一、後續研究
以表現得分與踩踏時宜準確性，似乎較難檢證暴露時機與探索方式的操弄效果，探 討過去相關研究發現，本研究的暴露量不足，以致參與者並未獲得遊戲情境中充分的訊 息。再者因後續的工作，為複雜且動態的踩踏動作，行動探索方式的設計應該與後續的 踩踏動作配連才能對表現產生影響。因此，後續研究可增加暴露情境的量，並設計更為 相關的行動探索方式，藉此檢證因子間的相互影響情形。
除了針對暴露時機與探索方式的操弄做建議外，生態心理學強調個體與環境的相互 關係，後續研究可透過操弄環境，檢證個體的行動因應是否因而改變。實驗者可以操弄 暴露遊戲情境的訊息，像是將暴露情境分為視覺訊息組、聽覺訊息組、視覺與聽覺訊息 結合組、及訊息阻斷組，透過遊戲情境的操弄，檢證個體是否因暴露訊息的不同，而在 之後的節奏性踩踏表現有差異。
二、實務應用
首先好表現的分析發現，行動的探索有益於踩踏時宜的準確性，因此提供學習者探 索環境的機會，能助其在好表現的工作上有較佳的時宜準確性。再者，參與者暴露於情 境採取相關探索動作，會以較大的踩踏位置變異性，來因應表現得分與踩踏時宜的工作 要求，可見不穩定性為知覺與行動的協調與調適過程，教學者不應視動作的變異為表現 錯誤與噪音的指標。最後，工作難度順序由高至低，因改善熱身減低
現象與增強內在動機的強度，教學者於可先由相對困難的工作讓學習者進行，進而 逐步減低工作難度，使學習者的進步幅度增大。
引用文獻
方正銘、卓俊伶 (2008)。動作表現與學習的帶寬回饋及年齡效應。臺灣運動心理學報，
13，21-38。
史佳立 (2014)。視覺增益對施力變異性及運動單元活化模式的影響 (未出版博士論 文)。國立成功大學，臺南市。
吳清山、林天祐 (2005)。教育新辭書。臺北市：高等教育。
李永碧 (譯) (2004)。體適能與全人健康的理論與實務。臺北市：藝軒圖書。(Werner, W.
K., & Sharon, A, 1999)
林尚武、卓俊伶、陳重佑、楊梓楣 (2010)。工作難度對序列動作編序的影響及其年齡差 異。體育學報，43，39-56。
邱皓政 (2010)。量化研究與統計分析：SPSS/PASW 資料分析範例解析（第五版）。臺 北：五南。
姚璠 (2001)。目標難度, 工作難度與回饋方式對國小學童排球發球表現與內在動機之影 響。體育學報，31，137-148。
張春興 (1989)。張氏心學理辭典。臺北：東華。
郭丁良、楊梓楣 (2010)。棒球揮擊時宜與球種判斷準確性之知覺-行動配連。體育學報，
43，79-90。
陳秀惠 (2003)。運動學習曲線的意義—以跳舞機運動為例。臺東師院學報，14，1-17。
雲端資料分析暨導引系統 (民 106 年 7 月 1 日)。單一樣本 t 檢定。取自 http://www.r-web.com.tw/stat/step1.php?method=one_sample_t_test
黃金柱、王俊明、劉碧華、王建臺、卓俊伶、林晉榮、楊宗文、石明宗、鄭景峰、林詠 能、王育文、黃小玲 (譯) (2009)。體育研究法。臺北市：師大書苑。(Thomas, J. R., Nelson J. K., & Sliverman S. J., 1985)
黃嘉君、楊梓楣 (2008)。節奏性動作之影響因素。中華體育季刊，22，41-49。
楊梓楣、黃嘉笙、黃嘉君、劉盈君 (2010)。動靜態情境下環境賦使知覺過程之身體擺動 與行動。大專體育學刊，12，20-28。
葉俊良、卓俊伶、林靜兒、陳重佑 (2007)。自我控制回饋對動作表現、學習及錯誤估計 的效應。大專體育學刊，9，23-35。
廖庭儀 (2002)。自然回饋強度對運動技能學習曲線結構之影響（未出版之碩士論文）。
國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
維基百科 (民 105 年 4 月 20 日)。節奏【線上論壇】。取自 https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/
节奏。
劉懿瑱、尹依萍、黃靖雅、張彩玲、林嘉玲 (2011)。縮短糖尿病共同照護網病人門診等 候時間。臺灣膳食營養學雜誌，3，77-88。
劍橋線上字典 (民 105 年 6 月 13 日)。Exposure。取自
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/zht /詞典/英語-漢語-繁體/exposure_1
賴世炯、卓俊伶 (2000)。力量變異對飛鏢投擲動作表現的影響。體育學報，29，169-177。
簡曜輝、季力康、卓俊伶、 洪聰敏、黃英哲、黃崇儒、廖主民、盧俊宏 (譯) (2005)。
競技與健身運動心理學。臺北市：臺灣運動心理學會。(Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D., 1999)
嚴雅婷、劉有德 (2008)。工作難度對學習平衡的影響。大專體育學刊，10，87-97。
Ammons, R. B. (1947). Acquisition of motor skill: I. Quantitative analysis and theoretical formulation. Psychological Review, 54, 263-281.
