.64 and the post-tests mean score was 50.46. Table 4.6 indicated that the difference between mean scores of pre-test and post-tests was recorded an increase of +7.82 (50.46-42.64=+7.82) (Value C). It seems that the explicit learning positively affect LP students‘ vocabulary learning. In comparison with LPRH, the pre-test mean score was 54 and the post-tests mean score was 65.17. The mean difference in Table 5 is quite significant, increasing by +11.17 (65.17-54=11.17) (Value D). Also, the Value D is much higher than the Value C. To sum, the finding indicated that implicit learning greatly affected low language proficiency students‘ vocabulary learning.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(40) 32 Table 5 The Mean Difference of Pre / Post-tests in Groups Group. Mean. Difference. Value. Pre-test. Post-test. 91.57. 90.36. -1.21. A. HPRH. 94.2. 93.3. -0.9. B. LP. 42.64. 50.46. +7.82. C. 54. 65.17. +11.17. D. HP. LPRH. 治政 EFL primary students‘ vocabulary learning. Secondly, 大 extensive reading contributes 立 to receptive knowledge of vocabulary for reading comprehension for high proficiency. In short, three major findings were generated. First, extensive reading is effective in. ‧ 國. 學. students. Extensive reading greatly affords low proficiency students to learn both the. ‧. receptive knowledge of vocabulary and productive knowledge of vocabulary. Last,. sit. y. Nat. low proficiency students benefit more from the implicit approach of extensive reading. io. n. al. er. than high proficiency students.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(41) 33. Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion The present study explored the effectiveness of implicit and explicit approaches on EFL primary school learners‘ vocabulary learning, and what types of vocabulary knowledge can better be improved by extensive reading. In this chapter, several important findings, pedagogical implications and limitations are discussed as follows.. 政治大. Extensive Reading is effective in EFL students’ vocabulary learning. 立. In the research question 1, according to the scores of the post-tests in the control. ‧ 國. 學. group and the experimental group, the results showed that the experimental group. ‧. improved more than the control group students. The finding indicates that the implicit learning through extensive reading positively affects young learners‘ vocabulary. y. Nat. er. io. sit. development. This result is in tune with Lao and Krashen‘s (2000) and Hayashi‘s (1999) studies. The extensive reading group gains significantly in vocabulary when. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. the reading contexts are comprehensible to help learners achieve more vocabulary development.. engchi. In the experimental group, the leveled books were adopted for extensive reading. Besides explicit learning, students can review or learn new vocabulary by means of reading extensively. They may come across new words that repeatedly show in contexts because when more cues are available to learners, better incidentally notice of word recognition and acquisition may take place. In this study, the students of the experimental group had both explicit traditional instruction and implicit extensive reading, which provides more language exposure to establish vocabulary retrieval. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(42) 34 cues than the students in the control group. The result of the study is aligned with Cho and Krashen (1994) that learners who received extensive reading and explicit instruction performed better than those who only received explicit instruction.. Extensive reading is more effective in low proficiency young learners The finding also reveals that extensive reading has higher influence on low proficiency students than high proficiency students. The result was in line with Hayashi‘s (1999) claim that extensive reading can have influence on learners‘. 政治大 groups). Repeatedly exposing 立to vocabulary helps the beginning group improved 20% vocabulary development at different proficiency levels (intermediate and beginning. ‧ 國. 學. from pretest to posttest. Extensive reading not only helps the low proficiency learners‘ vocabulary growth but also improves their overall reading ability. In terms of. ‧. receptive knowledge as shown in Table 4, although extensive reading helped low. Nat. sit. y. proficiency students greatly with receptive and productive vocabulary acquisition. n. al. er. io. including Cloze, Vocabulary meaning, and Writing, LPRH / LPRL students‘. i n U. v. performance in reading comprehension had little improvement. The mean scores in. Ch. engchi. both groups are very close (50% and 51%). Although extensive reading had improved low proficiency students‘ vocabulary knowledge in various aspects, their insufficient lexical repertoire still hindered their reading comprehension. Similar finding was reported by Laufer and Sim (1985). As for insignificant improvement in high proficiency students‘ vocabulary learning, it may be attributed to the short period of the study. The research was conducted for 18 weeks only, and the extra reading materials contained similar vocabulary to their textbook. It seems that short-term extensive reading benefits low proficiency students more than high proficiency students because high proficiency students whose. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(43) 35 repertoires may have had the target vocabulary to be learned already, so the short-term extensive reading did not lead to significant improvement. If a long-term extensive reading activity could be conducted, and more variety of reading materials with higher level of vocabulary could be adopted, high proficiency students might make more compelling improvement. Therefore, high proficiency EFL learners‘ reading materials for extensive reading should be carefully chosen and long-term observation is suggested for further exploration. In this study, it is worth noting that extensive reading has positive effect on both the high and low proficiency students‘ productive knowledge of vocabulary. In this. 治政大 in writing. LPRH got study, HPRH and HPRL respectively got 92.7% and 84.7% 立 54.4% which was higher than LPRL‘s. This results reveal that extensive reading. ‧ 國. 學. promotes not only perceptive automaticity of word recognition (Grabe, 1991) but also. ‧. productive knowledge of vocabulary for writing (Krashen,1984; Nation,1997; Hafiz. sit. y. Nat. and Tudor,1989). When students read outside of the classroom, extensive reading. io. al. er. might help confirm the meaning and function of the target words and make the. n. connection stronger. In other words, extensive reading may lead to a more substantial. Ch. acquisition of language knowledge.. engchi. i n U. v. Pedagogical Implications Given that extensive reading can expose learners to large quantities of material of target language and help learners come across the same words in context, it leads to incidental vocabulary acquisition and development in vocabulary knowledge. In order to promote learners‘ interests in reading and enhance their L2 reading motivation, teachers can develop pre-, during-, and follow-up activities in class to motivate students to participate in reading. Moreover, collaborative work or discussions are. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.

(44) 36 helpful for students‘ comprehension after reading. A number of pedagogical implications of vocabulary teaching are briefly discussed as follows. First, pre-reading activities. Many leveled books are also designed for learners to read or listen online nowadays. When the class starts, the teacher can let the students listen or read the first part of the story via multi-media and the students can finish reading the rest parts of the story by themselves. By introducing the topic of the story or giving some questions for students, the pre-reading activities can arouse learners‘ motivation to continually read stories after the class.. 治政大 their reading speed and words or ignoring them when they read. They can increase 立 Secondly, students can practice the skills of guessing the meaning of unknown. confidence and pay more attention to the meaning of the context to enjoy the reading.. ‧ 國. 學. Moreover, using a dictionary is also helpful way for handling unknown words when. ‧. reading. Although it is not good for learners to look up the unfamiliar words in. sit. y. Nat. reading, it undoubtedly works positively on students‘ comprehension. Teachers are. io. al. er. supposed to encourage the students to guess the meaning of unknown words first and then check the meaning after reading to enhance the word acquisition.. n. v i n C honline story interactive Furthermore, online reading and e n g c h i U discussion forum.. Concerning the online reading, students can have their username and password to log in the reading website to choose books based on their language levels. The online reading website also records the students‘ reading log and provides positive encouragements (e.g. credits or points) when the learners read books. After reading, the leaners can do the reading comprehension quizzes. For teachers, they can also keep track on students‘ reading processes online. As for the online discussion forum, the students can use the Internet to discuss the leveled books assigned by the teacher. They can post their questions, write their comments or read feedbacks from peers or. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900605.