Adolph, K. E., Cole, W. G., Komati, M., Garciaguirre, J. S., Badaly, D., Lingeman, J. M., Chan, G. L. Y., & Sotsky, R. B. (2012). How do you learn to walk? Thousands of steps and dozens of falls per day. Psychological Science, 23, 1387-1394.
Adolph, K. E., Eppler, M. A., & Gibson, E. J. (1993). Crawling versus walking infants' perception of affordances for locomotion over sloping surfaces. Child Development, 64, 1158-1174.
Arutyunyan, G. A., Gurfinkel, V. S., & Mirskii, M. L. (1968). Investigation of aiming at a target. Biophysics, 13, 536-538.
Arutyunyan, G. A., Gurfinkel, V. S., & Mirskii, M. L. (1969). Organization of movements on execution by man of an exact postural task. Biophysics, 14, 1162-1167.
Abernethy, B., Wood, J. M., & Parks, S. (1999). Can the anticipatory skills of experts be learned by novices? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 313-318.
Barrow, H. M. (1954). Test of motor ability for college men. Research Quarterly. American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 25, 253-260.
Bernstein, N. (1967). The co-ordination and regulation of movement. Elmsford, NY:
Pergamon Press.
Bootsma, R. J. (1989). Accuracy of perceptual processes subserving different
perception-action systems. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41, 489-500.
Caron, A. J., Caron, R. F., Caldwell, R. C., & Weiss, S. J. (1973). Infant perception of the structural properties of the face. Developmental Psychology, 9, 385-399.
Cole, W. G., Chan, G. L., Vereijken, B., & Adolph, K. E. (2013). Perceiving affordances for different motor skills. Experimental Brain Research, 225, 309-319.
Carello, C., Grosofsky, A., Reichel, F. D., Solomon, H. Y., & Turvey, M. T. (1989). Visually perceiving what is reachable. Ecological psychology, 1, 27-54.
Chuang, L. Y., Huang, C. J., & Hung, T. M. (2013). The differences in frontal midline theta power between successful and unsuccessful basketball free throws of elite basketball players. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 90, 321-328.
Cook, T. D., & Insko, C. A. (1968). Persistence of attitude change as a function of conclusion reexposure: A laboratory-field experiment. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 9, 322-328.
Donohue, K. C., & Spencer, R. M. (2011). Continuous re-exposure to environmental sound cues during sleep does not improve memory for semantically unrelated word pairs.
Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 10, 167-177.
Day, B. M., Wagman, J. B., & Smith, P. J. (2015). Perception of maximum stepping and leaping distance: Stepping affordances as a special case of leaping affordances. Acta Psychologica, 158, 26-35.
Elliott, S. A., & Brown, J. S. L. (2002). What are we doing to waiting list controls? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1047-1052.
Farrow, D., & Abernethy, B. (2002). Can anticipatory skills be learned through implicit video based perceptual training? Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 471-485.
Fink, P. W., Kelso, J. A., Jirsa, V. K., & De Guzman, G. (2000). Recruitment of degrees of freedom stabilizes coordination. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Perception and Performance, 26, 671-692.
Farrow, D., & Abernethy, B. (2003). Do expertise and the degree of perception-action coupling affect natural anticipatory performance? Perception, 32, 1127-1139.
Gibson, E. J. (1969). Principles of perceptual learning and development. New York:
Appleton-Century Crofts.
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gibson, J. J., & Gibson, E. J. (1955). Perceptual learning: Differentiation or enrichment?
Psychological Review, 62, 32-41.
Guadagnoli, M. A., & Lee, T. D. (2004). Challenge point: A framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 36, 212-224.
Goode, S. L., Meeuwsen, H. J., & Goggin, N. L. (1995). Coincidence-anticipation time.
Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 4, 59-75.
Hill, T., Lewicki, P., Czyzewska, M., & Schuller, G. (1990). The role of learned inferential encoding rules in the perception of faces: Effects of nonconscious self-perpetuation of a bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 350-371.
Haken, H., Peper, C. E., Beek, P. J., & Daffertshofer, A. (1996). A model for phase transitions in human hand movements during multifrequency tapping. Physica D:
Nonlinear Phenomena, 90, 179-196.
Hagemann, N., Strauss, B., & Cañal-Bruland, R. (2006). Training perceptual skill by orienting visual attention. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28, 143-158.
Higuchi, T., Takada, H., Matsuura, Y., & Imanaka, K. (2004). Visual estimation of spatial requirements for locomotion in novice wheelchair users. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10, 55-66.
Irion, A. L. (1948). The relation of “set” to retention. Psychological Review, 55, 336-341.
Jackson, R. C., & Farrow, D. (2005). Implicit perceptual training: How, when, and why? Human Movement Science, 24, 308-325.
Kelso, J. A. (1984). Phase transitions and critical behavior in human bimanual coordination.
American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 246, 1000-1004.
Kroll, W. P. (1971). Perspectives in physical education. New York: Academic Press.
Kim, S., Carlton, L. G., Liu, Y. T., & Newell, K. M. (1999). Impulse and movement space-time variability. Journal of Motor Behavior, 31, 341-357.
Kelso, J. A. S., Scholz, J. P., & Schöner, G. (1986). Nonequilibrium phase transitions in coordinated biological motion: Critical fluctuations. Physics Letters A, 118, 279-284.
Loze, G. M., Collins, D., & Holmes, P. (2001). Pre-shot EEG alpha-power reactivity during expert air-pistol shooting: A comparison of best and worst shots. Journal of Sports Science, 19, 727-733.
Lee, T. D., Eliasz, K. L., Gonzalez, D., Alguire, K., Ding, K., & Dhaliwal, C. (2016). On the role of error in motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 48, 1-17.
Lavis, Y., & Mitchell, C. (2006). Effects of preexposure on stimulus discrimination: An investigation of the mechanisms responsible for human perceptual learning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 2083-2101.
Moore, J. (1980). Neuroanatomical considerations relating to recovery of function following brain injury. In P. Bach-y-Rita (Ed.), Recovery of function: Theoretical consideration for
brain injury rehabilitation (pp.9-90). Baltimore: University Park.
Mark, L. S. (1987). Eyeheight-scaled information about affordances: Ａ study of sitting and stair climbing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and
Performance, 13, 361-370.
Mann, D. L., Abernethy, B., & Farrow, D. (2010). Action specificity increases anticipatory performance and the expert advantage in natural interceptive tasks. Acta Psychologica, 135, 17-23.
Mark, L. S., Balliett, J. A., Craver, K. D., Douglas, S. D., & Fox, T. (1990). What an actor must do in order to perceive the affordance for sitting. Ecological Psychology, 2, 325-366.
Mundy, M. E., Honey, R. C., & Dwyer, D. M. (2007). Simultaneous presentation of similar stimuli produces perceptual learning in human picture processing. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 33, 124-138.
Müller, H., & Loosch, E. (1999). Functional variability and an equifinal path of movement during targeted throwing. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 36, 103-126.
Newell, K. M. (1986). Constraints on the development of coordination. In M. G. Wade & H.
T. A. Whiting (Eds.), Motor development in children: Aspects of coordination and control (pp. 341-360). Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
Newell, K. M., & Slifkin, A. B. (1998). The nature of movement variability. In J. P. Piek (Ed.), Motor behavior and human skill: A multidisciplinary perspective (pp. 143-160).
United States of America: Human Kinetics.
Oudejans, R. R. D., Michaels, C. F., Bakker, F. C., & Dolne, M. A. (1996). The relevance of action in perceiving affordances: Perception of catchableness of fly balls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22, 879-891.
Peper, C. E., Beek, P. J., & van Wieringen, P. C. (1995). Multifrequency coordination in bimanual tapping: Asymmetrical coupling and signs of supercriticality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 1117-1138.
Pepping, C. J., & Li, F. X. (2005). Effects of response task on reaction time and the detection of affordances. Motor Control, 9, 129-143.
Péruch, P., Vercher, J. L., & Gauthier, G. M. (1995). Acquisition of spatial knowledge through visual exploration of simulated environments. Ecological Psychology, 7, 1-20.
Romero, V., Coey, C., Schmidt, R. C., & Richardson, M. J. (2012). Movement coordination or movement interference: Visual tracking and spontaneous coordination modulate rhythmic movement interference. PLOS ONE, 7, 1-9.
Roskos, K., & Burstein, K. (2012). Descriptive observations of e-book shared reading at preschool. Journal of Literacy and Technology, 13, 27-57.
Rowe, M. K., & Craske, M. G. (1998). Effects of varied-stimulus exposure training on fear reduction and return of fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 719-734.
Ranganathan, R., & Carlton, L. G. (2007). Perception-action coupling and anticipatory performance in baseball batting. Journal of Motor Behavior, 39, 369-380.
Richardson, M. J., Campbell, W. L., & Schmidt, R. C. (2009). Movement interference during action observation as emergent coordination. Neuroscience Letters, 448, 117-122.
Rhodes, G., Jeffery, L., Watson, T. L., Clifford, C. W., & Nakayama, K. (2003). Fitting the mind to the world face adaptation and attractiveness aftereffects. Psychological Science, 14, 558-566.
Ramsey, J. L., Langlois, J. H., Hoss, R. A., Rubenstein, A. J., & Griffin, A. M. (2004).
Origins of a stereotype: Categorization of facial attractiveness by 6-month-old infants.
Developmental Science, 7, 201-211.
Repp, B. H., & Penel, A. (2004). Rhythmic movement is attracted more strongly to auditory than to visual rhythms. Psychological Research, 68, 252-270.
Ramenzoni, V. C., Sebanz, N., & Knoblich, G. (2014). Scaling up perception–action links:
Evidence from synchronization with individual and joint action. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 40, 1551-1565.
Roskos, K. A., Sullivan, S., Simpson, D., & Zuzolo, N. (2016). E-books in the early literacy environment: Is there added value for vocabulary development? Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 30, 226-236.
Stahl, S. A. (2003). Words are learned incrementally over multiple exposures. American Educator, 27, 18-22.
Savelsbergh, G. J. P., Dekker, L. D., Vermeer, A., & Hopkins, B. (1998). Locomoting through apertures of different width: A study of children with cerebral palsy. Pediatric Rehabilitation, 2, 5-13.
Schimidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2014). Motor learning and performance: From principles to practice (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication.
New York: Wiley.
Stoffregen, T. A., Yang, C. M., Giveans, M. R., Flanagan, M., & Bardy, B. G. (2009).
Movement in the perception of an affordance for wheelchair locomotion. Ecological Psychology, 21, 1-36.
Thelen, E., & Ulrich, B. D. (1991). Hidden skills: A dynamical systems analysis of treadmill stepping during the first year. Monographs of Society for Research in Child Development, 56, 1-98.
Tang, M. Y., & Yang, C. M. (2014, August). The method of information acquiring improve judging the contacting directions of table tennis balls. Oral session presented at the 7th Asian-South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology International Congress, Tokyo.
Warren, W. H. (1984). Perceiving affordances: Visual guidance of stair climbing. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10, 683-703.
Wagman, J. B., Carello, C., Schmidt, R. C., & Turvey, M. T. (2009). Is perceptual learning unimodal?. Ecological Psychology, 21, 37-67.
Wang, T., Lavis, Y., Hall, G., & Mitchell, C. J. (2012). Location and salience of unique features in human perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 38, 407-418.
Watanabe, T., Náñez, J. E., & Sasaki, Y. (2001). Perceptual learning without perception.
Nature, 413, 844-848.
Warren, W. H., & Whang, S. (1987). Visual guidance of walking through apertures:
Body-scaled information for affordances. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Human Perception and Performance, 13, 371-383.
Zebrowitz, L. A., & Collins, M. A. (1997). Accurate social perception at zero acquaintance:
The affordances of a Gibsonian approach. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 204-223.
附錄一 口頭招募說明
以節奏性動作表現檢證
暴露時機、探索方式、與工作難度之效應
招募說明
大家好，我是國立臺灣師範大學體育學系研究生湯鳴遠，即將進行本人的博士論文 研究案，目的在探究節奏性跳舞踩踏動作的動作表現得分、踩踏時宜與穩定性在不同工 作難度下的變動情形，預計招募一般健康成人 60 名（男女不拘），年齡介於 20-30 歲，
玩過跳舞機遊戲的經驗介於 1-5 次。正式試做前會先進行技能相關體適能的測驗，正 式實驗計有兩個階段約共需100分鐘。
本實驗無立即危險，在研究過程中，可以不需任何理由，隨時撤銷同意並退出研究。
實驗結束後，我們會贈與 300 元現金作為酬謝，希望各位能夠踴躍參與，如您有意願 參與實驗，請留下姓名、信箱帳號、與手機號碼，研究者會再與您聯繫。
共同主持人湯鳴遠 Email: [email protected] Phone: 0953161077
附錄二 研究參與者知情同意書
(reexposure) 意即在正式試做前或後，個體暴露在相關的環境中，讓其有探索與區辨 環境訊息的機會並從中擷取關鍵的訊息使表現提升。後續工作難度的不同將影響個體然。在正式試做中，參與者將先進行一次時間為 2 分鐘的跳舞機踩踏練習，練習試
維繫您身分之機密性。
7. 研究之退出與中止：
您可決定是否參加本試驗，試驗過程中您可隨時撤銷同意，退出試驗，不須任何 理由。您也已充份了解計畫主持人或贊助單位(廠商)亦可能於必要時中止該試驗 之進行。
8. 損害補償或保險：
本研究依計畫執行，除可預期之不良事件（如眼睛疲勞、腿部肌肉痠痛）外，
若因參與本研究而發生不良事件或損害，將由（國立臺灣師範大學體育學系楊
若因參與本研究而發生不良事件或損害，將由（國立臺灣師範大學體育學系楊